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Hu L, Liu XY, Zhao L, Hu ZB, Li ZX, Liu WT, Song NN, Hu YQ, Jiang LP, Zhang L, Tao YC, Zhang Q, Chen JY, Lang B, Wang YB, Yue L, Ding YQ. Ventricular Netrin-1 deficiency leads to defective pyramidal decussation and mirror movement in mice. Cell Death Dis 2024; 15:343. [PMID: 38760361 PMCID: PMC11101614 DOI: 10.1038/s41419-024-06719-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/27/2023] [Revised: 04/27/2024] [Accepted: 05/03/2024] [Indexed: 05/19/2024]
Abstract
The corticospinal tract (CST) is the principal neural pathway responsible for conducting voluntary movement in the vertebrate nervous system. Netrin-1 is a well-known guidance molecule for midline crossing of commissural axons during embryonic development. Families with inherited Netrin-1 mutations display congenital mirror movements (CMM), which are associated with malformations of pyramidal decussation in most cases. Here, we investigated the role of Netrin-1 in CST formation by generating conditional knockout (CKO) mice using a Gfap-driven Cre line. A large proportion of CST axons spread laterally in the ventral medulla oblongata, failed to decussate and descended in the ipsilateral spinal white matter of Ntn1Gfap CKO mice. Netrin-1 mRNA was expressed in the ventral ventricular zone (VZ) and midline, while Netrin-1 protein was transported by radial glial cells to the ventral medulla, through which CST axons pass. The level of transported Netrin-1 protein was significantly reduced in Ntn1Gfap CKO mice. In addition, Ntn1Gfap CKO mice displayed increased symmetric movements. Our findings indicate that VZ-derived Netrin-1 deletion leads to an abnormal trajectory of the CST in the spinal cord due to the failure of CST midline crossing and provides novel evidence supporting the idea that the Netrin-1 signalling pathway is involved in the pathogenesis of CMM.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ling Hu
- Department of Laboratory Animal Science, Fudan University, Shanghai, 200032, China.
| | - Xi-Yue Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Medical Neurobiology and MOE Frontiers Center for Brain Science, Institutes of Brain Science, Fudan University, Shanghai, 200032, China
| | - Li Zhao
- Department of Laboratory Animal Science, Fudan University, Shanghai, 200032, China
| | - Zhi-Bin Hu
- State Key Laboratory of Medical Neurobiology and MOE Frontiers Center for Brain Science, Institutes of Brain Science, Fudan University, Shanghai, 200032, China
| | - Ze-Xuan Li
- Department of Laboratory Animal Science, Fudan University, Shanghai, 200032, China
| | - Wei-Tang Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Medical Neurobiology and MOE Frontiers Center for Brain Science, Institutes of Brain Science, Fudan University, Shanghai, 200032, China
| | - Ning-Ning Song
- Department of Laboratory Animal Science, Fudan University, Shanghai, 200032, China
| | - Yun-Qing Hu
- State Key Laboratory of Medical Neurobiology and MOE Frontiers Center for Brain Science, Institutes of Brain Science, Fudan University, Shanghai, 200032, China
| | - Luo-Peng Jiang
- Department of Laboratory Animal Science, Fudan University, Shanghai, 200032, China
| | - Lei Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Arrhythmias, Ministry of Education, East Hospital, and Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, Tongji University School of Medicine, Shanghai, 200092, China
| | - Yun-Chao Tao
- State Key Laboratory of Medical Neurobiology and MOE Frontiers Center for Brain Science, Institutes of Brain Science, Fudan University, Shanghai, 200032, China
| | - Qiong Zhang
- Department of Laboratory Animal Science, Fudan University, Shanghai, 200032, China
| | - Jia-Yin Chen
- Department of Laboratory Animal Science, Fudan University, Shanghai, 200032, China
| | - Bing Lang
- Department of Psychiatry, The Second Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, 410083, China
| | - Yu-Bing Wang
- Key Laboratory of Arrhythmias, Ministry of Education, East Hospital, and Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, Tongji University School of Medicine, Shanghai, 200092, China
| | - Lei Yue
- Key Laboratory of Arrhythmias, Ministry of Education, East Hospital, and Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, Tongji University School of Medicine, Shanghai, 200092, China
| | - Yu-Qiang Ding
- Department of Laboratory Animal Science, Fudan University, Shanghai, 200032, China.
- State Key Laboratory of Medical Neurobiology and MOE Frontiers Center for Brain Science, Institutes of Brain Science, Fudan University, Shanghai, 200032, China.
- Shanghai Institute of Infectious Disease and Biosecurity, Fudan University, Shanghai, 200032, China.
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Şen S, Erber R. Neuronal Guidance Molecules in Bone Remodeling and Orthodontic Tooth Movement. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:ijms231710077. [PMID: 36077474 PMCID: PMC9456342 DOI: 10.3390/ijms231710077] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2022] [Revised: 08/31/2022] [Accepted: 09/01/2022] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
During orthodontic tooth movement, mechanically induced remodeling occurs in the alveolar bone due to the action of orthodontic forces. The number of factors identified to be involved in mechanically induced bone remodeling is growing steadily. With the uncovering of the functions of neuronal guidance molecules (NGMs) for skeletal development as well as for bone homeostasis, NGMs are now also among the potentially significant factors for the regulation of bone remodeling during orthodontic tooth movement. This narrative review attempts to summarize the functions of NGMs in bone homeostasis and provides insight into the currently sparse literature on the functions of these molecules during orthodontic tooth movement. Presently, four families of NGMs are known: Netrins, Slits, Semaphorins, ephrins and Eph receptors. A search of electronic databases revealed roles in bone homeostasis for representatives from all four NGM families. Functions during orthodontic tooth movement, however, were only identified for Semaphorins, ephrins and Eph receptors. For these, crucial prerequisites for participation in the regulation of orthodontically induced bone remodeling, such as expression in cells of the periodontal ligament and in the alveolar bone, as well as mechanical inducibility, were shown, which suggests that the importance of NGMs in orthodontic tooth movement may be underappreciated to date and further research might be warranted.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sinan Şen
- Department of Orthodontics, University Medical Center Schleswig-Holstein, Campus Kiel, Christian Albrechts University, 24105 Kiel, Germany
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +49-431-5002-6301
| | - Ralf Erber
- Department of Orthodontics and Dentofacial Orthopedics, University of Heidelberg, Im Neuenheimer Feld 400, 69120 Heidelberg, Germany
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Rapti G. A perspective on C. elegans neurodevelopment: from early visionaries to a booming neuroscience research. J Neurogenet 2021; 34:259-272. [PMID: 33446023 DOI: 10.1080/01677063.2020.1837799] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
The formation of the nervous system and its striking complexity is a remarkable feat of development. C. elegans served as a unique model to dissect the molecular events in neurodevelopment, from its early visionaries to the current booming neuroscience community. Soon after being introduced as a model, C. elegans was mapped at the level of genes, cells, and synapses, providing the first metazoan with a complete cell lineage, sequenced genome, and connectome. Here, I summarize mechanisms underlying C. elegans neurodevelopment, from the generation and diversification of neural components to their navigation and connectivity. I point out recent noteworthy findings in the fields of glia biology, sex dimorphism and plasticity in neurodevelopment, highlighting how current research connects back to the pioneering studies by Brenner, Sulston and colleagues. Multifaceted investigations in model organisms, connecting genes to cell function and behavior, expand our mechanistic understanding of neurodevelopment while allowing us to formulate emerging questions for future discoveries.
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Affiliation(s)
- Georgia Rapti
- European Molecular Biology Laboratory, Unit of Developmental Biology, Heidelberg, Germany
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Myosin X Interaction with KIF13B, a Crucial Pathway for Netrin-1-Induced Axonal Development. J Neurosci 2020; 40:9169-9185. [PMID: 33097641 PMCID: PMC7687062 DOI: 10.1523/jneurosci.0929-20.2020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/23/2020] [Revised: 09/04/2020] [Accepted: 10/17/2020] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Myosin X (Myo X) transports cargos to the tips of filopodia for cell adhesion, migration, and neuronal axon guidance. Deleted in Colorectal Cancer (DCC) is one of the Myo X cargos that is essential for Netrin-1-regulated axon pathfinding. The function of Myo X in axon development in vivo and the underlying mechanisms remain elusive. Here, we provide evidence for the role of Myo X in Netrin-1-DCC-regulated axon development in developing mouse neocortex. The knockout (KO) or knockdown (KD) of Myo X in cortical neurons of embryonic mouse brain impairs axon initiation and contralateral branching/targeting. Similar axon deficits are detected in Netrin-1-KO or DCC-KD cortical neurons. Further proteomic analysis of Myo X binding proteins identifies KIF13B (a kinesin family motor protein). The Myo X interaction with KIF13B is induced by Netrin-1. Netrin-1 promotes anterograde transportation of Myo X into axons in a KIF13B-dependent manner. KIF13B-KD cortical neurons exhibit similar axon deficits. Together, these results reveal Myo X-KIF13B as a critical pathway for Netrin-1-promoted axon initiation and branching/targeting. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT Netrin-1 increases Myosin X (Myo X) interaction with KIF13B, and thus promotes axonal delivery of Myo X and axon initiation and contralateral branching in developing cerebral neurons, revealing unrecognized functions and mechanisms underlying Netrin-1 regulation of axon development.
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Radial glia fibers translate Fgf8 morphogenetic signals to generate a thalamic nuclear complex protomap in the mantle layer. Brain Struct Funct 2018; 224:661-679. [PMID: 30470893 PMCID: PMC6420463 DOI: 10.1007/s00429-018-1794-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/12/2017] [Accepted: 11/09/2018] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
Abstract
Thalamic neurons are distributed between different nuclear groups of the thalamic multinuclear complex; they develop topologically ordered specific projections that convey information on voluntary motor programs and sensory modalities to functional areas in the cerebral cortex. Since thalamic neurons present a homogeneous morphology, their functional specificity is derived from their afferent and efferent connectivity. Adequate development of thalamic afferent and efferent connections depends on guide signals that bind receptors in nuclear neuropils and axonal growth cones, respectively. These are finally regulated by regionalization processes in the thalamic neurons, codifying topological information. In this work, we studied the role of Fgf8 morphogenetic signaling in establishing the molecular thalamic protomap, which was revealed by Igsf21, Pde10a and Btbd3 gene expression in the thalamic mantle layer. Fgf8 signaling activity was evidenced by pERK expression in radial glia cells and fibers, which may represent a scaffold that translates neuroepithelial positional information to the mantle layer. In this work, we describe the fact that Fgf8-hypomorphic mice did not express pERK in radial glia cells and fibers and presented disorganized thalamic regionalization, increasing neuronal death in the ventro-lateral thalamus and strong disruption of thalamocortical projections. In conclusion, Fgf8 encodes the positional information required for thalamic nuclear regionalization and the development of thalamocortical projections.
