Human monkeypox: an emerging zoonosis

A cross-sectional investigation of factors influencing mpox vaccine hesitancy for students in Southwest China

From July to September 2023, China reported over 1, 400 confirmed cases of mpox transmitted mainly through sexual contact between males. Meanwhile, the percentage of men who have sex with men at universities in southwestern China is increasing every year, which is likely to lead to a potential spread of mpox on campuses. Vaccination is an effective preventive measure against infectious diseases, this study examined the willingness of university students in Southwest China to receive the mpox vaccine and analyzed the factors influencing their decision. A cross-sectional survey was conducted among 7311 university students from 10 universities in Southwest China between August 13 and September 1, 2023. The survey revealed a hesitancy rate of 56.13% toward the mpox vaccine, with the most common reason being concerns about vaccine safety (1407/4104, 34.29%). Univariate analysis identified 13 variables that significantly differed between the vaccine acceptance and vaccine hesitancy groups. Multivariate logistic regression analyses indicated protective factors for vaccine hesitancy, such as sexually transmitted diseases, previous knowledge about mpox, frequent information about mpox, people can get reinfection of mpox, and worries about mpox endemic in China. Additionally, the confidence and convenience dimensions in the 3Cs model were identified as risk factors for mpox vaccine hesitancy. This study found a high rate of vaccine hesitancy among university students in Southwest China regarding the mpox vaccine. Collaboration between university and healthcare departments is recommended to address mpox vaccine hesitancy among college students, thereby promoting their willingness to receive the mpox vaccine.

Comparative Analysis of 2022 Outbreak MPXV and Previous Clade II MPXV

The 2022-2024 outbreak of MPOX is an important worldwide public health issue that has triggered significant concerns in the scientific community. MPOX is caused by monkeypox virus (MPXV) belonging to the Poxviridae family. The study of MPXV presents a multifaceted challenge due to the diverse viral formThis study was supported by ISIDORe consortium and Agencia Estatal de Investigación.s produced by this pathogen. Notably the intracellular mature viruses (MVs) primarily contribute to localized lesions and host-to-host transmission, while the extracellular enveloped viruses (EVs) are associated with systemic infection. Clinically, MPOX manifests as a vesiculopustular rash that initially emerges on the face and trunk, subsequently spreading throughout the body, with heightened severity observed in immunocompromised individuals. Results obtained in this manuscript indicate that the 2022 outbreak MPXV has a significantly slower viral cycle compared with previous Clade II strains, with WRAIR 7-61 being more intermediate and USA 2003 producing highest viral titers. Additionally, proteomic and phospho-proteomic analysis displays differences in protein expression between these three strains. These findings highlight key differences between the current Lineage B.1 MPXV and previous strains. Further studies will be undertaken to demonstrate if these differences are important for the apparent increased human-to-human transmission mechanisms observed in the Clade IIb MPXV outbreak.

International external quality assessment study for detection of monkeypox virus by PCR supporting laboratory preparedness during the 2022-2023 mpox outbreak and beyond

BACKGROUND

Diagnostic capabilities and correspondent External Quality Assessments (EQA) are key for outbreak preparedness. To support diagnostic facilities with a quality assessment of newly established monkeypox virus (MPXV) molecular diagnostic workflows, Quality Control for Molecular Diagnostics (QCMD) and the Bundeswehr Institute of Microbiology (IMB) piloted an international EQA study conducting four challenges from autumn 2022 to summer 2023 during the global mpox outbreak.

OBJECTIVES

To assess the performance (sensitivity/specificity) of molecular assays used by diagnostic laboratories.

STUDY DESIGN

Inactivated EQA panels were prepared and distributed containing seven samples of clade Ia and clade IIb MPXV strains at different viral concentrations, two specificity controls with other zoonotic orthopoxviruses (vaccinia and cowpox virus) and a negative control. Assessment was based on reported qualitative testing results.

RESULTS

In this outbreak-related EQA study, a total of 192 laboratories from 37 countries reported 346 qualitative datasets. Overall, core samples were correctly detected by approximately 92 % of participants in all four challenges. While sensitivity performance was acceptable in at least 90 % of datasets correctly reported even for educational MPXV-positive samples with low viral concentration [102 genome equivalents (GE)/mL], several laboratories reported the educational specificity controls as false positives or were unable to differentiate MPXV from related orthopoxviruses.

