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Narendra G, Choudhary S, Raju B, Verma H, Silakari O. Role of Genetic Polymorphisms in Drug-Metabolizing Enzyme-Mediated Toxicity and Pharmacokinetic Resistance to Anti-Cancer Agents: A Review on the Pharmacogenomics Aspect. Clin Pharmacokinet 2022; 61:1495-1517. [PMID: 36180817 DOI: 10.1007/s40262-022-01174-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 08/17/2022] [Indexed: 01/31/2023]
Abstract
The inter-individual differences in cancer susceptibility are somehow correlated with the genetic differences that are caused by the polymorphisms. These genetic variations in drug-metabolizing enzymes/drug-inactivating enzymes may negatively or positively affect the pharmacokinetic profile of chemotherapeutic agents that eventually lead to pharmacokinetic resistance and toxicity against anti-cancer drugs. For instance, the CYP1B1*3 allele is associated with CYP1B1 overexpression and consequent resistance to a variety of taxanes and platins, while 496T>G is associated with lower levels of dihydropyrimidine dehydrogenase, which results in severe toxicities related to 5-fluorouracil. In this context, a pharmacogenomics approach can be applied to ascertain the role of the genetic make-up in a person's response to any drug. This approach collectively utilizes pharmacology and genomics to develop effective and safe medications that are devoid of resistance problems. In addition, recently reported genomics studies revealed the impact of many single nucleotide polymorphisms in tumors. These studies emphasized the importance of single nucleotide polymorphisms in drug-metabolizing enzymes on the effect of anti-tumor drugs. In this review, we discuss the pharmacogenomics aspect of polymorphisms in detail to provide an insight into the genetic manipulations in drug-metabolizing enzymes that are responsible for pharmacokinetic resistance or toxicity against well-known anti-cancer drugs. Special emphasis is placed on different deleterious single nucleotide polymorphisms and their effect on pharmacokinetic resistance. The information provided in this report may be beneficial to researchers, especially those who are working in the field of biotechnology and human genetics, in rationally manipulating the genetic information of patients with cancer who are undergoing chemotherapy to avoid the problem of pharmacokinetic resistance/toxicity associated with drug-metabolizing enzymes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gera Narendra
- Molecular Modeling Lab (MML), Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences and Drug Research, Punjabi University, 147002, Patiala, Punjab, India
| | - Shalki Choudhary
- Molecular Modeling Lab (MML), Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences and Drug Research, Punjabi University, 147002, Patiala, Punjab, India
| | - Baddipadige Raju
- Molecular Modeling Lab (MML), Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences and Drug Research, Punjabi University, 147002, Patiala, Punjab, India
| | - Himanshu Verma
- Molecular Modeling Lab (MML), Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences and Drug Research, Punjabi University, 147002, Patiala, Punjab, India
| | - Om Silakari
- Molecular Modeling Lab (MML), Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences and Drug Research, Punjabi University, 147002, Patiala, Punjab, India.
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Hsieh TH, Hsu CY, Yang PJ, Chiu CC, Liang SS, Ou-Yang F, Kan JY, Hou MF, Wang TN, Tsai EM. DEHP mediates drug resistance by directly targeting AhR in human breast cancer. Biomed Pharmacother 2021; 145:112400. [PMID: 34801851 DOI: 10.1016/j.biopha.2021.112400] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/30/2021] [Revised: 10/29/2021] [Accepted: 11/02/2021] [Indexed: 01/25/2023] Open
Abstract
Resistance to chemotherapy and hormonal therapy is a major clinical problem in breast cancer medicine, especially for cancer metastasis and recurrence. Di(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate (DEHP) affects drug resistance by an unknown mechanism of action. Here we analyzed breast cancer patients (N = 457) and found that Σ4MEHP (the sum of MEHP, MEHHP, MECPP and MEOHP concentrations) in urine was significantly higher (P = 0.018) in the recurrent breast cancer group compared with non-recurrent patients. Σ4MEHP-High was positively and significantly correlated with tumor stage (P = 0.005), lymph node status (P = 0.001), estrogen receptor status (P = 0.010), Her2/Neu status (P = 0.004), recurrence (P = 0.000) and tumor size (P = 0.002), as well as an independent prognostic marker (OR = 1.868; 95% CI = 1.424-2.451; P < 0.000) associated with poor survival rates based on a positive Her2/Neu status (P = 0.035). In addition, we found that DEHP inhibited paclitaxel and doxorubicin effects in breast cancer cell lines MCF-7 and MDA-MB-231 and in zebrafish and mouse tumor initiation models. DEHP induced trefoil factor 3 (TFF3) expression through the vinculin/aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR)/ERK signaling pathway and induced CYP2D6, CYP2C8 and CYP3A4 expression through the AhR genomic pathway to increase the epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) and doxorubicin metabolism, respectably. DEHP mediated AhR-related alterations in estrogen receptor expression through the ubiquitination system, which decreased tamoxifen effects in AhR knockout mice. These findings suggest a novel therapeutic avenue by targeting AhR in drug-resistant and recurrent breast cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tsung-Hua Hsieh
- Department of Medical Research, E-Da Hospital/E-Da Cancer Hospital, I-Shou University, Kaohsiung, Taiwan
| | - Chia-Yi Hsu
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Kaohsiung Medical University Hospital, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung, Taiwan
| | - Pei-Jing Yang
- Department of Public Health, College of Health Science, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung, Taiwan
| | - Chien-Chih Chiu
- Department of Biotechnology, College of Life Science, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung, Taiwan
| | - Shih-Shin Liang
- Department of Biotechnology, College of Life Science, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung, Taiwan
| | - Fu Ou-Yang
- Department of Surgery, Kaohsiung Medical University Hospital, Kaohsiung, Taiwan; Department of Cancer Center, Kaohsiung Medical University Hospital, Kaohsiung, Taiwan; Graduate Institute of Medicine, College of Medicine, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung, Taiwan
| | - Jung-Yu Kan
- Department of Surgery, Kaohsiung Medical University Hospital, Kaohsiung, Taiwan; Department of Cancer Center, Kaohsiung Medical University Hospital, Kaohsiung, Taiwan; Graduate Institute of Clinical Medicine, College of Medicine, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung, Taiwan
| | - Ming-Feng Hou
- Department of Surgery, Kaohsiung Medical University Hospital, Kaohsiung, Taiwan; Department of Cancer Center, Kaohsiung Medical University Hospital, Kaohsiung, Taiwan; Graduate Institute of Clinical Medicine, College of Medicine, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung, Taiwan
| | - Tsu-Nai Wang
- Department of Public Health, College of Health Science, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung, Taiwan; Research Center for Environmental Medicine, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung, Taiwan.
| | - Eing-Mei Tsai
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Kaohsiung Medical University Hospital, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung, Taiwan; Graduate Institute of Medicine, College of Medicine, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung, Taiwan.
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Fischer C, Leibold E, Göen T. Identification of in vitro phase I metabolites of benzotriazole UV stabilizer UV-327 using HPLC coupled with mass spectrometry. Toxicol In Vitro 2020; 68:104932. [PMID: 32652170 DOI: 10.1016/j.tiv.2020.104932] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/17/2020] [Revised: 07/01/2020] [Accepted: 07/04/2020] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
The benzotriazole UV stabilizer (BUVS) 2-(5-chloro-benzotriazol-2-yl)-4,6-di-(tert-butyl)phenol (UV-327) is used in various plastic products to protect them against harmful UV radiation. Meanwhile, there are concerns about potential adverse health effects on humans, as residues of UV-327 and other BUVSs have already been detected in various environmental matrices. However, information on the metabolism of UV-327 is not yet available. Therefore, in vitro experiments with human liver microsomes (HLMs) were performed in order to identify phase I metabolites to be used as specific biomarkers of exposure in biomonitoring studies. The samples were analyzed by HPLC coupled with mass spectrometry (HPLC/MS). Potential metabolites, which were formed by hydroxylation and further oxidation to carboxylic acid, were tentatively identified. Special metabolite structures were suspected and custom-synthesized as reference substances for verification. In total, seven phase I metabolites, which may be suitable biomarkers for the assessment of exposure to UV-327, have been identified and quantified. The results of the present study provide initial insights into the metabolic pathway of UV-327, which is essential for further research on its human metabolism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Corinna Fischer
- Institute and Outpatient Clinic of Occupational, Social and Environmental Medicine, Friedrich-Alexander-Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg, Henkestraße 9-11, 91054 Erlangen, Germany
| | - Edgar Leibold
- BASF SE, Product Safety, Carl-Bosch-Straße 38, 67056 Ludwigshafen am Rhein, Germany
| | - Thomas Göen
- Institute and Outpatient Clinic of Occupational, Social and Environmental Medicine, Friedrich-Alexander-Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg, Henkestraße 9-11, 91054 Erlangen, Germany.