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Hornix BE, Havekes R, Kas MJH. Multisensory cortical processing and dysfunction across the neuropsychiatric spectrum. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2018; 97:138-151. [PMID: 29496479 DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2018.02.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/27/2017] [Revised: 02/12/2018] [Accepted: 02/13/2018] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Sensory processing is affected in multiple neuropsychiatric disorders like schizophrenia and autism spectrum disorders. Genetic and environmental factors guide the formation and fine-tuning of brain circuitry necessary to receive, organize, and respond to sensory input in order to behave in a meaningful and consistent manner. During certain developmental stages the brain is sensitive to intrinsic and external factors. For example, disturbed expression levels of certain risk genes during critical neurodevelopmental periods may lead to exaggerated brain plasticity processes within the sensory circuits, and sensory stimulation immediately after birth contributes to fine-tuning of these circuits. Here, the neurodevelopmental trajectory of sensory circuit development will be described and related to some example risk gene mutations that are found in neuropsychiatric disorders. Subsequently, the flow of sensory information through these circuits and the relationship to synaptic plasticity will be described. Research focusing on the combined analyses of neural circuit development and functioning are necessary to expand our understanding of sensory processing and behavioral deficits that are relevant across the neuropsychiatric spectrum.
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Affiliation(s)
- Betty E Hornix
- Groningen Institute for Evolutionary Life Sciences, University of Groningen, Nijenborgh 7, 9747 AG, Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Robbert Havekes
- Groningen Institute for Evolutionary Life Sciences, University of Groningen, Nijenborgh 7, 9747 AG, Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Martien J H Kas
- Groningen Institute for Evolutionary Life Sciences, University of Groningen, Nijenborgh 7, 9747 AG, Groningen, The Netherlands.
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7
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Chen Z. Common cues wire the spinal cord: Axon guidance molecules in spinal neuron migration. Semin Cell Dev Biol 2018; 85:71-77. [PMID: 29274387 DOI: 10.1016/j.semcdb.2017.12.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/16/2017] [Revised: 12/12/2017] [Accepted: 12/14/2017] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
Abstract
Topographic arrangement of neuronal cell bodies and axonal tracts are crucial for proper wiring of the nervous system. This involves often-coordinated neuronal migration and axon guidance during development. Most neurons migrate from their birthplace to specific topographic coordinates as they adopt the final cell fates and extend axons. The axons follow temporospatial specific guidance cues to reach the appropriate targets. When neuronal or axonal migration or their coordination is disrupted, severe consequences including neurodevelopmental disorders and neurological diseases, can arise. Neuronal and axonal migration shares some molecular mechanisms, as genes originally identified as axon guidance molecules have been increasingly shown to direct both navigation processes. This review focuses on axon guidance pathways that are shown to also direct neuronal migration in the vertebrate spinal cord.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhe Chen
- Department of MCD Biology, University of Colorado Boulder, Boulder, CO 80309, USA.
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Kim M, Fontelonga TM, Lee CH, Barnum SJ, Mastick GS. Motor axons are guided to exit points in the spinal cord by Slit and Netrin signals. Dev Biol 2017; 432:178-191. [PMID: 28986144 PMCID: PMC5694371 DOI: 10.1016/j.ydbio.2017.09.038] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/25/2017] [Revised: 09/29/2017] [Accepted: 09/30/2017] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
Abstract
In the spinal cord, motor axons project out the neural tube at specific exit points, then bundle together to project toward target muscles. The molecular signals that guide motor axons to and out of their exit points remain undefined. Since motor axons and their exit points are located near the floor plate, guidance signals produced by the floor plate and adjacent ventral tissues could influence motor axons as they project toward and out of exit points. The secreted Slit proteins are major floor plate repellents, and motor neurons express two Slit receptors, Robo1 and Robo2. Using mutant mouse embryos at early stages of motor axon exit, we found that motor exit points shifted ventrally in Robo1/2 or Slit1/2 double mutants. Along with the ventral shift, mutant axons had abnormal trajectories both within the neural tube toward the exit point, and after exit into the periphery. In contrast, the absence of the major ventral attractant, Netrin-1, or its receptor, DCC caused motor exit points to shift dorsally. Netrin-1 attraction on spinal motor axons was demonstrated by in vitro explant assays, showing that Netrin-1 increased outgrowth and attracted cultured spinal motor axons. The opposing effects of Slit/Robo and Netrin-1/DCC signals were tested genetically by combining Netrin-1 and Robo1/2 mutations. The location of exit points in the combined mutants was significantly recovered to their normal position compared to Netrin-1 or Robo1/2 mutants. Together, these results suggest that the proper position of motor exit points is determined by a "push-pull" mechanism, pulled ventrally by Netrin-1/DCC attraction and pushed dorsally by Slit/Robo repulsion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Minkyung Kim
- Department of Biology, University of Nevada, Reno, NV 89557, USA.
| | | | - Clare H Lee
- Department of Biology, University of Nevada, Reno, NV 89557, USA
| | - Sarah J Barnum
- Department of Biology, University of Nevada, Reno, NV 89557, USA
| | - Grant S Mastick
- Department of Biology, University of Nevada, Reno, NV 89557, USA
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9
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Kim M, Bjorke B, Mastick GS. Motor neuron migration and positioning mechanisms: New roles for guidance cues. Semin Cell Dev Biol 2017; 85:78-83. [PMID: 29141180 DOI: 10.1016/j.semcdb.2017.11.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/21/2017] [Accepted: 11/10/2017] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Motor neurons differentiate from progenitor cells and cluster as motor nuclei, settling next to the floor plate in the brain stem and spinal cord. Although precise positioning of motor neurons is critical for their functional input and output, the molecular mechanisms that guide motor neurons to their proper positions remain poorly understood. Here, we review recent evidence of motor neuron positioning mechanisms, highlighting situations in which motor neuron cell bodies can migrate, and experiments that show that their migration is regulated by axon guidance cues. The view that emerges is that motor neurons are actively trapped or restricted in static positions, as the cells balance a push in the dorsal direction by repulsive Slit/Robo cues and a pull in the ventral direction by attractive Netrin-1/DCC cues. These new functions of guidance cues are necessary fine-tuning to set up patterns of motor neurons at their proper positions in the neural tube during embryogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Minkyung Kim
- Department of Biology, University of Nevada, Reno, NV 89557, USA.
| | - Brielle Bjorke
- Neuroscience Program, Carleton College, Northfield, MN 55057, USA
| | - Grant S Mastick
- Department of Biology, University of Nevada, Reno, NV 89557, USA
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10
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Junge HJ, Yung AR, Goodrich LV, Chen Z. Netrin1/DCC signaling promotes neuronal migration in the dorsal spinal cord. Neural Dev 2016; 11:19. [PMID: 27784329 PMCID: PMC5081974 DOI: 10.1186/s13064-016-0074-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/11/2016] [Accepted: 10/17/2016] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Newborn neurons often migrate before undergoing final differentiation, extending neurites, and forming synaptic connections. Therefore, neuronal migration is crucial for establishing neural circuitry during development. In the developing spinal cord, neuroprogenitors first undergo radial migration within the ventricular zone. Differentiated neurons continue to migrate tangentially before reaching the final positions. The molecular pathways that regulate these migration processes remain largely unknown. Our previous study suggests that the DCC receptor is important for the migration of the dorsal spinal cord progenitors and interneurons. In this study, we determined the involvement of the Netrin1 ligand and the ROBO3 coreceptor in the migration. RESULTS By pulse labeling neuroprogenitors with electroporation, we examined their radial migration in Netrin1 (Ntn1), Dcc, and Robo3 knockout mice. We found that all three mutants exhibit delayed migration. Furthermore, using immunohistochemistry of the BARHL2 interneuron marker, we found that the mediolateral and dorsoventral migration of differentiated dorsal interneurons is also delayed. Together, our results suggest that Netrin1/DCC signaling induce neuronal migration in the dorsal spinal cord. CONCLUSIONS Netrin1, DCC, and ROBO3 have been extensively studied for their functions in regulating axon guidance in the spinal commissural interneurons. We reveal that during earlier development of dorsal interneurons including commissural neurons, these molecules play an important role in promoting cell migration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Harald J Junge
- Department of MCDB, University of Colorado, Boulder, CO, 80309, USA.
| | - Andrea R Yung
- Department of Neurobiology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, 02115, USA
| | - Lisa V Goodrich
- Department of Neurobiology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, 02115, USA
| | - Zhe Chen
- Department of MCDB, University of Colorado, Boulder, CO, 80309, USA.
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11
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Optogenetic activation of axon guidance receptors controls direction of neurite outgrowth. Sci Rep 2016; 6:23976. [PMID: 27052670 PMCID: PMC4823752 DOI: 10.1038/srep23976] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/18/2016] [Accepted: 03/16/2016] [Indexed: 01/22/2023] Open
Abstract
Growth cones of extending axons navigate to correct targets by sensing a guidance cue gradient via membrane protein receptors. Although most signaling mechanisms have been clarified using an in vitro approach, it is still difficult to investigate the growth cone behavior in complicated extracellular environment of living animals due to the lack of tools. We develop a system for the light-dependent activation of a guidance receptor, Deleted in Colorectal Cancer (DCC), using Arabidopsis thaliana Cryptochrome 2, which oligomerizes upon blue-light absorption. Blue-light illumination transiently activates DCC via its oligomerization, which initiates downstream signaling in the illuminated subcellular region. The extending axons are attracted by illumination in cultured chick dorsal root ganglion neurons. Moreover, light-mediated navigation of the growth cones is achieved in living Caenorhabditis elegans. The photo-manipulation system is applicable to investigate the relationship between the growth cone behavior and its surrounding environment in living tissue.