CONCLUSIONS

Mpox is now a globally occurring infection with a demand for quality-assured diagnostic capabilities. The newly established EQA scheme presented here, offers a multi-purpose panel for orthopoxviruses with a focus on MPXV which will continue to ensure diagnostic quality in clinical settings with up-to-date sample panels.

Assessing vaccine strategies for mpox outbreak in New York City using an age-structure model

BACKGROUND

Since May 7 2022, mpox has been endemic in many countries which has attracted the attention of health authorities in various countries and made control decisions, in which vaccination is the mainstream strategy. However, the shortage of vaccine doses and the reduction of protective efficacy have led to unresolved issues such as vaccine allocation decisions and evaluation of transmission scale.

METHODS

We developed an epidemiological model to describe the prevalence of the mpox virus in New York City and calibrated the model to match surveillance data from May 19 to November 3, 2022. Finally, we adjusted the model to simulate and compare several scenarios of non-vaccination and pre-pandemic vaccination.

RESULTS

Relative to the status quo, if vaccination is not carried out, the number of new infections increases to about 385%, and the transmission time will be extended to about 350%, while if vaccinated before the epidemic, the number of new infections decreases to 94.2-96%.

CONCLUSIONS

The mpox outbreak in New York City may be linked to the Pride event. However, with current vaccine coverage, there will be no more large-scale outbreaks of mpox, even if there is another similar activity. For areas with limited vaccines, priority is given to high-risk groups in the age group [34-45] years as soon as possible.

Computational drug repurposing for viral infectious diseases: a case study on monkeypox

The traditional method of drug reuse or repurposing has significantly contributed to the identification of new antiviral compounds and therapeutic targets, enabling rapid response to developing infectious illnesses. This article presents an overview of how modern computational methods are used in drug repurposing for the treatment of viral infectious diseases. These methods utilize data sets that include reviewed information on the host's response to pathogens and drugs, as well as various connections such as gene expression patterns and protein-protein interaction networks. We assess the potential benefits and limitations of these methods by examining monkeypox as a specific example, but the knowledge acquired can be applied to other comparable disease scenarios.

Supervised screening of Tecovirimat-like compounds as potential inhibitors for the monkeypox virus E8L protein

Monkeypox virus (MPXV) is a budding public health threat worldwide, and there lacks a personalized drug availability to treat MPXV infections. Tecovirimat, an antiviral drug against pox viruses, is recently confirmed to be effective against the MPXV in vitro using nanomolar concentrations. Therefore, the current study considers Tecovirimat as a reference compound for a machine learning-based guided screening to scan bioactive compounds from the DrugBank with similar chemical features or moieties as the Tecovirimat to inhibit the MPXV E8L surface binding protein. We used AlphaFold2 to model the E8L's 3D structure, followed by the conformational activity investigation of shortlisted drugs through computational structural biology approaches, including molecular docking and molecular dynamics simulations. As a result, we have shortlisted five drugs named ABX-1431, Alflutinib, Avacopan, Caspitant, and Darapalib that effectively engage the MPXV surface binding protein. Furthermore, the affinity of the proposed drugs is relatively higher than the Tecovirimat by having higher docking scores, establishing more hydrogen and hydrophobic bonds, engaging key residues in the target's structure, and exhibiting stable molecular dynamics.Communicated by Ramaswamy H. Sarma.

Exploring the chemical space for potential inhibitors against cell surface binding protein of Mpox virus using molecular fingerprint based screening approach

Mpox virus is the latest member of the Poxviridae family of which small pox virus is a member. Monekypox virus has led to thousands of infections across the globe. Poxvirus gains entry into the cell making use of glycosaminoglycans like chondroitin sulphate and heparan sulphate. The interaction of the Mpox virus protein E8L also called cell surface binding protein is crucial for host cell attachment, membrane fusion and viral entry into the host cell leading to establishment of infection thus making this protein a very attractive therapeutic target. In this study we have tried to utilize the chondroitin sulphate binding groove present in the protein and identify molecules which are structurally similar to chondroitin sulphate. These molecules can thus occupy the same pocket but with a better binding affinity than chondroitin sulphate in order to outcompete the latter molecule from binding to the E8L protein and thus prevent it from performing its function. This study may pave the way for development of highly efficient therapeutics against the Mpox virus and further curb its infective potential.Communicated by Ramaswamy H. Sarma.