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Chen C, Li T, Chen Z, Wang L, Luo X. Absorption Rates and Mechanisms of Avenanthramides in a Caco-2 Cell Model and Their Antioxidant Activity during Absorption. JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2020; 68:2347-2356. [PMID: 32026690 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jafc.9b06576] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Avenanthramides (AVNs) are a unique kind of polyphenols that were only detected in the oats and have been demonstrated to exhibit strong antioxidant activities but low bioavailability. The purpose of the present research was to evaluate the absorption rates and mechanisms of AVNs (AVN 2c, AVN 2f, and AVN 2p) using a human colon adenocarcinoma cell line (Caco-2) cell model and clarify the influence of the absorption process on the antioxidant capacities of AVNs. Furthermore, the absorption rates and antioxidant activities of ferulic acid and caffeic acid were compared with those of AVNs. Results showed that the apparent absorption rates (Papp) of AVN 2c, AVN 2f, and AVN 2p were 0.65 ± 0.05 × 10-6, 1.18 ± 0.16 × 10-6, and 1.44 ± 0.09 × 10-6 cm/s, respectively, which were significantly lower than those of caffeic acid (3.76 ± 0.31 × 10-6 cm/s) and ferulic acid (1.69 ± 0.13 × 10-5 cm/s). Moreover, the metabolites (caffeic acid, ferulic acid, and AVN 2f) of AVNs after absorption were detected and quantified by high-performance liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry. Before absorption, although the antioxidant capacities of AVNs were significantly stronger than those of ferulic acid and caffeic acid, there was an opposite result after absorption. In addition, AVNs transported the Caco-2 monolayer by paracellular diffusion and were affected by monoamine oxidase and efflux transporters (P-gp, MRP2) during absorption. The co-administration of quercetin could significantly improve the absorption rates of AVNs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chao Chen
- State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Technology , Jiangnan University , Wuxi 214122 , China
- National Engineering Laboratory for Cereal Fermentation Technology , Jiangnan University , Wuxi 214122 , China
- Jiangsu Provincial Research Center for Bioactive Product Processing Technology , Jiangnan University , Wuxi 214122 , China
- School of Food Science and Technology , Jiangnan University , Wuxi 214122 , China
| | - Ting Li
- State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Technology , Jiangnan University , Wuxi 214122 , China
- National Engineering Laboratory for Cereal Fermentation Technology , Jiangnan University , Wuxi 214122 , China
- Jiangsu Provincial Research Center for Bioactive Product Processing Technology , Jiangnan University , Wuxi 214122 , China
- School of Food Science and Technology , Jiangnan University , Wuxi 214122 , China
| | - Zhengxing Chen
- State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Technology , Jiangnan University , Wuxi 214122 , China
- National Engineering Laboratory for Cereal Fermentation Technology , Jiangnan University , Wuxi 214122 , China
- Jiangsu Provincial Research Center for Bioactive Product Processing Technology , Jiangnan University , Wuxi 214122 , China
- School of Food Science and Technology , Jiangnan University , Wuxi 214122 , China
| | - Li Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Technology , Jiangnan University , Wuxi 214122 , China
- National Engineering Laboratory for Cereal Fermentation Technology , Jiangnan University , Wuxi 214122 , China
- Jiangsu Provincial Research Center for Bioactive Product Processing Technology , Jiangnan University , Wuxi 214122 , China
- School of Food Science and Technology , Jiangnan University , Wuxi 214122 , China
| | - Xiaohu Luo
- State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Technology , Jiangnan University , Wuxi 214122 , China
- National Engineering Laboratory for Cereal Fermentation Technology , Jiangnan University , Wuxi 214122 , China
- Jiangsu Provincial Research Center for Bioactive Product Processing Technology , Jiangnan University , Wuxi 214122 , China
- School of Food Science and Technology , Jiangnan University , Wuxi 214122 , China
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Han SY, Kim ES, You BH, Chae HS, Lu Q, Chin YW, Ahn HC, Chung SJ, Lee K, Choi YH. Effect of treatment period with LC478, a disubstituted adamantayl derivative, on P-glycoprotein inhibition: its application to increase docetaxel absorption in rats. Xenobiotica 2019; 50:863-874. [PMID: 31791185 DOI: 10.1080/00498254.2019.1700318] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
1. Treatment periods of P-glycoprotein (P-gp) inhibitors have revealed different efficacies. We have previously reported dose-dependent inhibition of P-gp in single-treatment with LC478. However, whether repeated treatment with LC478 can inhibit P-gp even at its ineffective single-treatment dose remains unknown. 2. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to assess the effect of repeated treatment (i.e., 7-day treatment) with LC478 on P-gp known to affect docetaxel bioavailability in rats. Effects of LC478 on P-gp mediated efflux and expression in MDCK-MDR1 cells, P-gp ATPase activity, and binding site with P-gp were evaluated.3. The 7-day treatment with LC478 increased docetaxel absorption via intestinal P-gp inhibition in rats. Intestinal concentrations of LC478 were 8.31-10.3 μM in rats after 7-day treatment of LC478. These concentrations were close to 10 μM that reduced P-gp mediated docetaxel efflux and P-gp expression in MDCK-MDR1 cells. Considering that intestinal LC478 concentrations after 1-day treatment were 2.68-4.19 μM, higher LC478 concentrations after 7-day treatment might have driven P-gp inhibition and increased docetaxel absorption. LC478 might competitively inhibit P-gp considering its stimulated ATPase activity and its binding site with nucleotide binding domain of P-gp. 4. Therefore, repeated treatment with LC478 can determine its feasibility for P-gp inhibition and changing docetaxel bioavailability.
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Affiliation(s)
- Seung Yon Han
- College of Pharmacy and Integrated Research Institute for Drug Development, Dongguk University_Seoul, Goyang-si, Republic of Korea
| | - Eun-Sun Kim
- College of Pharmacy and Integrated Research Institute for Drug Development, Dongguk University_Seoul, Goyang-si, Republic of Korea
| | - Byoung Hoon You
- College of Pharmacy and Integrated Research Institute for Drug Development, Dongguk University_Seoul, Goyang-si, Republic of Korea
| | - Hee-Sung Chae
- College of Pharmacy and Integrated Research Institute for Drug Development, Dongguk University_Seoul, Goyang-si, Republic of Korea
| | - Qili Lu
- College of Pharmacy and Integrated Research Institute for Drug Development, Dongguk University_Seoul, Goyang-si, Republic of Korea
| | - Young-Won Chin
- College of Pharmacy and Research Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Seoul National University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Hee-Chul Ahn
- College of Pharmacy and Integrated Research Institute for Drug Development, Dongguk University_Seoul, Goyang-si, Republic of Korea
| | - Suk-Jae Chung
- College of Pharmacy and Research Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Seoul National University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Kyeong Lee
- College of Pharmacy and Integrated Research Institute for Drug Development, Dongguk University_Seoul, Goyang-si, Republic of Korea
| | - Young Hee Choi
- College of Pharmacy and Integrated Research Institute for Drug Development, Dongguk University_Seoul, Goyang-si, Republic of Korea
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Metabolic stability and its role in the discovery of new chemical entities. ACTA PHARMACEUTICA (ZAGREB, CROATIA) 2019; 69:345-361. [PMID: 31259741 DOI: 10.2478/acph-2019-0024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 12/29/2018] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
Determination of metabolic profiles of new chemical entities is a key step in the process of drug discovery, since it influences pharmacokinetic characteristics of therapeutic compounds. One of the main challenges of medicinal chemistry is not only to design compounds demonstrating beneficial activity, but also molecules exhibiting favourable pharmacokinetic parameters. Chemical compounds can be divided into those which are metabolized relatively fast and those which undergo slow biotransformation. Rapid biotransformation reduces exposure to the maternal compound and may lead to the generation of active, non-active or toxic metabolites. In contrast, high metabolic stability may promote interactions between drugs and lead to parent compound toxicity. In the present paper, issues of compound metabolic stability will be discussed, with special emphasis on its significance, in vitro metabolic stability testing, dilemmas regarding in vitro-in vivo extrapolation of the results and some aspects relating to different preclinical species used in in vitro metabolic stability assessment of compounds.