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Layne K, Ferro A, Passacquale G. Netrin-1 as a novel therapeutic target in cardiovascular disease: to activate or inhibit? Cardiovasc Res 2015. [PMID: 26209250 DOI: 10.1093/cvr/cvv201] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Netrins are a family of laminin-like proteins, which were initially identified for their role in embryonic axonal guidance. Over recent years, it has become apparent that netrin-1 may additionally be involved in the underlying pathology of several multisystem diseases, making it an attractive potential therapeutic target. It is involved in postnatal angiogenesis, particularly in the context of an ischaemic insult, although there are conflicting reports as to whether netrin-1 acts in a pro- or anti-angiogenic capacity. In atherosclerosis, opposing effects have similarly been reported on plaque progression, due to the ability of netrin-1 to inhibit both macrophage egress from and monocyte ingress into lesions. Netrin-1 has also been shown to exert a cardioprotective action in the context of ischaemia-reperfusion injury following myocardial infarction. Moreover, urinary netrin-1 levels rise in response to acute kidney injury and at a faster rate than traditional markers of renal impairment, highlighting a potential clinical role for netrin-1 as a biomarker of renal function. The increased urinary excretion of netrin-1 during kidney disease is paralleled by a down-regulation of its plasma levels, with potential implications at a systemic level. In summary, the role of netrin-1 in cardiovascular disease is an emerging area of research requiring further in-depth study to elucidate its mechanism of action and potential as a therapeutic target, especially in view of its seemingly contradictory actions in certain physiological pathways which serve to highlight its manifold and often opposite effects in numerous physiological and pathophysiological processes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kerry Layne
- Cardiovascular Division, British Heart Foundation Centre for Research Excellence, King's College London, Franklin-Wilkins Building, 150 Stamford Street, London SE1 9NH, UK
| | - Albert Ferro
- Cardiovascular Division, British Heart Foundation Centre for Research Excellence, King's College London, Franklin-Wilkins Building, 150 Stamford Street, London SE1 9NH, UK
| | - Gabriella Passacquale
- Cardiovascular Division, British Heart Foundation Centre for Research Excellence, King's College London, Franklin-Wilkins Building, 150 Stamford Street, London SE1 9NH, UK
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13
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Kim M, Fontelonga T, Roesener AP, Lee H, Gurung S, Mendonca PRF, Mastick GS. Motor neuron cell bodies are actively positioned by Slit/Robo repulsion and Netrin/DCC attraction. Dev Biol 2015; 399:68-79. [PMID: 25530182 PMCID: PMC4339514 DOI: 10.1016/j.ydbio.2014.12.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/25/2014] [Revised: 10/22/2014] [Accepted: 12/10/2014] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Motor neurons differentiate from a ventral column of progenitors and settle in static clusters, the motor nuclei, next to the floor plate. Within these cell clusters, motor neurons receive afferent input and project their axons out to muscle targets. The molecular mechanisms that position motor neurons in the neural tube remain poorly understood. The floor plate produces several types of guidance cues with well-known roles in attracting and repelling axons, including the Slit family of chemorepellents via their Robo receptors, and Netrin1 via its DCC attractive receptor. In the present study we found that Islet1(+) motor neuron cell bodies invaded the floor plate of Robo1/2 double mutant mouse embryos or Slit1/2/3 triple mutants. Misplaced neurons were born in their normal progenitor column, but then migrated tangentially into the ventral midline. Robo1 and 2 receptor expression in motor neurons was confirmed by reporter gene staining and anti-Robo antibody labeling. Mis-positioned motor neurons projected their axons longitudinally within the floor plate, and failed to reach their normal exit points. To test for potential counteracting ventral attractive signals, we examined Netrin-1 and DCC mutants, and found that motor neurons shifted dorsally in the hindbrain and spinal cord, suggesting that Netrin-1/DCC signaling normally attracts motor neurons closer to the floor plate. Our results show that motor neurons are actively migrating cells, and are normally trapped in a static position by Slit/Robo repulsion and Netrin-1/DCC attraction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Minkyung Kim
- Department of Biology, University of Nevada, Reno, NV, USA
| | | | | | - Haeram Lee
- Department of Biology, University of Nevada, Reno, NV, USA
| | - Suman Gurung
- Department of Biology, University of Nevada, Reno, NV, USA
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14
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Tu T, Zhang C, Yan H, Luo Y, Kong R, Wen P, Ye Z, Chen J, Feng J, Liu F, Wu JY, Yan X. CD146 acts as a novel receptor for netrin-1 in promoting angiogenesis and vascular development. Cell Res 2015; 25:275-87. [PMID: 25656845 PMCID: PMC4349246 DOI: 10.1038/cr.2015.15] [Citation(s) in RCA: 95] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2014] [Revised: 01/04/2015] [Accepted: 01/05/2015] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Angiogenesis, a process that newly-formed blood vessels sprout from pre-existing ones, is vital for vertebrate development and adult homeostasis. Previous studies have demonstrated that the neuronal guidance molecule netrin-1 participates in angiogenesis and morphogenesis of the vascular system. Netrin-1 exhibits dual activities in angiogenesis: either promoting or inhibiting angiogenesis. The anti-angiogenic activity of netrin-1 is mediated by UNC5B receptor. However, how netrin-1 promotes angiogenesis remained unclear. Here we report that CD146, an endothelial transmembrane protein of the immunoglobulin superfamily, is a receptor for netrin-1. Netrin-1 binds to CD146 with high affinity, inducing endothelial cell activation and downstream signaling in a CD146-dependent manner. Conditional knockout of the cd146 gene in the murine endothelium or disruption of netrin-CD146 interaction by a specific anti-CD146 antibody blocks or reduces netrin-1-induced angiogenesis. In zebrafish embryos, downregulating either netrin-1a or CD146 results in vascular defects with striking similarity. Moreover, knocking down CD146 blocks ectopic vascular sprouting induced by netrin-1 overexpression. Together, our data uncover CD146 as a previously unknown receptor for netrin-1 and also reveal a functional ligand for CD146 in angiogenesis, demonstrating the involvement of netrin-CD146 signaling in angiogenesis during vertebrate development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tao Tu
- Key Laboratory of Protein and Peptide Pharmaceuticals, Institute of Biophysics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China
| | - Chunxia Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Biomembrane and Membrane Biotechnology, Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China
| | - Huiwen Yan
- Key Laboratory of Protein and Peptide Pharmaceuticals, Institute of Biophysics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China
| | - Yongting Luo
- Key Laboratory of Protein and Peptide Pharmaceuticals, Institute of Biophysics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China
| | - Ruirui Kong
- State Key Laboratory of Brain and Cognitive Science, Institute of Biophysics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China
| | - Pushuai Wen
- State Key Laboratory of Brain and Cognitive Science, Institute of Biophysics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China
| | - Zhongde Ye
- Key Laboratory of Protein and Peptide Pharmaceuticals, Institute of Biophysics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China
| | - Jianan Chen
- Key Laboratory of Protein and Peptide Pharmaceuticals, Institute of Biophysics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China
| | - Jing Feng
- Key Laboratory of Protein and Peptide Pharmaceuticals, Institute of Biophysics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China
| | - Feng Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Biomembrane and Membrane Biotechnology, Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China
| | - Jane Y Wu
- 1] State Key Laboratory of Brain and Cognitive Science, Institute of Biophysics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China [2] Department of Neurology, Center for Genetic Medicine, Lurie Cancer Center, Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine, Chicago, IL 60611, USA
| | - Xiyun Yan
- Key Laboratory of Protein and Peptide Pharmaceuticals, Institute of Biophysics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China
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15
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Liu J, Wang Y, Akamatsu Y, Lee CC, Stetler RA, Lawton MT, Yang GY. Vascular remodeling after ischemic stroke: mechanisms and therapeutic potentials. Prog Neurobiol 2013; 115:138-56. [PMID: 24291532 DOI: 10.1016/j.pneurobio.2013.11.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 247] [Impact Index Per Article: 22.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/06/2013] [Revised: 11/14/2013] [Accepted: 11/16/2013] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
The brain vasculature has been increasingly recognized as a key player that directs brain development, regulates homeostasis, and contributes to pathological processes. Following ischemic stroke, the reduction of blood flow elicits a cascade of changes and leads to vascular remodeling. However, the temporal profile of vascular changes after stroke is not well understood. Growing evidence suggests that the early phase of cerebral blood volume (CBV) increase is likely due to the improvement in collateral flow, also known as arteriogenesis, whereas the late phase of CBV increase is attributed to the surge of angiogenesis. Arteriogenesis is triggered by shear fluid stress followed by activation of endothelium and inflammatory processes, while angiogenesis induces a number of pro-angiogenic factors and circulating endothelial progenitor cells (EPCs). The status of collaterals in acute stroke has been shown to have several prognostic implications, while the causal relationship between angiogenesis and improved functional recovery has yet to be established in patients. A number of interventions aimed at enhancing cerebral blood flow including increasing collateral recruitment are under clinical investigation. Transplantation of EPCs to improve angiogenesis is also underway. Knowledge in the underlying physiological mechanisms for improved arteriogenesis and angiogenesis shall lead to more effective therapies for ischemic stroke.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jialing Liu
- Department of Neurological Surgery, UCSF, San Francisco, CA 94121, USA; SFVAMC, San Francisco, CA 94121, USA.
| | - Yongting Wang
- Neuroscience and Neuroengineering Research Center, Med-X Research Institute, Shanghai 200030, China; School of Biomedical Engineering, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200030, China; Department of Neurology, Shanghai Ruijin Hospital, School of Medicine, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200025, China
| | - Yosuke Akamatsu
- Department of Neurological Surgery, UCSF, San Francisco, CA 94121, USA; SFVAMC, San Francisco, CA 94121, USA; Department of Neurological Surgery, Tohoku University Graduate School of Medicine, 1-1 Seiryo-machi, Aoba-ku, Sendai 980-8574, Japan
| | - Chih Cheng Lee
- Department of Neurological Surgery, UCSF, San Francisco, CA 94121, USA; SFVAMC, San Francisco, CA 94121, USA
| | - R Anne Stetler
- Center of Cerebrovascular Disease Research, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA 15213, USA
| | - Michael T Lawton
- Department of Neurological Surgery, UCSF, San Francisco, CA 94121, USA
| | - Guo-Yuan Yang
- Neuroscience and Neuroengineering Research Center, Med-X Research Institute, Shanghai 200030, China; School of Biomedical Engineering, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200030, China; Department of Neurology, Shanghai Ruijin Hospital, School of Medicine, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200025, China.