Co-circulation of monkeypox virus subclades Ia and Ib in Kinshasa Province, Democratic Republic of the Congo, July to August 2024

Between January and August 2024, mpox cases have been reported in nearly all provinces of the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC). Monkeypox virus genome sequences were obtained from 11 mpox cases' samples, collected in July-August 2024 in several health zones of Kinshasa. Characterisation of the sequences showed subclades Ia and Ib co-circulating in the Limete health zone, while phylogenetic analyses suggested multiple introductions of the two subclades in Kinshasa. This illustrates the growing complexity of Clade I mpox outbreaks in DRC.

An effectiveness study of vaccination and quarantine combination strategies for containing mpox transmission on simulated college campuses

The ongoing transmission of mpox in specific countries and regions necessitates urgent action. It is essential to implement targeted containment strategies that concentrate on high-risk populations and critical locations, such as college campuses, to effectively curb the spread of mpox. This study is dedicated to evaluating the performance of various vaccination and quarantine strategies in curbing the spread of mpox and estimating the outbreak risk. To accomplish this, we constructed a stochastic, agent-based, discrete-time susceptible-latent-infectious-recovered (SLIR) model, to examine mpox transmission on a simulated college campus. Our findings reveal that relying solely on PEP is insufficient in containing mpox effectively. To bolster the population immunity and protect the vulnerable, pre-exposure vaccination among high-risk populations prior to an outbreak is imperative. Our study demonstrates that a pre-exposure vaccination rate of 50% in high-risk populations can led to a remarkable 74.2% reduction of infections. This translated to a mere 1.0% cumulative infection incidence in the overall population. In cases where the desired vaccination coverage is not attainable, enhancing case detection and isolation measures can serve as an effective emergency response to contain mpox outbreaks. For pre-exposure vaccination coverage of 20% or lower, a 40% isolation ratio is necessary to keep the cumulative number of infections in check. However, when the coverage exceeds 30%, a reduced isolation ratio of 20% becomes sufficient to manage the outbreak effectively. These insights underscore the importance of strategic pre-exposure vaccination in conjunction with robust surveillance and isolation protocols to safeguard public health and prevent the escalation of mpox outbreaks.

Ocular manifestations of mpox

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

To highlight the clinical features of mpox with an emphasis on ocular manifestations and to review treatment options for this re-emerging infectious disease.

RECENT FINDINGS

Ocular involvement of mpox varies by clade. The most recent 2022 outbreak appears to be associated with fewer conjunctivitis cases compared to previous outbreaks. However, the ocular findings occurring during this newly emerging clade can be visually threatening and include cases of keratitis, rapidly progressing scleritis, and necrotizing periorbital rashes.

SUMMARY

Ocular mpox is an important clinical feature of systemic mpox virus (MPXV) infection. Heightened clinical suspicion allows for a timely diagnosis and the initiation of antiviral treatment, when appropriate. Randomized clinical trials for mpox systemic and ocular treatment efficacy are lacking. Prior clinical experience with smallpox and in-vitro mpox data support the use of systemic antivirals such as tecovirimat, cidofovir, brincidofovir and topical use of trifluridine in ocular mpox management, though treatment-resistant infection can occur and portend a poor prognosis.

Assessment of the knowledge of healthcare workers on monkeypox in Nigeria

Background

Monkeypox, a re-emerging zoonotic disease caused by the monkeypox virus (MPXV), poses a public health challenge in Nigeria. To effectively combat this disease, it is essential to assess the knowledge of healthcare workers (HCWs) in Nigeria concerning monkeypox outbreak.

Methods

A cross-sectional web-based survey with 609 healthcare workers in Nigeria was conducted using a structured questionnaire to assess their knowledge of monkeypox. Data were coded and analyzed with Microsoft Excel and Python in Anaconda Jupyter Notebook.

Results

The majority of respondents (n=318, 52.2%) had good knowledge of MPXV but also had knowledge gaps regarding certain symptoms and disease similarities. Interestingly, respondents were completely unaware of the possibility of sexual transmission of the disease. However, they recognized the possible significant impact of monkeypox on the social and economic lifestyle of Nigerians (n=582, 95.6%, adjOR=21.181, 95% CI: 14.450-31.051). Respondents had mixed knowledge regarding the use of smallpox vaccines and antiviral agents for monkeypox prevention and treatment. Furthermore, a significant proportion (n=526, 86.4%, adjOR=0.159, 95% CI: 0.126-0.201) attributed the outbreak to bioterrorism. The logistic regression highlighted a strong influence of academic qualification, type of healthcare provider, years of experience, and geopolitical zone of practice, on monkeypox knowledge in Nigeria.