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Han SY, Lu Q, Lee K, Choi YH. LC478, a Novel Di-Substituted Adamantyl Derivative, Enhances the Oral Bioavailability of Docetaxel in Rats. Pharmaceutics 2019; 11:pharmaceutics11030135. [PMID: 30897775 PMCID: PMC6471177 DOI: 10.3390/pharmaceutics11030135] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2019] [Revised: 03/09/2019] [Accepted: 03/14/2019] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
P-glycoprotein (P-gp)-mediated efflux of docetaxel in the gastrointestinal tract mainly impedes its oral chemotherapy. Recently, LC478, a novel di-substituted adamantyl derivative, was identified as a non-cytotoxic P-gp inhibitor in vitro. Here, we assessed whether LC478 enhances the oral bioavailability of docetaxel in vitro and in vivo. LC478 inhibited P-gp mediated efflux of docetaxel in Caco-2 cells. In addition, 100 mg/kg of LC478 increased intestinal absorption of docetaxel, which led to an increase in area under plasma concentration-time curve (AUC) and absolute bioavailability of docetaxel in rats. According to U.S. FDA criteria (I, an inhibitor concentration in vivo tissue)/(IC50, inhibitory constant in vitro) >10 determines P-gp inhibition between in vitro and in vivo. The values 15.6–20.5, from (LC478 concentration in intestine, 9.37–12.3 μM)/(IC50 of LC478 on P-gp inhibition in Caco-2 cell, 0.601 μM) suggested that 100 mg/kg of LC478 sufficiently inhibited P-gp to enhance oral absorption of docetaxel. Moreover, LC478 inhibited P-gp mediated efflux of docetaxel in the ussing chamber studies using rat small intestines. Our study demonstrated that the feasibility of LC478 as an ideal enhancer of docetaxel bioavailability by P-gp inhibition in dose (concentration)-dependent manners.
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Affiliation(s)
- Seung Yon Han
- College of Pharmacy and Integrated Research Institute for Drug Development, Dongguk University_Seoul, 32 Dongguk-lo, Ilsandong-gu, Goyang-si, Gyonggi-do 10326, Korea.
| | - Qili Lu
- College of Pharmacy and Integrated Research Institute for Drug Development, Dongguk University_Seoul, 32 Dongguk-lo, Ilsandong-gu, Goyang-si, Gyonggi-do 10326, Korea.
| | - Kyeong Lee
- College of Pharmacy and Integrated Research Institute for Drug Development, Dongguk University_Seoul, 32 Dongguk-lo, Ilsandong-gu, Goyang-si, Gyonggi-do 10326, Korea.
| | - Young Hee Choi
- College of Pharmacy and Integrated Research Institute for Drug Development, Dongguk University_Seoul, 32 Dongguk-lo, Ilsandong-gu, Goyang-si, Gyonggi-do 10326, Korea.
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Sun C, Zhu L, Zhang C, Song C, Wang C, Zhang M, Xie Y, Schaefer HF. Conformers, properties, and docking mechanism of the anticancer drug docetaxel: DFT and molecular dynamics studies. J Comput Chem 2018; 39:889-900. [DOI: 10.1002/jcc.25165] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2017] [Revised: 12/20/2017] [Accepted: 12/23/2017] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Chuancai Sun
- School of Biomedical Engineering and TechnologyTianjin Medical University, No.22 Qi xiang tai Road, Heping DistrictTianjin300070 China
| | - Lijuan Zhu
- School of Biomedical Engineering and TechnologyTianjin Medical University, No.22 Qi xiang tai Road, Heping DistrictTianjin300070 China
| | - Chao Zhang
- School of Biomedical Engineering and TechnologyTianjin Medical University, No.22 Qi xiang tai Road, Heping DistrictTianjin300070 China
| | - Ce Song
- Hefei National Laboratory of Physical Sciences at the MicroscaleUniversity of Science and Technology of ChinaHefei Anhui230026 China
- Department of Theoretical Chemistry and Biology, School of BiotechnologyRoyal Institute of TechnologyStockholmSE‐10691 Sweden
| | - Cuihong Wang
- School of ScienceTianjin Chengjian UniversityTianjin300384 China
| | - Meiling Zhang
- School of Biomedical Engineering and TechnologyTianjin Medical University, No.22 Qi xiang tai Road, Heping DistrictTianjin300070 China
| | - Yaoming Xie
- Center for Computational Quantum ChemistryUniversity of GeorgiaAthens Georgia 30602
| | - Henry F. Schaefer
- Center for Computational Quantum ChemistryUniversity of GeorgiaAthens Georgia 30602
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Dikshit A, Hales K, Hales DB. Whole flaxseed diet alters estrogen metabolism to promote 2-methoxtestradiol-induced apoptosis in hen ovarian cancer. J Nutr Biochem 2017; 42:117-125. [PMID: 28178600 PMCID: PMC5360509 DOI: 10.1016/j.jnutbio.2017.01.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/15/2016] [Revised: 01/12/2017] [Accepted: 01/14/2017] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
The study reported here demonstrates that a flaxseed-supplemented diet causes ovarian tumors in the laying hen to undergo apoptosis, resulting in a reduction of tumor burden, reducing the frequency and severity of ovarian cancer. We have previously shown in normal ovaries that flaxseed and its components down-regulate ERalpha and alter the expression of enzymes that metabolize estrogen. In this study, we analyzed the effects of the two main components of whole flaxseed, ligan and omega 3 fatty acids on estrogen metabolism and the estrogen receptor in ovarian tumors. ER alpha expression was up-regulated in the ovarian tumors and was not affected by diet. Liver CYP1A1 expression was significantly increased by the whole flaxseed diet with a corresponding increase in 2-methoxyestradiol plasma levels. We also observed increased p38 and ERK 1/2 MAPK activation in the ovary as well as an increase in apoptosis in the tumor epithelium. SMAD 7, a factor involved in the 2-methoxyestradiol-mediated apoptosis pathway was also up-regulated in tumors from the whole flaxseed diet group. 2-methoxyestradiol-induced antitumor effects were further validated by in human ovarian cancer cells. This study details the effect of flaxseed diet on estrogen metabolism and demonstrates the antiovarian cancer effects of 2-methoxyestradiol.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anushka Dikshit
- Department of Physiology, Southern Illinois School of Medicine, Carbondale, IL, 62901, USA
| | - Karen Hales
- Department of Physiology, Southern Illinois School of Medicine, Carbondale, IL, 62901, USA
| | - Dale Buchanan Hales
- Department of Physiology, Southern Illinois School of Medicine, Carbondale, IL, 62901, USA.
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An X, Sarmiento C, Tan T, Zhu H. Regulation of multidrug resistance by microRNAs in anti-cancer therapy. Acta Pharm Sin B 2017; 7:38-51. [PMID: 28119807 PMCID: PMC5237711 DOI: 10.1016/j.apsb.2016.09.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 140] [Impact Index Per Article: 20.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/07/2016] [Revised: 05/30/2016] [Accepted: 07/06/2016] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Multidrug resistance (MDR) remains a major clinical obstacle to successful cancer treatment. Although diverse mechanisms of MDR have been well elucidated, such as dysregulation of drugs transporters, defects of apoptosis and autophagy machinery, alterations of drug metabolism and drug targets, disrupti on of redox homeostasis, the exact mechanisms of MDR in a specific cancer patient and the cross-talk among these different mechanisms and how they are regulated are poorly understood. MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are a new class of small noncoding RNAs that could control the global activity of the cell by post-transcriptionally regulating a large variety of target genes and proteins expression. Accumulating evidence shows that miRNAs play a key regulatory role in MDR through modulating various drug resistant mechanisms mentioned above, thereby holding much promise for developing novel and more effective individualized therapies for cancer treatment. This review summarizes the various MDR mechanisms and mainly focuses on the role of miRNAs in regulating MDR in cancer treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xin An
- State Key Laboratory of Oncology in South China, Collaborative Innovation Center for Cancer Medicine, Guangzhou 510060, China
- Department of Surgery, Davis Heart and Lung Research Institute, The Ohio State University Wexner Medical Center, Columbus, OH 43210, USA
| | - Cesar Sarmiento
- Department of Surgery, Davis Heart and Lung Research Institute, The Ohio State University Wexner Medical Center, Columbus, OH 43210, USA
| | - Tao Tan
- Department of Surgery, Davis Heart and Lung Research Institute, The Ohio State University Wexner Medical Center, Columbus, OH 43210, USA
- Corresponding authors..
| | - Hua Zhu
- Department of Surgery, Davis Heart and Lung Research Institute, The Ohio State University Wexner Medical Center, Columbus, OH 43210, USA
- Corresponding authors..