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16
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Refai O, Rohs P, Mains PE, Gaudet J. Extension of the Caenorhabditis elegans Pharyngeal M1 neuron axon is regulated by multiple mechanisms. G3 (BETHESDA, MD.) 2013; 3:2015-29. [PMID: 24048649 PMCID: PMC3815062 DOI: 10.1534/g3.113.008466] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/17/2013] [Accepted: 09/10/2013] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
The guidance of axons to their correct targets is a critical step in development. The C. elegans pharynx presents an attractive system to study neuronal pathfinding in the context of a developing organ. The worm pharynx contains relatively few cells and cell types, but each cell has a known lineage and stereotyped developmental patterns. We found that extension of the M1 pharyngeal axon, which spans the entire length of the pharynx, occurs in two distinct phases. The first proximal phase does not require genes that function in axon extension (unc-34, unc-51, unc-115, and unc-119), whereas the second distal phase does use these genes and is guided in part by the adjacent g1P gland cell projection. unc-34, unc-51, and unc-115 had incompletely penetrant defects and appeared to act in conjunction with the g1P cell for distal outgrowth. Only unc-119 showed fully penetrant defects for the distal phase. Mutations affecting classical neuronal guidance cues (Netrin, Semaphorin, Slit/Robo, Ephrin) or adhesion molecules (cadherin, IgCAM) had, at best, weak effects on the M1 axon. None of the mutations we tested affected the proximal phase of M1 elongation. In a forward genetic screen, we isolated nine mutations in five genes, three of which are novel, showing defects in M1, including axon overextension, truncation, or ectopic branching. One of these mutations appeared to affect the generation or differentiation of the M1 neuron. We conclude that M1 axon extension is a robust process that is not completely dependent on any single guidance mechanism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Osama Refai
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Alberta Children’s Hospital Research Institute, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta T2N 4N1, Canada
| | - Patricia Rohs
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Alberta Children’s Hospital Research Institute, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta T2N 4N1, Canada
| | - Paul E. Mains
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Alberta Children’s Hospital Research Institute, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta T2N 4N1, Canada
| | - Jeb Gaudet
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Alberta Children’s Hospital Research Institute, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta T2N 4N1, Canada
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17
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Abstract
Morphogenesis of the hermaphrodite gonad of Caenorhabditis elegans is directed by the U-shaped migration of the gonadal leader cells, which are called distal tip cells (DTCs). The nuclei of migrating DTCs are always positioned at the leading edge of the cells, even as these cells turn dorsally to contact the hypodermis and intestine. When the DTCs turn dorsally, VAB-10B1/spectraplakin acts in nuclear translocation by regulating the polarized growth of microtubules. The function of spectraplakin in nuclear positioning may be evolutionarily conserved. Here we discuss the possible reason for leading-edge positioning of the DTC nucleus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hon-Song Kim
- Department of Bioscience; Kwansei Gakuin University; Sanda, Japan
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18
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Tian C, Shi H, Xiong S, Hu F, Xiong WC, Liu J. The neogenin/DCC homolog UNC-40 promotes BMP signaling via the RGM protein DRAG-1 in C. elegans. Development 2013; 140:4070-80. [PMID: 24004951 DOI: 10.1242/dev.099838] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
The deleted in colorectal cancer (DCC) homolog neogenin functions in both netrin- and repulsive guidance molecule (RGM)-mediated axon guidance and in bone morphogenetic protein (BMP) signaling. How neogenin functions in mediating BMP signaling is not well understood. We show that the sole C. elegans DCC/neogenin homolog UNC-40 positively modulates a BMP-like pathway by functioning in the signal-receiving cells at the ligand/receptor level. This function of UNC-40 is independent of its role in netrin-mediated axon guidance, but requires its association with the RGM protein DRAG-1. We have identified the key residues in the extracellular domain of UNC-40 that are crucial for UNC-40-DRAG-1 interaction and UNC-40 function. Surprisingly, the extracellular domain of UNC-40 is sufficient to promote BMP signaling, in clear contrast to the requirement of its intracellular domain in mediating axon guidance. Mouse neogenin lacking the intracellular domain is also capable of mediating BMP signaling. These findings reveal an unexpected mode of action for neogenin regulation of BMP signaling.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chenxi Tian
- Department of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA
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19
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Kundu A, Micholt L, Friedrich S, Rand DR, Bartic C, Braeken D, Levchenko A. Superimposed topographic and chemical cues synergistically guide neurite outgrowth. LAB ON A CHIP 2013; 13:3070-81. [PMID: 23752939 PMCID: PMC3820293 DOI: 10.1039/c3lc50174d] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
Guidance of neuronal extensions is a complex process essential for linking neurons into complex functional networks underlying the workings of the neural system. Decades of research have suggested the ability of neuronal growth cones to integrate multiple types of cues during the extension process, but also have raised numerous still unanswered questions about synergy or antagonism between the superimposed chemical and mechanical signaling inputs. In this study, using a novel microfabricated analysis platform, we investigate the response of primary mouse embryonic hippocampal neurons to superimposed topographic and soluble chemical cues. We find that an optimal spatial frequency of topographic cues exists, maximizing the precision of the neurite extension. This optimal frequency can help the extending neurites navigate a topographically complex environment, providing pronounced directional selectivity. We also demonstrate that this cue can synergistically enhance attractive and suppress repulsive guidance by the bi-functional soluble cue Netrin-1, and eliminate the repulsive guidance by a chemorepellent Semaphorin3A (Sema3A). These results suggest that topographic cues can provide optimal periodic input into the guidance signaling processes involved in growth cone chemoattraction and can synergistically interact with chemical gradients of soluble guidance cues, shedding light on complex events accompanying the development of the functional nervous system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Arnab Kundu
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD
- Institute for Cell Engineering, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD
| | - Liesbeth Micholt
- Life Science Technologies Department, Imec vzw, Kapeldreef 75, B-3001 Leuven, Belgium
- Solid State Physics and Magnetism Section, Heverlee, Belgium
| | - Sarah Friedrich
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD
| | - Danielle R. Rand
- Life Science Technologies Department, Imec vzw, Kapeldreef 75, B-3001 Leuven, Belgium
| | - Carmen Bartic
- Solid State Physics and Magnetism Section, Heverlee, Belgium
| | - Dries Braeken
- Life Science Technologies Department, Imec vzw, Kapeldreef 75, B-3001 Leuven, Belgium
| | - Andre Levchenko
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD
- Institute for Cell Engineering, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD
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20
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Mirza R, Kivrak BG, Erzurumlu RS. Cooperative slit and netrin signaling in contralateralization of the mouse trigeminothalamic pathway. J Comp Neurol 2013; 521:312-25. [PMID: 22806432 PMCID: PMC3491114 DOI: 10.1002/cne.23188] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/11/2012] [Revised: 05/24/2012] [Accepted: 07/06/2012] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Ascending somatosensory pathways are crossed pathways representing each side of the body in the contralateral neocortex. The principal sensory nucleus of the trigeminal nerve (PrV) relays the facial sensations to the contralateral somatosensory cortex via the ventrobasal thalamus. In the companion article (Kivrak and Erzurumlu [2012] J. Comp. Neurol. 12-0013) we described the normal development of the trigeminal lemniscal pathway in the mouse. In this study we investigated the role of midline axon navigation signals, the netrin and slit proteins. In situ hybridization assays revealed that both netrin and slit mRNAs are expressed along the midline facing the PrV axons and their receptors are expressed in developing PrV neurons. In wild-type mouse embryos, PrV axons cross the midline and take a sharp rostral turn heading toward the contralateral thalamus. Examination of trigeminal lemniscal axons in dcc knockout mice revealed absence of midline crossing between E11 and E15. However, a few axons crossed the midline at E17 and reached the contralateral thalamus, resulting in a bilateral PrV lemniscal pathway at P0. We also found that slit1, -2 or -3 single or double knockout mice have impaired development of the trigeminal-lemniscal pathway. These include axon stalling along the midline, running within the midline, and recrossing of axons back to the site of origin. Collectively, our studies indicate a cooperative role for netrin and slit proteins in midline attraction and crossing behavior of the ascending facial somatosensory projections during development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rusella Mirza
- Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland 21201, USA
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21
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Netrin-1 in the developing enteric nervous system and colorectal cancer. Trends Mol Med 2012; 18:544-54. [DOI: 10.1016/j.molmed.2012.07.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/27/2012] [Revised: 07/07/2012] [Accepted: 07/10/2012] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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22
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Optic chiasm presentation of Semaphorin6D in the context of Plexin-A1 and Nr-CAM promotes retinal axon midline crossing. Neuron 2012; 74:676-90. [PMID: 22632726 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuron.2012.03.025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 93] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 03/06/2012] [Indexed: 01/23/2023]
Abstract
At the optic chiasm, retinal ganglion cells (RGCs) project ipsi- or contralaterally to establish the circuitry for binocular vision. Ipsilateral guidance programs have been characterized, but contralateral guidance programs are not well understood. Here, we identify a tripartite molecular system for contralateral RGC projections: Semaphorin6D (Sema6D) and Nr-CAM are expressed on midline radial glia and Plexin-A1 on chiasm neurons, and Plexin-A1 and Nr-CAM are also expressed on contralateral RGCs. Sema6D is repulsive to contralateral RGCs, but Sema6D in combination with Nr-CAM and Plexin-A1 converts repulsion to growth promotion. Nr-CAM functions as a receptor for Sema6D. Sema6D, Plexin-A1, and Nr-CAM are all required for efficient RGC decussation at the optic chiasm. These findings suggest a mechanism by which a complex of Sema6D, Nr-CAM, and Plexin-A1 at the chiasm midline alters the sign of Sema6D and signals Nr-CAM/Plexin-A1 receptors on RGCs to implement the contralateral RGC projection.