Conclusion

The study highlights the importance of continuous education for healthcare professionals in Nigeria to improve monkeypox outbreak management. Despite their moderate performance, there are knowledge gaps in critical areas among HCWs, necessitating further research to explore reasons and influencing factors for knowledge levels.

A review on computational studies and bioinformatics analysis of potential drugs against monkeypox virus

Monkeypox, a viral disease that is caused by monkeypox virus and occurs mainly in central and western Africa. However, recently it is spreading worldwide and took the focus of the scientific world towards it. Therefore, we made an attempt to cluster all the related information that may make it easy for the researchers to get the information easily and carry out their research smoothly to find prophylaxis against this emerging virus. There are very few researches found available on monkeypox. Almost all the studies were focused on smallpox virus and the recommended vaccines and therapeutics for monkeypox virus were originally developed for smallpox virus. Though these are recommended for emergency cases, they are not fully effective and specific against monkeypox. For this, here we also took the help of bioinformatics tools to screen potential drug candidates against this growing burden. Some potential antiviral plant metabolites, inhibitors and available drugs were scrutinized that can block the essential survival proteins of this virus. All the compounds Amentoflavone, Pseudohypericin, Adefovirdipiboxil, Fialuridin, Novobiocin and Ofloxacin showed elite binding efficiency with suitable ADME properties and Amentoflavone and Pseudohypericin showed stability in MD simulation study indicating their potency as probable drugs against this emerging virus.Communicated by Ramaswamy H. Sarma.

The Fading of the Mpox Outbreak Among Men Who Have Sex With Men: A Mathematical Modelling Study

BACKGROUND

In the Netherlands, the number of mpox cases started declining before mpox vaccination was initiated. Most cases were men who have sex with men (MSM). We investigated whether the decline in mpox could be attributed to infection-induced immunity or behavioral adaptations.

METHODS

We developed a transmission model and accounted for possible behavioral adaptations: fewer casual partners and shorter time until MSM with mpox refrain from sexual contacts.

RESULTS

Without behavioral adaptations, the peak in modelled cases matched observations, but the decline was less steep than observed. With behavioral adaptations in the model, we found a decline of 16%-18% in numbers of casual partners in June and 13%-22% in July 2022. Model results showed a halving of the time before refraining from sex. When mpox vaccination started, 57% of MSM with very high sexual activity in the model had been infected. Model scenarios revealed that the outbreak could have waned by November 2022 even without vaccination.

CONCLUSIONS

The limited duration of the mpox outbreak in the Netherlands can be ascribed primarily to infection-induced immunity among MSM with high sexual activity levels. The decline was accelerated by behavioral adaptations. Immunity among those most sexually active is essential to impede mpox resurgence.

Willingness to receive mpox vaccine among men who have sex with men: a systematic review and meta-analysis

BACKGROUND

Since May 2022, mpox outbreaks have been occurring in non-mpox endemic areas, with the main population affected being men who have sex with men (MSM). Outbreak prevention and control depend not only on the effectiveness of vaccines but also on people's willingness to receive these vaccines. Currently, there is lack of synthesis on the overall rates and influence factors of MSMs' willingness to vaccinate against mpox. Therefore, we systematically reviewed studies that assessed the willingness of MSM to receive mpox vaccine.

METHODS

Studies reporting mpox vaccination intentions among MSM were included by searching five databases (PubMed, Web of Science, EMBASE, CINAHL, and SCOPUS) from inception to May 12, 2024. The quality of the included literature was assessed using Joanna Briggs Institute's critical appraisal tool. The data analysis software is Stata17. The systematic review has been registered with Prospero (registration ID: CRD42023452357).