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Men L, Zhao Y, Lin H, Tang X, Yu Z. Evaluation of the tissue distribution, excretion, and cytochrome P450 induction studies of a potential antitumor agent, TM-2, in animals using LC-MS/MS. Xenobiotica 2016; 47:800-806. [DOI: 10.1080/00498254.2016.1232446] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Lei Men
- College of Life Science, Dalian Nationalities University, Dalian, Liaoning Province, China,
- School of Pharmacy, Shenyang Pharmaceutical University, Shenyang, Liaoning Province, China, and
| | - Yunli Zhao
- School of Pharmacy, Shenyang Pharmaceutical University, Shenyang, Liaoning Province, China, and
| | - Hongxin Lin
- Dalian Weida Pharmacy Co. Limited, Dalian, Liaoning Province, China
| | - Xing Tang
- School of Pharmacy, Shenyang Pharmaceutical University, Shenyang, Liaoning Province, China, and
| | - Zhiguo Yu
- School of Pharmacy, Shenyang Pharmaceutical University, Shenyang, Liaoning Province, China, and
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12
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Wang P, Zhao Y, Zhu Y, Sun J, Yerke A, Sang S, Yu Z. Metabolism of dictamnine in liver microsomes from mouse, rat, dog, monkey, and human. J Pharm Biomed Anal 2015; 119:166-74. [PMID: 26683990 DOI: 10.1016/j.jpba.2015.11.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/22/2015] [Revised: 11/06/2015] [Accepted: 11/14/2015] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
Abstract
Dictamnine, a furoquinoline alkaloid isolated from the root bark of Dictamnus dasycarpus Turcz. (Rutaceae), is reported to have a wide range of pharmacological activities. In this study, the in vitro metabolic profiles of dictamnine in mouse, rat, dog, monkey, and human liver microsomes were investigated and compared. Dictamnine was incubated with liver microsomes in the presence of an NADPH-regenerating system, resulting in the formation of eight metabolites (M1-M8). M1 is an O-desmethyl metabolite. M5 and M6 are formed by a mono-hydroxylation of the benzene ring of dictamnine. M8 was tentatively identified as an N-oxide metabolite. The predominant metabolic pathway of dictamnine occurs through the epoxidation of the 2,3-olefinic to yield a 2,3-epoxide metabolite (M7), followed by the ring of the epoxide opening to give M4. Likewise, cleavage of the furan ring forms M2 and M3. Slight differences were observed in the in vitro metabolic profiles of dictamnine among the five species tested. A chemical inhibition study with a broad and five specific CYP450 inhibitors revealed that most of the dictamnine metabolites in liver microsomes are mediated by CYP450, with CYP3A4 as the predominant enzyme involved in the formation of M7, the major metabolite. These findings provide vital information to better understand the metabolic processes of dictamnine among various species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pei Wang
- School of Pharmacy, Shenyang Pharmaceutical University, Shenyang 110016, China; Center for Excellence in Post-Harvest Technologies, North Carolina Agricultural and Technical State University, North Carolina Research Campus, 500 Laureate Way, Kannapolis, NC 28081, USA
| | - Yunli Zhao
- School of Pharmacy, Shenyang Pharmaceutical University, Shenyang 110016, China
| | - Yingdong Zhu
- Center for Excellence in Post-Harvest Technologies, North Carolina Agricultural and Technical State University, North Carolina Research Campus, 500 Laureate Way, Kannapolis, NC 28081, USA
| | - Jianbo Sun
- Department of Natural Medicinal Chemistry, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing 210009, China
| | - Aaron Yerke
- Center for Excellence in Post-Harvest Technologies, North Carolina Agricultural and Technical State University, North Carolina Research Campus, 500 Laureate Way, Kannapolis, NC 28081, USA
| | - Shengmin Sang
- Center for Excellence in Post-Harvest Technologies, North Carolina Agricultural and Technical State University, North Carolina Research Campus, 500 Laureate Way, Kannapolis, NC 28081, USA
| | - Zhiguo Yu
- School of Pharmacy, Shenyang Pharmaceutical University, Shenyang 110016, China.
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Men L, Zhao Y, Lin H, Yang M, Liu H, Tang X, Yu Z. Characterization of in vitro metabolites of TM-2, a potential antitumor drug, in rat, dog and human liver microsomes using liquid chromatography/tandem mass spectrometry. RAPID COMMUNICATIONS IN MASS SPECTROMETRY : RCM 2014; 28:2162-2170. [PMID: 25178720 DOI: 10.1002/rcm.7003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/18/2014] [Revised: 07/22/2014] [Accepted: 07/27/2014] [Indexed: 06/03/2023]
Abstract
RATIONALE TM-2 (13-(N-Boc-3-i-butylisoserinoyl-4,10-β-diacetoxy-2-α-benzoyloxy-5-β,20-epoxy-1,13-α-dihydroxy-9-oxo-19-norcyclopropa[g]tax-11-ene) is a novel semi-synthetic taxane derivative. Our previous study demonstrated that it is a promising taxane derivative. The in vitro comparative metabolic profile of a drug between animals and humans is a key issue that should be investigated at early stages of drug development to better select drug candidates. In this study, the in vitro metabolic pathways of TM-2 in rat, dog and human liver microsomes were established and compared. METHODS TM-2 was incubated with liver microsomes in the presence of NADPH. Two different types of mass spectrometers - a hybrid linear trap quadrupole orbitrap (LC/LTQ-Orbitrap) mass spectrometer and a triple-quadrupole tandem mass spectrometer (LC/QqQ) were employed to acquire structural information of TM-2 metabolites. Accurate mass measurement using LC/LTQ-Orbitrap was used to determine the accurate mass data and elemental compositions of metabolites thereby confirming the proposed structures of the metabolites. For the chemical inhibition study, selective P450 inhibitors were added to incubations to initially characterize the cytochrome P450 (CYP) enzymes involved in the metabolism of TM-2. RESULTS A total of 12 components (M1-M12) were detected and identified as the metabolites of TM-2 in vitro. M1-M5 were formed by hydroxylation of the taxane ring or the lateral chain. Hydroxylated products can be further oxidized to the dihydroxylated metabolites M6-M10. M11 was a trihydroxylated metabolite. M12 was tentatively identified as a carboxylic acid derivative. The metabolism of TM-2 is much the same in all three species with some differences. The chemical inhibition study initially demonstrated that the formation of M2, the major metabolite of TM-2, is mainly mediated by CYP3A4. CONCLUSIONS Hydroxylation is the major biotransformation of the TM-2 pathway in vitro. CYP3A4 may play a dominant role in the formation of M2 in liver microsomes. The knowledge of the metabolic pathways of TM-2 is important to support further research of TM-2.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lei Men
- School of Pharmacy, Shenyang Pharmaceutical University, 103 Wenhua Road, Shenyang, 110016, China; Department of Food Analysis, Dalian Ocean School, 40 Linghe Street, Dalian, 116023, China
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14
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Martin LP, Kozloff MF, Herbst RS, Samuel TA, Kim S, Rosbrook B, Tortorici M, Chen Y, Tarazi J, Olszanski AJ, Rado T, Starr A, Cohen RB. Phase I study of axitinib combined with paclitaxel, docetaxel or capecitabine in patients with advanced solid tumours. Br J Cancer 2012; 107:1268-76. [PMID: 22996612 PMCID: PMC3494424 DOI: 10.1038/bjc.2012.407] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Background: Axitinib, a potent and selective second-generation inhibitor of vascular endothelial growth factor receptors, enhanced the efficacy of chemotherapy in human xenograft tumour models. This phase I study investigated the safety, tolerability, pharmacokinetics and antitumour activity of axitinib combined with chemotherapy. Methods: A total of 42 patients with advanced solid tumours received a continuous axitinib starting dose of 5 mg twice daily (b.i.d.) plus paclitaxel (90 mg m–2 weekly), docetaxel (100 mg m–2 every 3 weeks) or capecitabine (1000 or 1250 mg m–2 b.i.d., days 1–14). Results: Common treatment-related adverse events across all cohorts were nausea (45.2%), hypertension (45.2%), fatigue (42.9%), diarrhoea (38.1%), decreased appetite (33.3%) and hand–foot syndrome (31.0%). There was one complete response, nine partial responses and seven patients with stable disease. Ten patients (23.8%) remained on therapy for >8 months. Paclitaxel and capecitabine pharmacokinetics were similar in the absence or presence of axitinib, but docetaxel exposure was increased in the presence of axitinib. Axitinib pharmacokinetics were similar in the absence or presence of co-administered agents. Conclusions: Axitinib combined with paclitaxel or capecitabine was well tolerated; no additive increase in toxicities was observed. Antitumour activity was observed for each treatment regimen and across multiple tumour types.