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23
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He Y, Yu Z, Ge D, Wang-Sattler R, Thiesen HJ, Xie L, Li Y. Cell type specificity of signaling: view from membrane receptors distribution and their downstream transduction networks. Protein Cell 2012; 3:701-13. [PMID: 22802048 DOI: 10.1007/s13238-012-2049-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/05/2012] [Accepted: 05/15/2012] [Indexed: 10/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Studies on cell signaling pay more attention to spatial dynamics and how such diverse organization can relate to high order of cellular capabilities. To overview the specificity of cell signaling, we integrated human receptome data with proteome spatial expression profiles to systematically investigate the specificity of receptors and receptor-triggered transduction networks across 62 normal cell types and 14 cancer types. Six percent receptors showed cell-type-specific expression, and 4% signaling networks presented enriched cell-specific proteins induced by the receptors. We introduced a concept of "response context" to annotate the cell-type dependent signaling networks. We found that most cells respond similarly to the same stimulus, as the "response contexts" presented high functional similarity. Despite this, the subtle spatial diversity can be observed from the difference in network architectures. The architecture of the signaling networks in nerve cells displayed less completeness than that in glandular cells, which indicated cellular-context dependent signaling patterns are elaborately spatially organized. Likewise, in cancer cells most signaling networks were generally dysfunctional and less complete than that in normal cells. However, glioma emerged hyper-activated transduction mechanism in malignant state. Receptor ATP6AP2 and TNFRSF21 induced rennin-angiotensin and apoptosis signaling were found likely to explain the glioma-specific mechanism. This work represents an effort to decipher context-specific signaling network from spatial dimension. Our results indicated that although a majority of cells engage general signaling response with subtle differences, the spatial dynamics of cell signaling can not only deepen our insights into different signaling mechanisms, but also help understand cell signaling in disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ying He
- Key Laboratory of Systems Biology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, 200031, China
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24
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Martynovsky M, Wong MC, Byrd DT, Kimble J, Schwarzbauer JE. mig-38, a novel gene that regulates distal tip cell turning during gonadogenesis in C. elegans hermaphrodites. Dev Biol 2012; 368:404-14. [PMID: 22732572 DOI: 10.1016/j.ydbio.2012.06.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/15/2011] [Revised: 06/14/2012] [Accepted: 06/15/2012] [Indexed: 01/20/2023]
Abstract
In Caenorhabditis elegans gonad morphogenesis, the final U-shapes of the two hermaphrodite gonad arms are determined by migration of the distal tip cells (DTCs). These somatic cells migrate in opposite directions on the ventral basement membrane until specific extracellular cues induce turning from ventral to dorsal and then centripetally toward the midbody region on the dorsal basement membrane. To dissect the mechanism of DTC turning, we examined the role of a novel gene, F40F11.2/mig-38, whose depletion by RNAi results in failure of DTC turning so that DTCs continue their migration away from the midbody region. mig-38 is expressed in the gonad primordium, and expression continues throughout DTC migration where it acts cell-autonomously to control DTC turning. RNAi depletion of both mig-38 and ina-1, which encodes an integrin adhesion receptor, enhanced the loss of turning phenotype indicating a genetic interaction between these genes. Furthermore, the integrin-associated protein MIG-15/Nck-interacting kinase (NIK) works with MIG-38 to direct DTC turning as shown by mig-38 RNAi with the mig-15(rh80) hypomorph. These results indicate that MIG-38 enhances the role of MIG-15 in integrin-dependent DTC turning. Knockdown of talin, a protein that is important for integrin activation, causes the DTCs to stop migration prematurely. When both talin and MIG-38 were depleted by RNAi treatment, the premature stop phenotype was suppressed. This suppression effect was reversed upon additional depletion of MIG-15 or its binding partner NCK-1. These results suggest that both talin and the MIG-15/NCK-1 complex promote DTC motility and that MIG-38 may act as a negative regulator of the complex. We propose a model to explain the dual role of MIG-38 in motility and turning.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria Martynovsky
- Department of Molecular Biology, Princeton University, Princeton, NJ 08544 1014, USA
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25
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Furuta D, Yamane M, Tsujiuchi T, Moriyama R, Fukushima N. Lysophosphatidic acid induces neurite branch formation through LPA3. Mol Cell Neurosci 2012; 50:21-34. [PMID: 22465231 DOI: 10.1016/j.mcn.2012.03.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/03/2011] [Revised: 02/03/2012] [Accepted: 03/14/2012] [Indexed: 01/13/2023] Open
Abstract
Although neurite branching is crucial for neuronal network formation after birth, its underlying mechanisms remain unclear. Here, we demonstrate that lysophosphatidic acid (LPA) stimulates neurite branching through a novel signaling pathway. Treatment of neuronal cell lines with LPA resulted in neurite branch formation when LPA(3) receptor was introduced. The effects of LPA were blocked by inhibition of G(q) signaling. Furthermore, expression of inhibitory mutants of the small GTPase Rnd2/Rho7 or an Rnd2 effector rapostlin abolished LPA(3)-mediated neurite branching. The LPA(3) agonist 2(S)-OMPT or LPA also induced axonal branch formation in hippocampal neurons, which was blocked by G(q) and Rnd2 pathway inhibition or LPA(3) knockdown. These findings suggest that the novel signaling pathway involving LPA(3), G(q), and Rnd2 may play an important role in neuronal network formation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daisuke Furuta
- Division of Molecular Neurobiology, Department of Life Science, Kinki University, Higashiosaka, Japan
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26
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Inverted selective plane illumination microscopy (iSPIM) enables coupled cell identity lineaging and neurodevelopmental imaging in Caenorhabditis elegans. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2011; 108:17708-13. [PMID: 22006307 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1108494108] [Citation(s) in RCA: 194] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/27/2023] Open
Abstract
The Caenorhabditis elegans embryo is a powerful model for studying neural development, but conventional imaging methods are either too slow or phototoxic to take full advantage of this system. To solve these problems, we developed an inverted selective plane illumination microscopy (iSPIM) module for noninvasive high-speed volumetric imaging of living samples. iSPIM is designed as a straightforward add-on to an inverted microscope, permitting conventional mounting of specimens and facilitating SPIM use by development and neurobiology laboratories. iSPIM offers a volumetric imaging rate 30× faster than currently used technologies, such as spinning-disk confocal microscopy, at comparable signal-to-noise ratio. This increased imaging speed allows us to continuously monitor the development of C, elegans embryos, scanning volumes every 2 s for the 14-h period of embryogenesis with no detectable phototoxicity. Collecting ∼25,000 volumes over the entirety of embryogenesis enabled in toto visualization of positions and identities of cell nuclei. By merging two-color iSPIM with automated lineaging techniques we realized two goals: (i) identification of neurons expressing the transcription factor CEH-10/Chx10 and (ii) visualization of their neurodevelopmental dynamics. We found that canal-associated neurons use somal translocation and amoeboid movement as they migrate to their final position in the embryo. We also visualized axon guidance and growth cone dynamics as neurons circumnavigate the nerve ring and reach their targets in the embryo. The high-speed volumetric imaging rate of iSPIM effectively eliminates motion blur from embryo movement inside the egg case, allowing characterization of dynamic neurodevelopmental events that were previously inaccessible.
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27
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Kim HS, Murakami R, Quintin S, Mori M, Ohkura K, Tamai KK, Labouesse M, Sakamoto H, Nishiwaki K. VAB-10 spectraplakin acts in cell and nuclear migration in Caenorhabditis elegans. Development 2011; 138:4013-23. [PMID: 21831923 PMCID: PMC3160096 DOI: 10.1242/dev.059568] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 07/05/2011] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Cytoskeletal regulation is important in cell migration. The Caenorhabditis elegans gonadal distal tip cells (DTCs) offer a simple model with which to investigate the mechanism of cell migration in organogenesis. Here, we report that one of the spectraplakin isoforms, VAB-10B1, plays an essential role in cell and nuclear migration of DTCs by regulating the actin and microtubule (MT) cytoskeleton. In the vab-10(tk27) mutant, which lacks VAB-10B1, alignment of filamentous (F)-actin and MTs was weakly and severely disorganized, respectively, which resulted in a failure to translocate the DTC nucleus and a premature termination of DTC migration. An MT growing-tip marker, EBP-2-GFP, revealed that polarized outgrowth of MTs towards the nuclei of migrating DTCs was strikingly impaired in tk27 animals. A vab-10 mini-gene encoding only the actin- and MT-binding domains significantly rescued the gonadal defects, suggesting that VAB-10B1 has a role in linking actin and MT filaments. These results suggest that VAB-10B1/spectraplakin regulates the polarized alignment of MTs, possibly by linking F-actin and MTs, which enables normal nuclear translocation and cell migration of DTCs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hon-Song Kim
- Department of Bioscience, Kwansei Gakuin University, 2-1 Gakuen, Sanda 669-1337, Japan
- RIKEN Center for Developmental Biology, Chuo-ku, Kobe 650-0047, Japan
| | - Ryoko Murakami
- RIKEN Center for Developmental Biology, Chuo-ku, Kobe 650-0047, Japan
- Department of Biology, Graduate School of Science, Kobe University, 1-1 Rokkodaicho, Nada-ku, Kobe 657-8501, Japan
| | - Sophie Quintin
- Development and Stem Cells program, IGBMC, CNRS UMR7104/INSERM U. 964//Université de Strasbourg, Illkirch, Cedex F-67404, France
| | - Masataka Mori
- Department of Bioscience, Kwansei Gakuin University, 2-1 Gakuen, Sanda 669-1337, Japan
| | - Kiyotaka Ohkura
- RIKEN Center for Developmental Biology, Chuo-ku, Kobe 650-0047, Japan
| | | | - Michel Labouesse
- Development and Stem Cells program, IGBMC, CNRS UMR7104/INSERM U. 964//Université de Strasbourg, Illkirch, Cedex F-67404, France
| | - Hiroshi Sakamoto
- Department of Biology, Graduate School of Science, Kobe University, 1-1 Rokkodaicho, Nada-ku, Kobe 657-8501, Japan
| | - Kiyoji Nishiwaki
- Department of Bioscience, Kwansei Gakuin University, 2-1 Gakuen, Sanda 669-1337, Japan
- RIKEN Center for Developmental Biology, Chuo-ku, Kobe 650-0047, Japan
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28
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Zheng L, Michelson Y, Freger V, Avraham Z, Venken KJT, Bellen HJ, Justice MJ, Wides R. Drosophila Ten-m and filamin affect motor neuron growth cone guidance. PLoS One 2011; 6:e22956. [PMID: 21857973 PMCID: PMC3152545 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0022956] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/16/2011] [Accepted: 07/03/2011] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
The Drosophila Ten-m (also called Tenascin-major, or odd Oz (odz)) gene has been associated with a pair-rule phenotype. We identified and characterized new alleles of Drosophila Ten-m to establish that this gene is not responsible for segmentation defects but rather causes defects in motor neuron axon routing. In Ten-m mutants the inter-segmental nerve (ISN) often crosses segment boundaries and fasciculates with the ISN in the adjacent segment. Ten-m is expressed in the central nervous system and epidermal stripes during the stages when the growth cones of the neurons that form the ISN navigate to their targets. Over-expression of Ten-m in epidermal cells also leads to ISN misrouting. We also found that Filamin, an actin binding protein, physically interacts with the Ten-m protein. Mutations in cheerio, which encodes Filamin, cause defects in motor neuron axon routing like those of Ten-m. During embryonic development, the expression of Filamin and Ten-m partially overlap in ectodermal cells. These results suggest that Ten-m and Filamin in epidermal cells might together influence growth cone progression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lihua Zheng
- Department of Molecular and Human Genetics, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, Texas, United States of America
| | - Yehudit Michelson
- Mina and Everard Goodman Faculty of Life Sciences, Bar-Ilan University, Ramat-Gan, Israel
| | - Vita Freger
- Mina and Everard Goodman Faculty of Life Sciences, Bar-Ilan University, Ramat-Gan, Israel
| | - Ziva Avraham
- Mina and Everard Goodman Faculty of Life Sciences, Bar-Ilan University, Ramat-Gan, Israel
| | - Koen J. T. Venken
- Department of Molecular and Human Genetics, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, Texas, United States of America
| | - Hugo J. Bellen
- Department of Molecular and Human Genetics, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, Texas, United States of America
- Program in Developmental Biology, Department of Neuroscience, and Howard Hughes Medical Institute (HHMI), Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, Texas, United States of America
| | - Monica J. Justice
- Department of Molecular and Human Genetics, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, Texas, United States of America
- * E-mail: (RW); (MJJ)
| | - Ron Wides
- Mina and Everard Goodman Faculty of Life Sciences, Bar-Ilan University, Ramat-Gan, Israel
- * E-mail: (RW); (MJJ)
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29
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Phan KD, Croteau LP, Kam JWK, Kania A, Cloutier JF, Butler SJ. Neogenin may functionally substitute for Dcc in chicken. PLoS One 2011; 6:e22072. [PMID: 21779375 PMCID: PMC3133656 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0022072] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/11/2011] [Accepted: 06/14/2011] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Dcc is the key receptor that mediates attractive responses of axonal growth cones to netrins, a family of axon guidance cues used throughout evolution. However, a Dcc homolog has not yet been identified in the chicken genome, raising the possibility that Dcc is not present in avians. Here we show that the closely related family member neogenin may functionally substitute for Dcc in the developing chicken spinal cord. The expression pattern of chicken neogenin in the developing spinal cord is a composite of the distribution patterns of both rodent Dcc and neogenin. Moreover, whereas the loss of mouse neogenin has no effect on the trajectory of commissural axons, removing chicken neogenin by RNA interference results in a phenotype similar to the functional inactivation of Dcc in mouse. Taken together, these data suggest that the chick neogenin is functionally equivalent to rodent Dcc.