RESULTS

Twenty cross-sectional studies were included in the review. Meta-analysis results showed that the pooled willingness rate of vaccinate against mpox was 77.0% (95% CI: 73-81%, I2 = 99.4%). According to subgroup analysis, study countries (P = 0.002), research sample size (P = 0.001), and whether participants were infected with HIV (P = 0.002) may be sources of heterogeneity. The results of the meta-analysis of influencing factors showed that more number of sexual partners (OR: 2.24, 95%CI: 1.86-2.69), pre-exposure prophylaxis use (OR: 6.04, 95%CI: 4.80-7.61), history of sexually transmitted infections (OR: 2.96, 95%CI: 2.33-3.76), confidence in the vaccine's effectiveness (OR: 2.79, 95%CI: 2.04-3.80) and safety (OR: 10.89, 95%CI: 5.22-22.72), fear of mpox infection (OR: 2.47, 95%CI: 2.11-2.89) and epidemics (OR: 2.87, 95%CI: 2.22-3.70), high mpox knowledge (OR: 2.35, 95%CI: 1.51-3.66), and the belief that people at high risk should be prioritized for vaccination (OR: 3.09, 95%CI: 1.40-6.84) were the facilitators of vaccine willingness. In addition, as a secondary outcome, meta-analysis results showed a pooled unwillingness rate of 16% (95% CI: 13-20%, I2 = 98.1%, 9 studies).

CONCLUSION

Willingness to vaccinate mpox was high among MSM, but some participants still had negative attitudes towards vaccination. Therefore, the Ministry of Public Health should develop targeted and effective strategies against those influencing factors to prevent and manage mpox outbreaks.

Mpox infection in animals: A systematic review and meta-analysis

Mpox is a zoonotic disease that became epidemic in multiple countries in 2022. There is a lack of published systematic reviews on natural animal infection due to Mpox. We performed a systematic literature review with meta-analysis to assess animal Mpox prevalence. We performed a random-effects model meta-analysis to calculate the pooled prevalence and 95% confidence interval (95%CI) for prevalence studies. After the screening, 15 reports were selected for full-text assessment and included in qualitative and quantitative analyses. Ten reports assessed Mpox infection by molecular or serological tests (n = 2680), yielding a pooled prevalence of 16.0% (95%CI: 3.0-29.0%) for non-human primates; 8.0% (95%CI: 4.0-12.0%) for rodents and 1.0% (95%CI: 0.0-3.0%) for shrews. Further studies in other animals are required to define the extent and importance of natural infection due to Mpox. These findings have implications for public human and animal health. OneHealth approach is critical for prevention and control.

Exploring the dynamics of monkeypox transmission with data-driven methods and a deterministic model

Introduction

Mpox (formerly monkeypox) is an infectious disease that spreads mostly through direct contact with infected animals or people's blood, bodily fluids, or cutaneous or mucosal lesions. In light of the global outbreak that occurred in 2022-2023, in this paper, we analyzed global Mpox univariate time series data and provided a comprehensive analysis of disease outbreaks across the world, including the USA with Brazil and three continents: North America, South America, and Europe. The novelty of this study is that it delved into the Mpox time series data by implementing the data-driven methods and a mathematical model concurrently-an aspect not typically addressed in the existing literature. The study is also important because implementing these models concurrently improved our predictions' reliability for infectious diseases.

Methods

We proposed a traditional compartmental model and also implemented deep learning models (1D- convolutional neural network (CNN), long-short term memory (LSTM), bidirectional LSTM (BiLSTM), hybrid CNN-LSTM, and CNN-BiLSTM) as well as statistical time series models: autoregressive integrated moving average (ARIMA) and exponential smoothing on the Mpox data. We also employed the least squares method fitting to estimate the essential epidemiological parameters in the proposed deterministic model.

Results

The primary finding of the deterministic model is that vaccination rates can flatten the curve of infected dynamics and influence the basic reproduction number. Through the numerical simulations, we determined that increased vaccination among the susceptible human population is crucial to control disease transmission. Moreover, in case of an outbreak, our model showed the potential for epidemic control by adjusting the key epidemiological parameters, namely the baseline contact rate and the proportion of contacts within the human population. Next, we analyzed data-driven models that contribute to a comprehensive understanding of disease dynamics in different locations. Additionally, we trained models to provide short-term (eight-week) predictions across various geographical locations, and all eight models produced reliable results.

Conclusion

This study utilized a comprehensive framework to investigate univariate time series data to understand the dynamics of Mpox transmission. The prediction showed that Mpox is in its die-out situation as of July 29, 2023. Moreover, the deterministic model showed the importance of the Mpox vaccination in mitigating the Mpox transmission and highlighted the significance of effectively adjusting key epidemiological parameters during outbreaks, particularly the contact rate in high-risk groups.