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Affiliation(s)
- L P Martin
- Department of Medical Oncology, Fox Chase Cancer Center, Philadelphia, PA, USA.
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15
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CHEN YZ, LI ZR, UNG CY. COMPUTATIONAL METHOD FOR DRUG TARGET SEARCH AND APPLICATION IN DRUG DISCOVERY. JOURNAL OF THEORETICAL & COMPUTATIONAL CHEMISTRY 2012. [DOI: 10.1142/s0219633602000166] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Ligand-protein inverse docking has recently been introduced as a computer method for identification of potential protein targets of a drug. A protein structure database is searched to find proteins to which a drug can bind or weakly bind. Examples of potential applications of this method in facilitating drug discovery include: (1) identification of unknown and secondary therapeutic targets of a drug, (2) prediction of potential toxicity and side effect of an investigative drug, and (3) probing molecular mechanism of bioactive herbal compounds such as those extracted from plants used in traditional medicines. This method and recent results on its applications in solving various drug discovery problems are reviewed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Y. Z. CHEN
- Department of Computational Science, National University of Singapore, Blk Soc1, Level 7, 3 Science Drive 2, Singapore 117543, Singapore
- Singapore-MIT alliance, National University of Singapore, E4-04-10, 4 Engineering Drive 3, Singapore 117576, Singapore
| | - Z. R. LI
- Department of Computational Science, National University of Singapore, Blk Soc1, Level 7, 3 Science Drive 2, Singapore 117543, Singapore
- Singapore-MIT alliance, National University of Singapore, E4-04-10, 4 Engineering Drive 3, Singapore 117576, Singapore
| | - C. Y. UNG
- Department of Computational Science, National University of Singapore, Blk Soc1, Level 7, 3 Science Drive 2, Singapore 117543, Singapore
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16
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Choi YH, Yoon I, Kim YG, Lee MG. Effects of cysteine on the pharmacokinetics of docetaxel in rats with protein–calorie malnutrition. Xenobiotica 2011; 42:442-55. [PMID: 22067009 DOI: 10.3109/00498254.2011.629376] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/17/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Young Hee Choi
- College of Pharmacy, Dongguk University-Seoul, Seoul, South Korea.
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17
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Lee JH, Oh JH, Lee YJ. Effects of experimental hyperlipidaemia on the pharmacokinetics of docetaxel in rats. Xenobiotica 2011; 41:797-804. [PMID: 21561320 DOI: 10.3109/00498254.2011.580019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
Abstract
Hyperlipidaemia correlates with an increased risk of occurrence of various cancers. In this study, the effects of hyperlipidaemia on the pharmacokinetics of docetaxel, a member of the taxane class of anti-cancer drugs, were investigated in rats with experimental hyperlipidaemia; we focused on the alterations in docetaxel metabolism and plasma distribution. Docetaxel (5 mg/kg intravenously (i.v.) and 40 mg/kg per oral (p.o.)) was administered to control rats and rats with poloxamer-407 (P-407)-induced hyperlipidaemia (1 g/kg, intraperitoneally). In vitro studies were conducted on hepatic metabolism in S9 fractions and plasma protein binding using the ultrafiltration method. Hyperlipidaemia dramatically increased the area under the plasma concentration-time curve from time 0 to infinity (AUC(0-∞)) of docetaxel after i.v. (1.86-fold) or p.o. (10.8-fold) administration and decreased total body clearance (0.574-fold) and apparent volume of distribution at steady state (0.615-fold) of docetaxel after i.v. administration. Compared with the control rats, the metabolism of docetaxel by hepatic S9 fractions and the unbound fraction in the plasma in the hyperlipidaemic rats were decreased, i.e., by 20.1 and 79.8%, respectively. In conclusion, the alterations in docetaxel pharmacokinetics in rats with P-407-induced hyperlipidaemia may be due, at least in part, to a decrease in hepatic metabolism and the unbound fraction of docetaxel in the plasma. These findings have potential therapeutic implications for predicting human pharmacokinetic responses to hyperlipidaemia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joo Hyun Lee
- College of Pharmacy, Kyung Hee University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
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18
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Blanco MD, Guerrero S, Benito M, Teijón C, Olmo R, Muñíz E, Katime I, Teijón JM. Tamoxifen-loaded folate-conjugate poly[(p-nitrophenyl acrylate)-co-(N-isopropylacrylamide)] sub-microgel as antitumoral drug delivery system. J Biomed Mater Res A 2010; 95:1028-40. [DOI: 10.1002/jbm.a.32929] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/12/2010] [Revised: 05/12/2010] [Accepted: 07/01/2010] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
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19
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Evteev VA, Barsukov JA, Aliev VI, Kobliakov VA. Comparative analysis of family 1 cytochrome p-450 mRNA expression in human intestinal adenocarcinoma and intact portion of the intestine. Bull Exp Biol Med 2009; 146:250-3. [PMID: 19145330 DOI: 10.1007/s10517-008-0261-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
The expression of mRNA of proteins involved in the transformations of cytostatics (cytochrome P-450 1A1 and 1B1 isoforms) and genes encoding proteins participating in their regulation (Ah receptor, AHRR and ARNT) in intestinal tumors and intact portions of the intestine were studied. The expression of cytochrome P-450 1A1 increased in poorly differentiated tumors in comparison with its expression in intact portions of the intestine (tumor/intact tissue=1.65). The expression of cytochrome P-450 1B1 was higher in well-differentiated tumors (tumor/intact tissue=1.62). The possibility of practical use of high expression of cytochrome P-450 isoforms in tumors in comparison with intact intestinal tissue is discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- V A Evteev
- N. N. Blokhin National Cancer Research Center, Russian Academy of Medical Sciences, Moscow
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20
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Purnapatre K, Khattar SK, Saini KS. Cytochrome P450s in the development of target-based anticancer drugs. Cancer Lett 2008; 259:1-15. [DOI: 10.1016/j.canlet.2007.10.024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/27/2007] [Revised: 10/16/2007] [Accepted: 10/17/2007] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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21
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Molina JR, Nikcevich D, Hillman S, Geyer S, Drevyanko T, Jett J, Verdirame J, Tazelaar H, Rowland K, Wos E, Kutteh L, Nair S, Fitch T, Flynn P, Stella P, Adjei AA. A Phase II NCCTG study of irinotecan and docetaxel in previously treated patients with non-small cell lung cancer. Cancer Invest 2006; 24:382-9. [PMID: 16777690 DOI: 10.1080/07357900600705318] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE This Phase II study was undertaken to define the efficacy and toxicity of the combination of docetaxel and irinotecan for the second-line treatment of non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC). PATIENTS AND METHODS Forty-six patients with measurable NSCLC who had relapsed after an initial response to chemotherapy or who had failed to respond to initial chemotherapy, received 130 mg/m2 of irinotecan IV over 90 minutes and 50 mg/m2 docetaxel IV over 60 minutes on Day 1 q3 weeks for 6 cycles. Dexamethasone and diphenhydramine pretreatment were given. Response to treatment was evaluated by response evaluation criteria in solid tumors RECIST criteria, and toxicity was graded according to the National Cancer Institute Common Toxicity Criteria (NCI CTC) version 2.0. RESULTS The most common severe (NCI CTC Grade 3+) adverse events were neutropenia (67 percent), diarrhea (28 percent), fatigue (20 percent), nausea (17 percent), infection (15 percent), vomiting (13 percent), leucopenia (13 percent), abdominal pain (11 percent), and dyspnea (11 percent). Grade 5 toxic events were seen in 2 patients. One of these 2 cases was a possibly-treatment related event (intestinal fistula). The median number of treatment cycles received was 3. Twelve patients (26 percent) received all 6 cycles of treatment. Five patients (11 percent) had a confirmed response (complete response (CR), partial response (PR), or regression). Median follow-up for the five surviving patients is 26.5 months (range: 25.1-28.4). Forty-two patients have reported progressive disease and 41 patients have died. Median time-to-progression (TTP) and survival are 2.6 months and 7.5 months, respectively. CONCLUSION This second-line treatment regimen of irinotecan and docetaxel in NSCLC patients has shown activity, but can not be recommended over single-agent regimens because of significant toxicity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julian R Molina
- Mayo Clinic and Mayo Foundation, Rochester, Minnesota 55905, USA
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22