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Affiliation(s)
- Keith Dai Phan
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California, United States of America
| | | | - Joseph Wai Keung Kam
- Montreal Neurological Institute, McGill University, Montréal, Québec, Canada
- Department of Neurology and Neurosurgery, McGill University, Montréal, Québec, Canada
| | - Artur Kania
- Institut de Recherches Cliniques de Montréal, Montréal, Québec, Canada
- Faculté de Médecine, Université de Montréal, Montréal, Québec, Canada
- Departments of Anatomy and Cell Biology and Biology, McGill University, Montréal, Québec, Canada
| | - Jean-François Cloutier
- Montreal Neurological Institute, McGill University, Montréal, Québec, Canada
- Department of Neurology and Neurosurgery, McGill University, Montréal, Québec, Canada
| | - Samantha Joanna Butler
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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30
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Moon C, Ahn M, Jeong C, Kim H, Shin T. Immunohistochemical study of netrin-1 in the spinal cord with rat experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis. Immunol Invest 2010; 40:160-71. [PMID: 21062237 DOI: 10.3109/08820139.2010.525570] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
Abstract
To investigate whether netrin-1 is involved in autoimmune injury of the central nervous system, the expression of netrin-1 protein was analyzed in the spinal cord of Lewis rats with experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE). Western blot analysis revealed significantly increased content of netrin-1 in the spinal cords of rats at the peak stage of EAE, as compared with the levels in normal control animals (p < 0.01). Immunohistochemistry detected the netrin-1 protein in neurons, oligodendrocytes, astrocytes and vascular endothelial cells in the spinal cords of normal controls. In EAE-affected spinal cords, netrin-1 immunoreactivity was detected in infiltrating inflammatory cells at the peak stage as well as in neurons, oligodendrocytes and astrocytes. These results suggest that netrin-1 is transiently increased in rat EAE lesions, where it contributes to the modulation of rat acute EAE.
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Affiliation(s)
- Changjong Moon
- Department of Veterinary Anatomy, College of Veterinary Medicine, Chonnam National University, Gwangju 500-757, South Korea
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31
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Inhibition of N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor activity resulted in aberrant neuronal migration caused by delayed morphological development in the mouse neocortex. Neuroscience 2010; 169:609-18. [PMID: 20497907 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2010.05.024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/09/2009] [Revised: 05/10/2010] [Accepted: 05/12/2010] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Embryonic and neonatal neocortical neurons already express functional N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptors before they form synapses. To elucidate the role of NMDA receptors in neuronal migration in the developing neocortex, we visualized radially migrating neurons by transferring the enhanced green fluorescent protein (EGFP) gene into the ventricular zone (VZ) of the mouse neocortex using in utero electroporation at E15.5. Two days later, we prepared neocortical slices and examined the EGFP-positive cells using time-lapse imaging in the presence of the NMDA receptor antagonist Cerestat. The EGFP-positive cells generated in the VZ in the control slices exhibited a multipolar morphology, but within several hours they became bipolar (with a leading process and an axon-like process) and migrated toward the pial surface. By contrast, many of the multipolar cells in the Cerestat-treated slices failed to extend either process and become bipolar, and frequently changed direction, although they ultimately reached their destination even after Cerestat-treatment. To identify the molecules responding for mediating NMDA signaling during neuronal migration and the changes in morphology observed above, we here focused on Src family kinases (SFKs), which mediate a variety of neuronal functions including migration and neurite extension. We discovered that the activity of Src and Fyn was reduced by Cerestat. These findings suggest that NMDA receptors are involved in neuronal migration and morphological changes into a bipolar shape, and in the activation of Src and Fyn in the developing neocortex.
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32
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Picard M, Petrie RJ, Antoine-Bertrand J, Saint-Cyr-Proulx E, Villemure JF, Lamarche-Vane N. Spatial and temporal activation of the small GTPases RhoA and Rac1 by the netrin-1 receptor UNC5a during neurite outgrowth. Cell Signal 2009; 21:1961-73. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cellsig.2009.09.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/17/2009] [Revised: 08/11/2009] [Accepted: 09/06/2009] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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33
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Larrivée B, Freitas C, Suchting S, Brunet I, Eichmann A. Guidance of vascular development: lessons from the nervous system. Circ Res 2009; 104:428-41. [PMID: 19246687 DOI: 10.1161/circresaha.108.188144] [Citation(s) in RCA: 194] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
The vascular system of vertebrates consists of an organized, branched network of arteries, veins, and capillaries that penetrates all the tissues of the body. One of the most striking features of the vascular system is that its branching pattern is highly stereotyped, with major and secondary branches forming at specific sites and developing highly conserved organ-specific vascular patterns. The factors controlling vascular patterning are not yet completely understood. Recent studies have highlighted the anatomic and structural similarities between blood vessels and nerves. The 2 networks are often aligned, with nerve fibers and blood vessels following parallel routes. Furthermore, both systems require precise control over their guidance and growth. Several molecules with attractive and repulsive properties have been found to modulate the proper guidance of both nerves and blood vessels. These include the Semaphorins, the Slits, and the Netrins and their receptors. In this review, we describe the molecular mechanisms by which blood vessels and axons achieve proper path finding and the molecular cues that are involved in their guidance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bruno Larrivée
- Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale, U833 and Collège de France, Paris, France
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34
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Xu C, Fan CM. Expression of Robo/Slit and Semaphorin/Plexin/Neuropilin family members in the developing hypothalamic paraventricular and supraoptic nuclei. Gene Expr Patterns 2008; 8:502-7. [PMID: 18617019 PMCID: PMC2617776 DOI: 10.1016/j.gep.2008.06.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/06/2008] [Revised: 06/10/2008] [Accepted: 06/14/2008] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
The hypothalamic paraventricular nucleus (PVN) and supraoptic nucleus (SON) contain neuroendocrine cells that modulate pituitary secretion to maintain homeostasis. These two nuclei have a common developmental origin but they eventually form at locations distant from each other. Little is known about the molecular cues that direct the segregation of PVN and SON. As a means to identify potential factors, we have documented expression patterns of genes with known guidance roles in neural migration. Here, we focus on two groups of ligand/receptor families classified to mediate chemo-repulsion of neurons and their axons: the Slit/Robo and the Semaphorin/Plexin/Neuropilin families. Their dynamic expression patterns within and around the common PVN/SON progenitor as well as the mature PVN and SON may provide a framework for understanding the formation of these two important nuclei.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cheng Xu
- Department of Embryology, Carnegie Institution of Washington, 3520 San Martin Drive, Baltimore, MD 21218, USA
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35
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Zhang W, Rajan I, Savelieva KV, Wang CY, Vogel P, Kelly M, Xu N, Hasson B, Jarman W, Lanthorn TH. Netrin-G2 and netrin-G2 ligand are both required for normal auditory responsiveness. GENES BRAIN AND BEHAVIOR 2008; 7:385-92. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1601-183x.2007.00361.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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36
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Lo TW, Branda CS, Huang P, Sasson IE, Goodman SJ, Stern MJ. Different isoforms of the C. elegans FGF receptor are required for attraction and repulsion of the migrating sex myoblasts. Dev Biol 2008; 318:268-75. [PMID: 18455716 DOI: 10.1016/j.ydbio.2008.03.026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2007] [Revised: 03/11/2008] [Accepted: 03/16/2008] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
The Caenorhabditis elegans FGF receptor, EGL-15, is alternatively-spliced to yield two major isoforms that differ in their extracellular domains. The EGL-15(5A) isoform is necessary for the gonadal chemoattraction of the migrating sex myoblasts (SMs), while the EGL-15(5B) isoform is required for viability. Here we show that 5A is predominantly expressed in the M lineage, which gives rise to the migrating SMs and their sex muscle descendants, while 5B is predominantly expressed in the hypodermis. Tissue-specific expression, however, explains only part of the functional differences between these two receptor isoforms. 5A can carry out the reciprocal essential function of 5B when expressed in the hypodermis, but 5B is incapable of carrying out SM chemoattraction. Our data, therefore, indicate that the structural differences in these two isoforms contribute to their functional differences. Two lines of evidence indicate that the 5B isoform also plays a role in SM migration, implicating it in the repulsion that is observed when the chemoattraction is compromised. Thus, structural differences in the extracellular domains of these two isoforms can specify either attraction to or repulsion from the gonad.