A bioinformatics approach to systematically analyze the molecular patterns of monkeypox virus-host cell interactions

Monkeypox has been spreading worldwide since May 2022, when the World Health Organization (WHO) declared the outbreak a "public health emergency of international concern." The spread of monkeypox has posed a serious threat to the health of people around the world, but few studies have been conducted, and the molecular mechanism of monkeypox after infection remains unclear. We therefore implemented a transcriptome analysis to identify signaling pathways and biomarkers in monkeypox-infected cells to help understand monkeypox-host cell interactions. In this study, datasets GSE36854 and GSE11234 were obtained from GEO. Of these, 84 significantly different genes were identified in the dataset GSE36854, followed by KEGG, GO analysis protein-protein interaction (PPI) construction, and Hub gene extraction. We also analyzed the expression regulation of hub genes and screened for drugs targeting hub genes. The results showed that monkeypox-infected cells significantly activated the cellular immune response. The top 10 hub genes are IER3, IFIT2, IL11, ZC3H12A, EREG, IER2, NFKBIE, FST, IFIT1 and AREG. AP-26113 and itraconazole can be used to counteract the inhibitory effect of monkeypox on IFIT1 and IFIT2 and serve as candidate drugs for the treatment of monkeypox virus infection. IRF1 may also be a transcription factor of IFIT. Our results provide a new entry point for understanding how monkeypox virus interacts with its host.

Mpox (Monkeypox) Virus and Its Co-Infection with HIV, Sexually Transmitted Infections, or Bacterial Superinfections: Double Whammy or a New Prime Culprit?

Epidemiologic studies have established that mpox (formerly known as monkeypox) outbreaks worldwide in 2022-2023, due to Clade IIb mpox virus (MPXV), disproportionately affected gay, bisexual, and other men who have sex with men. More than 35% and 40% of the mpox cases suffer from co-infection with HIV and sexually transmitted infections (STIs) (e.g., Chlamydia trachomatis, Neisseria gonorrhoeae, Treponema pallidum, and herpes simplex virus), respectively. Bacterial superinfection can also occur. Co-infection of MPXV and other infectious agents may enhance disease severity, deteriorate outcomes, elongate the recovery process, and potentially contribute to the morbidity and mortality of the ensuing diseases. However, the interplays between MPXV and HIV, bacteria, other STI pathogens and host cells are poorly studied. There are many open questions regarding the impact of co-infections with HIV, STIs, or bacterial superinfections on the diagnosis and treatment of MPXV infections, including clinical and laboratory-confirmed mpox diagnosis, suboptimal treatment effectiveness, and induction of antiviral drug resistance. In this review article, we will discuss the progress and knowledge gaps in MPXV biology, antiviral therapy, pathogenesis of human MPXV and its co-infection with HIV, STIs, or bacterial superinfections, and the impact of the co-infections on the diagnosis and treatment of mpox disease. This review not only sheds light on the MPXV infection and co-infection of other etiologies but also calls for more research on MPXV life cycles and the molecular mechanisms of pathogenesis of co-infection of MPXV and other infectious agents, as well as research and development of a novel multiplex molecular testing panel for the detection of MPXV and other STI co-infections.

"Mpox in MSM: Tackling Stigma, Minimizing Risk Factors, Exploring Pathogenesis, and Treatment Approaches"

Mpox is a zoonotic disease caused by the monkeypox virus (MPV), primarily found in Central and West African countries. The typical presentation of the disease before the 2022 mpox outbreak includes a febrile prodrome 5-13 days post-exposure, accompanied by lymphadenopathy, malaise, headache, and muscle aches. Unexpectedly, during the 2022 outbreak, several cases of atypical presentations of the disease were reported, such as the absence of prodromal symptoms and the presence of genital skin lesions suggestive of sexual transmission. As per the World Health Organization (WHO), as of March 20, 2024, 94,707 cases of mpox were reported worldwide, resulting in 181 deaths (22 in African endemic regions and 159 in non-endemic countries). The United States Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) reports a total of 32,063 cases (33.85% of total cases globally), with 58 deaths (32.04% of global deaths) due to mpox. Person-to-person transmission of mpox can occur through respiratory droplets and sustained close contact. However, during the 2022 outbreak of mpox, a high incidence of anal and perianal lesions among MSMs indicated sexual transmission of MPV as a major route of transmission. Since MSMs are disproportionately at risk for HIV transmission, this review discusses the risk factors, transmission patterns, pathogenesis, vaccine, and treatment options for mpox among MSM and people living with HIV (PLWH). Furthermore, we provide a brief perspective on the evolution of the MPV in immunocompromised people like PLWH.