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Hariparsad N, Sane RS, Strom SC, Desai PB. In vitro methods in human drug biotransformation research: implications for cancer chemotherapy. Toxicol In Vitro 2006; 20:135-53. [PMID: 16359840 DOI: 10.1016/j.tiv.2005.06.049] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/01/2005] [Revised: 05/01/2005] [Accepted: 06/01/2005] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Anticancer drugs have a complex pharmacological and toxicological profile with a narrow therapeutic index. It is therefore critical to understand the factors that contribute to the marked intersubject variability in the pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics often observed with anticancer compounds. Since hepatic and extra-hepatic drug metabolism represents a major drug disposition pathway, extensive efforts are made to thoroughly investigate metabolism of anticancer compounds during the pre-clinical and clinical development phases as well as to address issues encountered during the clinical use of an approved drug. In recent years there has been a significant paradigm shift in pre-clinical/non-clinical drug metabolism studies. Most importantly, this has included a reduced reliance on animal models and increased use of human tissues (i.e. human liver microsomes and other cellular fractions, primary culture of human hepatocytes, cDNA expressed human-specific enzymes and cell-based reporter assays). Typically, experiments are performed using these tools to identify the phase I and/or phase II enzymes involved in metabolism of the drug/investigational agent and for metabolic fingerprinting. Additionally, issues pertaining to the rate, extent and mechanism(s) of the inhibition or induction of the metabolic pathways are also investigated. These studies provide important clues about various aspects of the disposition of a therapeutic agent including first-pass metabolism, elimination half-life, overall bioavailability and the potential for drug-drug interactions. The methodologies used for in vitro assessment of drug metabolism and their applications to drug development and clinical therapeutics with special emphasis on anticancer drugs are reviewed in this manuscript.
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Affiliation(s)
- N Hariparsad
- College of Pharmacy, University of Cincinnati Medical Center, Cincinnati, OH 45267, USA
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23
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Brandon EFA, Bosch TM, Deenen MJ, Levink R, van der Wal E, van Meerveld JBM, Bijl M, Beijnen JH, Schellens JHM, Meijerman I. Validation of in vitro cell models used in drug metabolism and transport studies; genotyping of cytochrome P450, phase II enzymes and drug transporter polymorphisms in the human hepatoma (HepG2), ovarian carcinoma (IGROV-1) and colon carcinoma (CaCo-2, LS180) cell lines. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 2006; 211:1-10. [PMID: 15975613 DOI: 10.1016/j.taap.2005.05.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 67] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/04/2005] [Accepted: 05/12/2005] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Human cell lines are often used for in vitro biotransformation and transport studies of drugs. In vivo, genetic polymorphisms have been identified in drug-metabolizing enzymes and ABC-drug transporters leading to altered enzyme activity, or a change in the inducibility of these enzymes. These genetic polymorphisms could also influence the outcome of studies using human cell lines. Therefore, the aim of our study was to pharmacogenotype four cell lines frequently used in drug metabolism and transport studies, HepG2, IGROV-1, CaCo-2 and LS180, for genetic polymorphisms in biotransformation enzymes and drug transporters. The results indicate that, despite the presence of some genetic polymorphisms, no real effects influencing the activity of metabolizing enzymes or drug transporters in the investigated cell lines are expected. However, this characterization will be an aid in the interpretation of the results of biotransformation and transport studies using these in vitro cell models.
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MESH Headings
- ATP Binding Cassette Transporter, Subfamily B, Member 1/genetics
- ATP Binding Cassette Transporter, Subfamily B, Member 1/metabolism
- Biological Transport
- Biotransformation
- Caco-2 Cells
- Carcinoma/enzymology
- Carcinoma/metabolism
- Carcinoma, Hepatocellular/enzymology
- Carcinoma, Hepatocellular/metabolism
- Cell Line, Tumor
- Colonic Neoplasms/enzymology
- Colonic Neoplasms/metabolism
- Cytochrome P-450 Enzyme System/genetics
- Cytochrome P-450 Enzyme System/metabolism
- Drug Screening Assays, Antitumor/methods
- Drug Screening Assays, Antitumor/standards
- Female
- Humans
- Inactivation, Metabolic/genetics
- Liver Neoplasms/enzymology
- Liver Neoplasms/metabolism
- Membrane Transport Proteins/genetics
- Membrane Transport Proteins/metabolism
- Ovarian Neoplasms/enzymology
- Ovarian Neoplasms/genetics
- Pharmacogenetics/methods
- Polymorphism, Genetic
- Transferases/genetics
- Transferases/metabolism
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Affiliation(s)
- Esther F A Brandon
- Department of Biomedical Analysis, Section of Drug Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Utrecht University, Sorbonnelaan 16, 3584 CA Utrecht, The Netherlands
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24
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Turner S, A Sherratt J, Cameron D. Tamoxifen treatment failure in cancer and the nonlinear dynamics of TGFbeta. J Theor Biol 2004; 229:101-11. [PMID: 15178188 DOI: 10.1016/j.jtbi.2004.03.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/24/2003] [Revised: 02/20/2004] [Accepted: 03/03/2004] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
The process of cancer invasion involves a complex interplay between cell-cell and cell-medium adhesion, proteolytic enzyme secretion, cell birth and death processes, random and directed motility, and immune response, as well as many other factors. The growth factor TGF beta is known to have a complex effect on this process. It inhibits mitosis and promotes apoptosis in a concentration-dependent manner in vitro, and it is for this reason that its secretion is thought to be helpful in inhibiting tumour growth. However, recent in vitro and in vivo results have shown a significant effect of this growth factor in promoting the sensitivity of malignantly transformed cells to gradients of extracellular matrix proteins--an effect which tends to increase invasiveness. The drug tamoxifen has been demonstrated to be therapeutically effective in the treatment of patients with breast cancer; however, it is known also that many patients become resistant to the effect of this drug after a few years, and the reasons for this remain controversial. In this work we take our established model of cancer invasion (J. Theor. Biol. 216(1) (2002) 85), and extend it to include the effect of TGF beta. In so doing we demonstrate that a tamoxifen-stimulated upregulation of the secretion of TGF beta may give rise to a tumour which has a smaller number of cells but which has a greater invasiveness, greater metastatic potential, and a tumour histology which is known to correlate with a poorer prognosis. These data suggest that tamoxifen-stimulated secretion of TGF beta might explain treatment failure in some patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephen Turner
- Centre for Theoretical Modelling in Medicine, Department of Mathematics, Heriot-Watt University, Edinburgh EH14 4AS, Scotland, UK. ,
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25
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McFadyen MCE, Melvin WT, Murray GI. Cytochrome P450 enzymes: Novel options for cancer therapeutics. Mol Cancer Ther 2004. [DOI: 10.1158/1535-7163.363.3.3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
Abstract
The concept of overexpression of individual forms of cytochrome P450 enzymes in tumor cells is now becoming well recognized. Indeed, a growing body of research highlights the overexpression of P450s, particularly CYP1B1, in tumor cells as representing novel targets for anticancer therapy. The purpose of this review is to outline the novel therapeutic options and opportunities arising from both enhanced endogenous expression of cytochrome P450 in tumors and cytochrome P450-mediated gene therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - William T. Melvin
- 2Molecular and Cell Biology, University of Aberdeen, Aberdeen, United Kingdom
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26
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Brandon EFA, Raap CD, Meijerman I, Beijnen JH, Schellens JHM. An update on in vitro test methods in human hepatic drug biotransformation research: pros and cons. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 2003; 189:233-46. [PMID: 12791308 DOI: 10.1016/s0041-008x(03)00128-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 403] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
The liver is the predominant organ in which biotransformation of foreign compounds takes place, although other organs may also be involved in drug biotransformation. Ideally, an in vitro model for drug biotransformation should accurately resemble biotransformation in vivo in the liver. Several in vitro human liver models have been developed in the past few decades, including supersomes, microsomes, cytosol, S9 fraction, cell lines, transgenic cell lines, primary hepatocytes, liver slices, and perfused liver. A general advantage of these models is a reduced complexity of the study system. On the other hand, there are several more or less serious specific drawbacks for each model, which prevents their widespread use and acceptance by the regulatory authorities as an alternative for in vivo screening. This review describes the practical aspects of selected in vitro human liver models with comparisons between the methods.