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Affiliation(s)
- Te-Wen Lo
- Department of Genetics, Yale University School of Medicine, I-354 SHM P.O. Box 208005, New Haven, CT 06520-8005, USA
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37
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Ren XR, Hong Y, Feng Z, Yang HM, Mei L, Xiong WC. Tyrosine phosphorylation of netrin receptors in netrin-1 signaling. Neurosignals 2008; 16:235-45. [PMID: 18253061 DOI: 10.1159/000111566] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Deleted in colorectal cancer (DCC) and neogenin are receptors of netrins, a family of guidance cues that promote axon outgrowth and guide growth cones in developing nervous system. The intracellular mechanisms of netrins, however, remain elusive. In this paper, we show that both DCC and neogenin become tyrosine phosphorylated in cortical neurons in response to netrin-1. Using a site-specific antiphosphor DCC antibody, we show that Y1420 phosphorylation is increased in netrin-1-stimulated neurons and that tyrosine-phosphorylated DCC is located in growth cones. In addition, we show that tyrosine-phosphorylated DCC selectively interacts with the Src family kinases Fyn and Lck, but not Src, c-Abl, Grb2, SHIP1, Shc, or tensin, suggesting a role of Fyn or Lck in netrin-1-DCC signaling. Of interest to note is that tyrosine-phosphorylated neogenin and uncoordinated 5 H2 (Unc5H2) not only bind to the Src homology 2 (SH2) domains of Fyn and SHP2, but also interact with the SH2 domain of SHIP1, suggesting a differential signaling between DCC and neogenin/Unc5H2. Furthermore, we demonstrate that inhibition of Src family kinase activity attenuated netrin-1-induced neurite outgrowth. Together, these results suggest a role of Src family kinases and tyrosine phosphorylation of netrin-1 receptors in regulating netrin-1 function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiu-Rong Ren
- Department of Pathology, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, Alabama, USA
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38
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Jones CA, Li DY. Common cues regulate neural and vascular patterning. Curr Opin Genet Dev 2007; 17:332-6. [PMID: 17692512 PMCID: PMC2279096 DOI: 10.1016/j.gde.2007.07.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/10/2007] [Revised: 06/29/2007] [Accepted: 07/04/2007] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
Nerves and blood vessels often follow parallel trajectories as they course through the body to their distal targets. Proteins that regulate the process of axon guidance have likewise been shown to play a crucial role in blood vessel migration. With the recent description of the endothelial tip cell as an analog of the axonal growth cone, the nerve-vessel analogy seems complete. Notwithstanding these considerable similarities, one crucial difference remains between neural and vascular guidance. While a navigating axon is but a single cell, a sprouting vessel is composed of multiple cells that must be co-ordinately regulated. Recent studies of the Dll4-Notch1 signaling pathway have provided valuable insight into how the vasculature accomplishes this crucial task.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christopher A Jones
- Department of Oncological Sciences, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT 84112, United States
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39
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Abstract
Neural recognition molecules were discovered and characterized initially for their functional roles in cell adhesion as regulators of affinity between cells and the extracellular matrix in vitro. They were then recognized as mediators or co-receptors which trigger signal transduction mechanisms affecting cell adhesion and de-adhesion. Their involvement in contact attraction and repulsion relies on cell-intrinsic properties that are modulated by the spatial contexts of their expression at particular stages of ontogenetic development, in synaptic plasticity and during regeneration after injury. The functional roles of recognition molecules in cell proliferation and migration, determination of developmental fate, growth cone guidance, and synapse formation, stabilization and modulation have been well documented not only by in vitro, but also by in vivo studies that have been greatly aided by generation of genetically altered mice. More recently, the functions of recognition molecules have been investigated under conditions of neural repair and manipulated using a broad range of genetic and pharmacological approaches to achieve a beneficial outcome. The principal aim of most therapeutically oriented approaches has been to neutralize inhibitory factors. However, less attention has been paid to enhancing repair by stimulating the stimulatory factors. When considering potential therapeutic strategies, it is worth considering that a single recognition molecule can possess domains that are conducive or repellent and that the spatial distribution of recognition molecules can determine the overall function: Recognition molecules may be repellent for neurite outgrowth when presented as barriers or steep-concentration gradients and conducive when presented as uniform substrates. The focus of this review will be on the more recent attempts to study the conducive mechanisms with the expectation that they may be able to tip the balance from a regeneration inhospitable to a hospitable environment. It is likely that a combination of the two principles, as multifactorial as each principle may be in itself, will be of therapeutic value in humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gabriele Loers
- Zentrum für Molekulare Neurobiologie, Universitätsklinikum Hamburg-Eppendorf, Universität Hamburg, Hamburg, Germany
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40
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Vesque C, Anselme I, Couvé E, Charnay P, Schneider-Maunoury S. Cloning of vertebrate Protogenin (Prtg) and comparative expression analysis during axis elongation. Dev Dyn 2007; 235:2836-44. [PMID: 16881056 DOI: 10.1002/dvdy.20898] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
A murine cDNA encoding Protogenin, which belongs to the DCC/Neogenin family, was cloned in a screen performed to identify novel cDNAs regionally expressed in the neural plate. Isolation of the putative zebrafish orthologues allowed a comparative analysis of the expression patterns of Protogenin genes during embryogenesis in different vertebrate species. From mid-gastrulation to early somite stages, Protogenin expression is restricted to posterior neural plate and mesoderm, with an anterior limit at the level of the rhombencephalon in mouse, chicken, and zebrafish. During somitogenesis, the expression profiles in the three species share features in the neural tube but present also species-specific characteristics. The initiation of Protogenin expression just before somitogenesis and its maintenance in the neural tube and paraxial mesoderm during this process suggest a conserved role in axis elongation.
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41
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Zhu XJ, Wang CZ, Dai PG, Xie Y, Song NN, Liu Y, Du QS, Mei L, Ding YQ, Xiong WC. Myosin X regulates netrin receptors and functions in axonal path-finding. Nat Cell Biol 2007; 9:184-92. [PMID: 17237772 DOI: 10.1038/ncb1535] [Citation(s) in RCA: 113] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/10/2006] [Accepted: 12/05/2006] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Abstract
Netrins regulate axon path-finding during development, but the underlying mechanisms are not well understood. Here, we provide evidence for the involvement of the unconventional myosin X (Myo X) in netrin-1 function. We find that Myo X interacts with the netrin receptor deleted in colorectal cancer (DCC) and neogenin, a DCC-related protein. Expression of Myo X redistributes DCC to the cell periphery or to the tips of neurites, whereas its silencing prevents DCC distribution in neurites. Moreover, expression of DCC, but not neogenin, stimulates Myo X-mediated formation and elongation of filopodia, suggesting that Myo X function may be differentially regulated by DCC and neogenin. The involvement of Myo X in netrin-1 function was further supported by the effects of inhibiting Myo X function in neurons. Cortical explants derived from mouse embryos expressing a motor-less Myo X exhibit reduced neurite outgrowth in response to netrin-1 and chick commissural neurons expressing the motor-less Myo X, or in which Myo X is silenced using microRNA (miRNA), show impaired axon projection in vivo. Taken together, these results identify a novel role for Myo X in regulating netrin-1 function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiao-Juan Zhu
- Program of Developmental Neurobiology, IMMAG and Department of Neurology, Medical College of Georgia, Augusta, GA 30912, USA
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42
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Suzuki N, Toyoda H, Sano M, Nishiwaki K. Chondroitin acts in the guidance of gonadal distal tip cells in C. elegans. Dev Biol 2006; 300:635-46. [PMID: 16982046 DOI: 10.1016/j.ydbio.2006.08.037] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/09/2006] [Revised: 08/08/2006] [Accepted: 08/17/2006] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
In Caenorhabditis elegans hermaphrodites, the U-shaped gonad arms are formed by directed migration of the gonadal distal tip cells (DTCs). The stereotyped pattern of DTC migration is carefully controlled by extracellular and cell surface molecules during larval development. Here we report that two proteins, SQV-5 (chondroitin synthase) and its cofactor MIG-22 (chondroitin polymerizing factor), are required for chondroitin biosynthesis and are essential for the dorsally guided migration of DTCs. We found that MIG-22 is expressed in migrating DTCs, hypodermal seam cells, developing vulva and oocytes. The expression of SQV-5 or MIG-22 in both DTCs and hypodermis rescued the DTC migration defects of the relevant mutants more efficiently than when they were expressed in either single tissue. Furthermore, the expression of SQV-5 by the mig-22 promoter significantly rescued sqv-5 mutants, implying that these two proteins act in the same tissues and that chondroitin proteoglycans produced in both of these tissues are required for DTC migration. The DTC migration defects caused by sqv-5 or mig-22 mutations were partially suppressed in the anterior and enhanced in the posterior DTCs in unc-6, unc-5 or unc-40 mutant backgrounds, suggesting that chondroitin proteoglycans play roles in the UNC-6/netrin-dependent guidance of DTCs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Norio Suzuki
- RIKEN Center for Developmental Biology, 2-2-3 Minatojima-minamimachi, Chuo-ku, Kobe 650-0047, Japan
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43
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Matus DQ, Pang K, Marlow H, Dunn CW, Thomsen GH, Martindale MQ. Molecular evidence for deep evolutionary roots of bilaterality in animal development. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2006; 103:11195-200. [PMID: 16837574 PMCID: PMC1544064 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.0601257103] [Citation(s) in RCA: 130] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/23/2006] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Nearly all metazoans show signs of bilaterality, yet it is believed the bilaterians arose from radially symmetric forms hundreds of millions of years ago. Cnidarians (corals, sea anemones, and "jellyfish") diverged from other animals before the radiation of the Bilateria. They are diploblastic and are often characterized as being radially symmetrical around their longitudinal (oral-aboral) axis. We have studied the deployment of orthologs of a number of family members of developmental regulatory genes that are expressed asymmetrically during bilaterian embryogenesis from the sea anemone, Nematostella vectensis. The secreted TGF-beta genes Nv-dpp, Nv-BMP5-8, six TGF-beta antagonists (NvChordin, NvNoggin1, NvNoggin2, NvGremlin, NvFollistatin, and NvFollistatin-like), the homeodomain proteins NvGoosecoid (NvGsc) and NvGbx, and the secreted guidance factor, NvNetrin, were studied. NvDpp, NvChordin, NvNoggin1, NvGsc, and NvNetrin are expressed asymmetrically along the axis perpendicular to the oral-aboral axis, the directive axis. Furthermore, NvGbx, and NvChordin are expressed in restricted domains on the left and right sides of the body, suggesting that the directive axis is homologous with the bilaterian dorsal-ventral axis. The asymmetric expression of NvNoggin1 and NvGsc appear to be maintained by the canonical Wnt signaling pathway. The asymmetric expression of NvNoggin1, NvNetrin, and Hox orthologs NvAnthox7, NvAnthox8, NvAnthox1a, and NvAnthox6, in conjunction with the observation that NvNoggin1 is able to induce a secondary axis in Xenopus embryos argues that N. vectensis could possess antecedents of the organization of the bilaterian central nervous system.