Predicting vaccine effectiveness for mpox

The Modified Vaccinia Ankara vaccine developed by Bavarian Nordic (MVA-BN) was widely deployed to prevent mpox during the 2022 global outbreak. This vaccine was initially approved for mpox based on its reported immunogenicity (from phase I/II trials) and effectiveness in animal models, rather than evidence of clinical efficacy. However, no validated correlate of protection after vaccination has been identified. Here we performed a systematic search and meta-analysis of the available data to test whether vaccinia-binding ELISA endpoint titer is predictive of vaccine effectiveness against mpox. We observe a significant correlation between vaccine effectiveness and vaccinia-binding antibody titers, consistent with the existing assumption that antibody levels may be a correlate of protection. Combining this data with analysis of antibody kinetics after vaccination, we predict the durability of protection after vaccination and the impact of dose spacing. We find that delaying the second dose of MVA-BN vaccination will provide more durable protection and may be optimal in an outbreak with limited vaccine stock. Although further work is required to validate this correlate, this study provides a quantitative evidence-based approach for using antibody measurements to predict the effectiveness of mpox vaccination.

Cytokine storm in human monkeypox: A possible involvement of purinergic signaling

Some evidence has indicated that monkeypox can induce a cytokine storm. Purinergic signaling is a cell pathway related to the cytokine storm. However, the precise mechanisms that lead to cytokine storms in monkeypox infections and the possible involvement of purinergic signaling in the immune response to this virus remain unknown. In this review article, we aimed to highlight a body of scientific evidence that consolidates the role of the cytokine storm in monkeypox infection and proposes a new hypothesis regarding the roles of purinergic signaling in this immune-mediated mechanism. We further suggested some purinergic signaling modulators to mitigate the deleterious and aggravating effects of immune dysregulation in human monkeypox virus infection by inhibiting P2X3, P2X7, P2Y2, and P2Y12, reducing inflammation, and activating A1 and A2A receptors to promote an anti-inflammatory response.

Factors potentially contributing to the decline of the mpox outbreak in the Netherlands, 2022 and 2023

BackgroundIn 2022 and 2023, a global outbreak of mpox affected mostly gay, bisexual and other men having sex with men (GBMSM). Outbreak control in the Netherlands included isolation, quarantine, post-exposure prophylaxis vaccination and primary preventive vaccination (PPV).AimWe describe the course of the outbreak, the vaccination programme, vaccine effectiveness (VE) of full vaccination against symptomatic disease, and trends in behaviour to generate hypotheses about factors that influenced the outbreak's decline.MethodsIn this observational study, we collected data from public health services on notified cases, number of PPV invitations and PPV doses administered. We calculated PPV uptake and coverage. Trends in behavioural data of GBMSM visiting sexual health centres were analysed for all consultations in 2022. We estimated VE using the screening method.ResultsUntil 31 December 2023, 1,294 mpox cases were reported. The outbreak peaked in early July 2022 and then declined sharply. PPV started on 25 July 2022; in total 29,851 doses were administered, 45.8% received at least one dose, 35.4% were fully vaccinated. The estimated VE was 68.2% (95% CI 4.3-89.5%). We did not observe an evident decrease in high-risk behaviour.DiscussionIt is unlikely that PPV was a driver of the outbreak's decline, as incidence started to decline well before the start of the PPV programme. The possible impact of behavioural change could not be demonstrated with the available indicators, however, the data had limitations, hampering interpretation. We hypothesise that infection-induced immunity in high-risk groups was an important factor explaining the decline.

Monkeypox: From Emerging Trends to Therapeutic Concerns

Monkeypox is a zoonotic viral disease. Monkeypox was first reported in humans about 54 years ago. Prior to the global outbreak, monkeypox was endemic to the rainforests of central and western African countries. In the last three years, increasing numbers of human monkeypox have been reported from various countries. Responding to the severity, monkeypox was declared a Public Health Emergency of International Concern by the World Health Organization. In the absence of approved drugs or clinical studies, repurposed drugs and therapeutic medical countermeasures effective against other orthopoxviruses have been utilized to treat severe human monkeypox cases. Currently, clinical trials are underway exploring the potential therapeutic effectiveness of tecovirimate in human monkeypox cases. Monoclonal antibodies, IFN-β, resveratrol, and 15 triple-targeting FDA-approved drugs represent potential new drug targets for human monkeypox, necessitating further research.