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Affiliation(s)
- Esther F A Brandon
- Division of Drug Toxicology, Department of Biomedical Analysis, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Utrecht University, The Netherlands.
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27
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Zhou S, Kestell P, Paxton JW. Predicting pharmacokinetics and drug interactions in patients from in vitro and in vivo models: the experience with 5,6-dimethylxanthenone-4-acetic acid (DMXAA), an anti-cancer drug eliminated mainly by conjugation. Drug Metab Rev 2002; 34:751-90. [PMID: 12487149 DOI: 10.1081/dmr-120015693] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
Abstract
The novel anti-tumor agent 5,6-dimethylxanthenone-4-acetic acid (DMXAA) was developed in the Auckland Cancer Society Research Center. Its pharmacokinetic properties have been investigated using both in vitro and in vivo models, and the resulting data extrapolated to patients. The metabolism of DMXAA has been extensively studied mainly using hepatic microsomes, which indicated that UGT1A9 and UGT2B7-catalyzed glucuronidation on its acetic acid side chain and to a lesser extent CYP1A2-catalyzed hydroxylation of the 6-methyl group are the major metabolic pathways, resulting in DMXAA acyl glucuronide (DMXAA-G) and 6-hydroxymethyl-5-methylxanthenone-4-acetic acid. The predominant metabolite in human urine (up to 60% of total dose) was identified as DMXAA-G, which was chemically reactive, undergoing hydrolysis, intramolecular rearrangement, and covalent binding to plasma proteins. In vivo formation of DMXAA-protein adducts were also observed in cancer patients receiving DMXAA treatment. The comparison of the in vitro human hepatic microsomal metabolism and inhibition of DMXA by UGT and/or CYP substrates with animal species indicated species differences. Renal microsomes from all animal species examined had glucuronidation activity for DMXAA, but lower than the liver. In vitro-in vivo extrapolations based on human microsomal data indicated a 7-fold underestimation of plasma clearance in patients. In contrast, allometric scaling using in vivo data from the mouse, rat, and rabbit predicted a plasma clearance of 3.5 mL/min/kg, similar to that observed in patients (3.7 mL/min/kg). Based on in vitro metabolic inhibition studies, it appears possible to predict the effects on the plasma kinetic profile of DMXAA of drugs such as diclofenac, which are mainly metabolized by UGT2B7. However, it did not appear possible to predict the effect of thalidomide on the pharmacokinetics of DMXAA in patients based on in vitro inhibition and animal studies. These data indicate that preclincial pharmacokinetic studies using both in vitro and in vivo models play an important but different role in predicting pharmacokinetics and drug interactions in patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shufeng Zhou
- Division of Pharmacology and Clinical Pharmacology, Faculty of Medical and Health Sciences, The University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand.
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Kingston DGI, Jagtap PG, Yuan H, Samala L. The chemistry of taxol and related taxoids. FORTSCHRITTE DER CHEMIE ORGANISCHER NATURSTOFFE = PROGRESS IN THE CHEMISTRY OF ORGANIC NATURAL PRODUCTS. PROGRES DANS LA CHIMIE DES SUBSTANCES ORGANIQUES NATURELLES 2002; 84:53-225. [PMID: 12132389 DOI: 10.1007/978-3-7091-6160-9_2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- D G I Kingston
- Department of Chemistry, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, VA, USA
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McFadyen MC, McLeod HL, Jackson FC, Melvin WT, Doehmer J, Murray GI. Cytochrome P450 CYP1B1 protein expression: a novel mechanism of anticancer drug resistance. Biochem Pharmacol 2001; 62:207-12. [PMID: 11389879 DOI: 10.1016/s0006-2952(01)00643-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 118] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
The overexpression of human cytochrome P450 CYP1B1 has been observed in a wide variety of malignant tumours, but the protein is undetectable in normal tissues. A number of cytochrome P450 enzymes are known to metabolise a variety of anticancer drugs, and the consequence of cytochrome P450 metabolism is usually detoxification of the drug, although bioactivation occurs in some cases. In this study, a Chinese hamster ovary cell line expressing human cytochrome P450 CYP1B1 was used to evaluate the cytotoxic profile of several anticancer drugs (docetaxel, paclitaxel, cyclophosphamide, doxorubicin, 5-fluorouracil, cisplatin, and carboplatin) commonly used clinically in the treatment of cancer. The MTT (3-[4,5-dimethylthiazol-2yl]-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide) assay was used to determine the levels of cytotoxicity. The key finding of this study was that on exposure to docetaxel, a significant decrease in sensitivity towards the cytotoxic effects of docetaxel was observed in the cell line expressing CYP1B1 compared to the parental cell line (P = 0.03). Moreover, this difference in cytotoxicity was reversed by co-incubation of the cells with both docetaxel and the cytochrome P450 CYP1 inhibitor alpha-naphthoflavone. This study is the first to indicate that the presence of CYP1B1 in cells decreases their sensitivity to the cytotoxic effects of a specific anticancer drug.
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Affiliation(s)
- M C McFadyen
- Department of Pathology, University of Aberdeen, Foresterhill, Aberdeen AB25 2ZD, UK.
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30
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Vigano L, Locatelli A, Grasselli G, Gianni L. Drug interactions of paclitaxel and docetaxel and their relevance for the design of combination therapy. Invest New Drugs 2001; 19:179-96. [PMID: 11392452 DOI: 10.1023/a:1010691218625] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Abstract
The taxanes' interaction with other anticancer drugs have been extensively investigated in in vitro and in animal models as well as in humans due to the outstanding antitumor activity in a broad range of malignancies. Paclitaxel and docetaxel are endowed of a rich and complex pharmacology whereby different pharmacodynamic effects are observed depending on the sequence of their administration in respect with the companion drug, and the type of drug that is combined. Pharmacokinetic interference is often but not always a basis of the pharmacodynamic effect. In addition, the vehicle of clinical formulation, especially Cremophor EL for paclitaxel, influence the pharmacological effect. Finally, new interaction based on as yet unknown mechanisms drive the two taxanes to multiple additive/synergistic relationships with new signal transduction drugs, such as modulators of the epidermal-growth-factor family of receptors and farnesyl-transferase inhibitors. The ongoing effort to better understanding such a rich pharmacology is worth continuing in view of designing new and better combinations of the taxanes.