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Affiliation(s)
- David Q. Matus
- *Kewalo Marine Laboratory, Pacific Bioscience Research Center, University of Hawaii, 41 Ahui Street, Honolulu, HI 96813; and
| | - Kevin Pang
- *Kewalo Marine Laboratory, Pacific Bioscience Research Center, University of Hawaii, 41 Ahui Street, Honolulu, HI 96813; and
| | - Heather Marlow
- *Kewalo Marine Laboratory, Pacific Bioscience Research Center, University of Hawaii, 41 Ahui Street, Honolulu, HI 96813; and
| | - Casey W. Dunn
- *Kewalo Marine Laboratory, Pacific Bioscience Research Center, University of Hawaii, 41 Ahui Street, Honolulu, HI 96813; and
| | - Gerald H. Thomsen
- Department of Biochemistry and Cell Biology, Center for Developmental Genetics, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, NY 11794-5215
| | - Mark Q. Martindale
- *Kewalo Marine Laboratory, Pacific Bioscience Research Center, University of Hawaii, 41 Ahui Street, Honolulu, HI 96813; and
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Schmid C, Schwarz V, Hutter H. AST-1, a novel ETS-box transcription factor, controls axon guidance and pharynx development in C. elegans. Dev Biol 2006; 293:403-13. [PMID: 16584723 DOI: 10.1016/j.ydbio.2006.02.042] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/27/2005] [Revised: 12/16/2005] [Accepted: 02/06/2006] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
Abstract
Neurons send out axons and dendrites over large distances into target areas where they eventually form synapses with selected target cells. Axonal navigation is controlled by a variety of extracellular signals and neurons express receptors only for that subset of signals they need to navigate to their own target area. How the expression of axon guidance receptors is regulated is not understood. In genetic screens for mutants with axon guidance defects, we identified an ETS-domain transcription factor, AST-1, specifically required for axon navigation in certain classes of interneurons. In addition, ast-1 has a role in the differentiation of the ventral cord pioneer neuron AVG. Outside the nervous system, ast-1 is essential for morphogenesis of the pharynx. Ast-1 is transiently expressed in several classes of neurons (including AVG) during neuronal differentiation with a peak expression during late stages of neuronal differentiation and axon outgrowth. Ast-1 genetically interacts with other transcription factors controlling neuronal differentiation like lin-11 and zag-1 as well as components of the netrin pathway suggesting that ast-1 might control the expression of components of the netrin signal transduction machinery.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christina Schmid
- Max Planck Institute for Medical Research, Jahnstr. 29, 69120 Heidelberg, Germany
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45
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Chen BL, Hall DH, Chklovskii DB. Wiring optimization can relate neuronal structure and function. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2006; 103:4723-8. [PMID: 16537428 PMCID: PMC1550972 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.0506806103] [Citation(s) in RCA: 349] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
We pursue the hypothesis that neuronal placement in animals minimizes wiring costs for given functional constraints, as specified by synaptic connectivity. Using a newly compiled version of the Caenorhabditis elegans wiring diagram, we solve for the optimal layout of 279 nonpharyngeal neurons. In the optimal layout, most neurons are located close to their actual positions, suggesting that wiring minimization is an important factor. Yet some neurons exhibit strong deviations from "optimal" position. We propose that biological factors relating to axonal guidance and command neuron functions contribute to these deviations. We capture these factors by proposing a modified wiring cost function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Beth L. Chen
- *Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, Cold Spring Harbor, NY 11724; and
- To whom correspondence may be addressed. E-mail: or
| | - David H. Hall
- Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY 10461
| | - Dmitri B. Chklovskii
- *Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, Cold Spring Harbor, NY 11724; and
- To whom correspondence may be addressed. E-mail: or
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46
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Xie Y, Hong Y, Ma XY, Ren XR, Ackerman S, Mei L, Xiong WC. DCC-dependent Phospholipase C Signaling in Netrin-1-induced Neurite Elongation. J Biol Chem 2006; 281:2605-11. [PMID: 16321979 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m512767200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Netrins, a family of secreted molecules, play important roles in axon pathfinding during nervous system development. Although phosphatidylinositol signaling has been implicated in this event, how netrin-1 regulates phosphatidylinositol signaling remains poorly understood. Here we provide evidence that netrin-1 stimulates phosphatidylinositol bisphosphate hydrolysis in cortical neurons. This event appears to be mediated by DCC (deleted in colorectal cancer), but not neogenin or Unc5h2. Netrin-1 induces phospholipase Cgamma (PLCgamma) tyrosine phosphorylation. Inhibition of PLC activity attenuates netrin-1-induced cortical neurite outgrowth. These results suggest that netrin-1 regulates phosphatidylinositol turnover and demonstrate a crucial role of PLC signaling in netrin-1-induced neurite elongation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yi Xie
- Institute of Molecular Medicine & Genomics and Department of Neurology, Medical College of Georgia, Augusta, Georgia 30809, USA
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47
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Itoh B, Hirose T, Takata N, Nishiwaki K, Koga M, Ohshima Y, Okada M. SRC-1, a non-receptor type of protein tyrosine kinase, controls the direction of cell and growth cone migration in C. elegans. Development 2005; 132:5161-72. [PMID: 16251208 DOI: 10.1242/dev.02103] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Src family tyrosine kinase (SFK) has been implicated in the regulation of cell adhesion and migration during animal development. We show that SRC-1, an ortholog of SFK, plays an essential role in directing cell migration in Caenorhabditis elegans. The mutation in the src-1 gene results in defective distal tip cell (DTC)-directed gonad morphogenesis in an activity-dependent and DTC cell-autonomous manners. In the src-1 mutants, DTCs fail to turn and continue their centrifugal migration along the ventral muscles. The effect of the src-1 mutation is suppressed by mutations in genes that function in the CED/Rac pathway, suggesting that SRC-1 in DTCs is an upstream regulator of a Rac pathway that controls cytoskeletal remodeling. In the src-1 mutant, the expression of unc-5/netrin receptor is normally regulated, and neither the precocious expression of UNC-5 nor the mutation in the unc-5 gene significantly affects the DTC migration defect. These data suggest that SRC-1 acts in the netrin signaling in DTCs. The src-1 mutant also exhibits cell-autonomous defects in the migration and growth cone path-finding of Q neuroblast descendants AVM and PVM. However, these roles of SRC-1 do not appear to involve the CED/Rac pathway. These findings show that SRC-1 functions in responding to various extracellular guidance cues that direct the cell migration via disparate signaling pathways in different cell types.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bunsho Itoh
- Department of Oncogene Research, Research Institute for Microbial Diseases, Osaka University, 3-1 Yamadaoka, Suita, Osaka 565-0871, Japan
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48
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Xie Y, Ding YQ, Hong Y, Feng Z, Navarre S, Xi CX, Zhu XJ, Wang CL, Ackerman SL, Kozlowski D, Mei L, Xiong WC. Phosphatidylinositol transfer protein-α in netrin-1-induced PLC signalling and neurite outgrowth. Nat Cell Biol 2005; 7:1124-32. [PMID: 16244667 DOI: 10.1038/ncb1321] [Citation(s) in RCA: 82] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/20/2005] [Accepted: 09/20/2005] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Neurite extension is essential for wiring the nervous system during development. Although several factors are known to regulate neurite outgrowth, the underlying mechanisms remain unclear. Here, we provide evidence for a role of phosphatidylinositol transfer protein-alpha (PlTPalpha) in neurite extension in response to netrin-1, an extracellular guidance cue. PlTPalpha interacts with the netrin receptor DCC (deleted in colorectal cancer) and neogenin. Netrin-1 stimulates PlTPalpha binding to DCC and to phosphatidylinositol (5) phosphate [Pl(5)P], increases its lipid-transfer activity and elevates hydrolysis of phosphatidylinositol bisphosphate (PlP2). In addition, the stimulated PIP2 hydrolysis requires PlTPalpha. Furthermore, cortical explants of PlTPalpha mutant mice are defective in extending neurites in response to netrin-1. Commissural neurons from chicken embryos expressing a dominant-negative PlTPalpha mutant show reduced axon outgrowth. Morpholino-mediated knockdown of PlTPalpha expression in zebrafish embryos leads to dose-dependent defects in motor-neuron axons and reduced numbers of spinal-cord neurons. Taken together, these results identify a crucial role for PlTPalpha in netrin-1-induced neurite outgrowth, revealing a signalling mechanism for DCC/neogenin and PlTPalpha regulation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yi Xie
- Institute of Molecular Medicine & Genomics and Department of Neurology, Medical College of Georgia, Augusta, GA 30912, USA
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49
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Abstract
Lysophosphatidic acid (LPA) elicits diverse cellular responses through cell surface LPA receptors in nervous system-derived cells and cell lines. The developing nervous system is one of the major loci for LPA receptor expression. Recent studies have also revealed that metabolic pathways of LPA are present in the nervous system. A growing body of literature suggests a crucial role for LPA in neuronal development processes, including neurogenesis, neuronal migration, neuritogenesis, and myelination.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nobuyuki Fukushima
- Department of Biochemistry, Hokkaido University Graduate School of Medicine, N15W7, Kita-ku, Sapporo 060-8638, Japan
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50
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Barallobre MJ, Pascual M, Del Río JA, Soriano E. The Netrin family of guidance factors: emphasis on Netrin-1 signalling. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2005; 49:22-47. [PMID: 15960985 DOI: 10.1016/j.brainresrev.2004.11.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 166] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/29/2004] [Revised: 10/14/2004] [Accepted: 11/29/2004] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
During the development of the nervous system, neurons respond to the coordinated action of a variety of attractive and repulsive signals from the embryonic environment. Netrins form a family of extracellular proteins that regulate the migration of neurons and axonal growth cones. These proteins are bifunctional signals that are chemoattractive for some neurons and chemorepellent for others. Netrins mainly interact with the specific receptors DCC and UNC-5 family. To date, several Netrins have been described in mouse and humans: Netrin-1, -3/NTL2, -4/beta and G-Netrins. Netrin-1 is the most studied member of the family. It is involved in the development many projections of the nervous system. When Netrin-1 interacts with its specific receptors, a cascade of local cytoplasmic events is triggered. Several signal transduction pathways and effector molecules have been implicated in the response to Netrin-1: small Rho-GTPases, MAP-Kinases, second messengers and the Microtubule Associated Protein 1B (MAP1B).
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Affiliation(s)
- María J Barallobre
- Department of Cell Biology and IRBB-Barcelona Science Park, University of Barcelona, Barcelona E-08028, Spain.
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