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Affiliation(s)
- L Vigano
- Division of Medical Oncology A, Istituto Nazionale dei Tumori di Milano, Milan, Italy
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31
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Abstract
Ligand-protein docking has been developed and used in facilitating new drug discoveries. In this approach, docking single or multiple small molecules to a receptor site is attempted to find putative ligands. A number of studies have shown that docking algorithms are capable of finding ligands and binding conformations at a receptor site close to experimentally determined structures. These algorithms are expected to be equally applicable to the identification of multiple proteins to which a small molecule can bind or weakly bind. We introduce a ligand-protein inverse-docking approach for finding potential protein targets of a small molecule by the computer-automated docking search of a protein cavity database. This database is developed from protein structures in the Protein Data Bank (PDB). Docking is conducted with a procedure involving multiple-conformer shape-matching alignment of a molecule to a cavity followed by molecular-mechanics torsion optimization and energy minimization on both the molecule and the protein residues at the binding region. Scoring is conducted by the evaluation of molecular-mechanics energy and, when applicable, by the further analysis of binding competitiveness against other ligands that bind to the same receptor site in at least one PDB entry. Testing results on two therapeutic agents, 4H-tamoxifen and vitamin E, showed that 50% of the computer-identified potential protein targets were implicated or confirmed by experiments. The application of this approach may facilitate the prediction of unknown and secondary therapeutic target proteins and those related to the side effects and toxicity of a drug or drug candidate. Proteins 2001;43:217-226.
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Affiliation(s)
- Y Z Chen
- Department of Computational Science, National University of Singapore, Blk S17, Level 7, 3 Science Drive 2, Singapore 117543.
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32
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Abstract
Ligand-protein docking has been developed and used in facilitating new drug discoveries. In this approach, docking single or multiple small molecules to a receptor site is attempted to find putative ligands. A number of studies have shown that docking algorithms are capable of finding ligands and binding conformations at a receptor site close to experimentally determined structures. These algorithms are expected to be equally applicable to the identification of multiple proteins to which a small molecule can bind or weakly bind. We introduce a ligand-protein inverse-docking approach for finding potential protein targets of a small molecule by the computer-automated docking search of a protein cavity database. This database is developed from protein structures in the Protein Data Bank (PDB). Docking is conducted with a procedure involving multiple-conformer shape-matching alignment of a molecule to a cavity followed by molecular-mechanics torsion optimization and energy minimization on both the molecule and the protein residues at the binding region. Scoring is conducted by the evaluation of molecular-mechanics energy and, when applicable, by the further analysis of binding competitiveness against other ligands that bind to the same receptor site in at least one PDB entry. Testing results on two therapeutic agents, 4H-tamoxifen and vitamin E, showed that 50% of the computer-identified potential protein targets were implicated or confirmed by experiments. The application of this approach may facilitate the prediction of unknown and secondary therapeutic target proteins and those related to the side effects and toxicity of a drug or drug candidate. Proteins 2001;43:217-226.
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Affiliation(s)
- Y Z Chen
- Department of Computational Science, National University of Singapore, Blk S17, Level 7, 3 Science Drive 2, Singapore 117543.
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Kerbusch T, de Kraker J, Keizer HJ, van Putten JW, Groen HJ, Jansen RL, Schellens JH, Beijnen JH. Clinical pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of ifosfamide and its metabolites. Clin Pharmacokinet 2001; 40:41-62. [PMID: 11236809 DOI: 10.2165/00003088-200140010-00004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 84] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/02/2022]
Abstract
This review discusses several issues in the clinical pharmacology of the antitumour agent ifosfamide and its metabolites. Ifosfamide is effective in a large number of malignant diseases. Its use, however, can be accompanied by haematological toxicity, neurotoxicity and nephrotoxicity. Since its development in the middle of the 1960s, most of the extensive metabolism of ifosfamide has been elucidated. Identification of specific isoenzymes responsible for ifosfamide metabolism may lead to an improved efficacy/toxicity ratio by modulation of the metabolic pathways. Whether ifosfamide is specifically transported by erythrocytes and which activated ifosfamide metabolites play a key role in this transport is currently being debated. In most clinical pharmacokinetic studies, the phenomenon of autoinduction has been observed, but the mechanism is not completely understood. Assessment of the pharmacokinetics of ifosfamide and metabolites has long been impaired by the lack of reliable bioanalytical assays. The recent development of improved bioanalytical assays has changed this dramatically, allowing extensive pharmacokinetic assessment, identifying key issues such as population differences in pharmacokinetic parameters, differences in elimination dependent upon route and schedule of administration, implications of the chirality of the drug and interpatient pharmacokinetic variability. The mechanisms of action of cytotoxicity, neurotoxicity, urotoxicity and nephrotoxicity have been pivotal issues in the assessment of the pharmacodynamics of ifosfamide. Correlations between the new insights into ifosfamide metabolism, pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics will rationalise the further development of therapeutic drug monitoring and dose individualisation of ifosfamide treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- T Kerbusch
- Department of Pharmacy and Pharmacology, The Netherlands Cancer Institute/ Slotervaart Hospital, Amsterdam.
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Davies HM, Nagashima T, Klino JL. Stereoselectivity of methyl aryldiazoacetate cyclopropanations of 1,1-diarylethylene. Asymmetric synthesis of a cyclopropyl analogue of tamoxifen. Org Lett 2000; 2:823-6. [PMID: 10754686 DOI: 10.1021/ol005563u] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
[formula: see text] Dirhodium tetrakis(S-(N-dodecylbenzenesulfonyl)prolinate) (Rh2(S-DOSP)4)-catalyzed decomposition of methyl phenyldiazoacetate in the presence of 1,1-diarylethylenes results in intermolecular cyclopropanation with high enantioselectivity (up to 99% ee) and moderate diastereoselectivity (up to 80% de). The reaction was applied to the asymmetric synthesis of a cyclopropyl analogue of tamoxifen.
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Affiliation(s)
- H M Davies
- Department of Chemistry, State University of New York at Buffalo 14260, USA.
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Adjei AA, Klein CE, Kastrissios H, Goldberg RM, Alberts SR, Pitot HC, Sloan JA, Reid JM, Hanson LJ, Atherton P, Rubin J, Erlichman C. Phase I and pharmacokinetic study of irinotecan and docetaxel in patients with advanced solid tumors: preliminary evidence of clinical activity. J Clin Oncol 2000; 18:1116-23. [PMID: 10694565 DOI: 10.1200/jco.2000.18.5.1116] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
PURPOSE The goals of this study were to determine the maximum-tolerated dose and describe the toxicities of the combination of irinotecan and docetaxel administered every 3 weeks to patients with advanced malignancies and, also, to evaluate the effect of irinotecan on the disposition of docetaxel and describe preliminary evidence of antitumor activity. PATIENTS AND METHODS Eighteen patients received 85 courses (median, two courses; range, one to 15 courses) of treatment with irinotecan, administered over 90 minutes by intravenous infusion, followed by docetaxel, administered over 60 minutes by intravenous infusion. Four escalating dose levels of irinotecan/docetaxel (160/50 mg/m(2), 160/65 mg/m(2), 200/65 mg/m(2), and 200/75 mg/m(2)) were studied. Pharmacokinetic analyses were performed to evaluate the effect of irinotecan on the disposition of docetaxel. RESULTS The most common and dose-limiting toxicity was myelosuppression, which consisted of neutropenia that was severe (National Cancer Institute common toxicity criteria [NCI CTC] grade 4) but brief (< 5 days) in 11 patients, with three episodes of febrile neutropenia. Nonhematologic toxicities of anorexia, nausea, and stomatitis were mild to moderate (NCI CTC grades 1 and 2), but there was one incidence each of both CTC grade 3 anorexia and nausea. All patients had total alopecia. Diarrhea was dose-dependent and severe in four patients who failed to take adequate antidiarrhea therapy. Five out of 16 assessable patients, one with cholangiocarcinoma, one with leiomyosarcoma, and three with non-small-cell lung cancer, achieved partial remissions. CONCLUSION The combination of irinotecan and docetaxel causes significant reversible myelosuppression, which was dose limiting but led to no serious sequelae. There was no evidence of a clinically significant interaction using these two agents in this sequence. The combination showed antitumor activity at all the dose levels tested and should be further studied in a number of tumor types. The recommended phase II dose on this schedule is irinotecan 160 mg/m(2) and docetaxel 65 mg/m(2).
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Affiliation(s)
- A A Adjei
- Department of Oncology, Mayo Clinic and Foundation, Rochester, MN, USA.
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