Mpox vaccination and treatment: a systematic review

The Human monkeypox virus (mpox) belongs to the Poxviridae family, characterized by double-stranded DNA. A 2022 outbreak, notably prevalent among men who have sex with men, was confirmed by the World Health Organization. To understand shifting prevalence patterns and clinical manifestations, we conducted a systematic review of recent animal and human studies. We comprehensively searched PubMed, Scopus, Web of Science, Cochrane Library, and Clinicaltrials.gov, reviewing 69 relevant articles from 4,342 screened records. Our analysis highlights Modified Vaccinia Ankara - Bavarian Nordic (MVA-BN)'s potential, though efficacy concerns exist. Tecovirimat emerged as a prominent antiviral in the recent outbreak. However, limited evidence underscores the imperative for further clinical trials in understanding and managing monkeypox.

Monkeypox Infection Causing Conjunctival Vesicles and Anterior Uveitis

Human monkeypox is a zoonosis caused by an orthopoxvirus and the clinical presentation resembles that of smallpox and chickenpox. The disease may start with a prodrome that includes lymphadenopathy, headache, fatigue, and fever, followed by a vesiculo-pustular rash. Ocular manifestations such as conjunctivitis and edema are present in approximately 20% of affected people, with a greater incidence among unvaccinated patients. Corneal involvement has also been reported and can result in corneal scarring and severe forms of keratitis. The natural course of the disease is most often benign and self-limiting, however, in some individuals, especially immunocompromised patients, there is a risk of complications such as bronchopneumonia, encephalitis, and vision loss. Herein, we present a case of a patient with monkeypox which caused conjunctival vesicles and anterior uveitis.

Scenarios of future mpox outbreaks among men who have sex with men: a modelling study based on cross-sectional seroprevalence data from the Netherlands, 2022

BackgroundFollowing the 2022-2023 mpox outbreak, crucial knowledge gaps exist regarding orthopoxvirus-specific immunity in risk groups and its impact on future outbreaks.AimWe combined cross-sectional seroprevalence studies in two cities in the Netherlands with mathematical modelling to evaluate scenarios of future mpox outbreaks among men who have sex with men (MSM).MethodsSerum samples were obtained from 1,065 MSM attending Centres for Sexual Health (CSH) in Rotterdam or Amsterdam following the peak of the Dutch mpox outbreak and the introduction of vaccination. For MSM visiting the Rotterdam CSH, sera were linked to epidemiological and vaccination data. An in-house developed ELISA was used to detect vaccinia virus (VACV)-specific IgG. These observations were combined with published data on serial interval and vaccine effectiveness to inform a stochastic transmission model that estimates the risk of future mpox outbreaks.ResultsThe seroprevalence of VACV-specific antibodies was 45.4% and 47.1% in Rotterdam and Amsterdam, respectively. Transmission modelling showed that the impact of risk group vaccination on the original outbreak was likely small. However, assuming different scenarios, the number of mpox cases in a future outbreak would be markedly reduced because of vaccination. Simultaneously, the current level of immunity alone may not prevent future outbreaks. Maintaining a short time-to-diagnosis is a key component of any strategy to prevent new outbreaks.ConclusionOur findings indicate a reduced likelihood of large future mpox outbreaks among MSM in the Netherlands under current conditions, but emphasise the importance of maintaining population immunity, diagnostic capacities and disease awareness.

A comprehensive review of monkeypox virus and mpox characteristics

Monkeypox virus (MPXV) is the etiological agent of monkeypox (mpox), a zoonotic disease. MPXV is endemic in the forested regions of West and Central Africa, but the virus has recently spread globally, causing outbreaks in multiple non-endemic countries. In this paper, we review the characteristics of the virus, including its ecology, genomics, infection biology, and evolution. We estimate by phylogenomic molecular clock that the B.1 lineage responsible for the 2022 mpox outbreaks has been in circulation since 2016. We interrogate the host-virus interactions that modulate the virus infection biology, signal transduction, pathogenesis, and host immune responses. We highlight the changing pathophysiology and epidemiology of MPXV and summarize recent advances in the prevention and treatment of mpox. In addition, this review identifies knowledge gaps with respect to the virus and the disease, suggests future research directions to address the knowledge gaps, and proposes a One Health approach as an effective strategy to prevent current and future epidemics of mpox.

The need for pre-emptive control strategies for mpox in Asia and Oceania

Introduction

The transmission dynamics of the recent mpox outbreak highlights the lack of infrastructure available to rapidly respond to novel STI outbreaks, of which Asia and Oceania remains particularly susceptible. Here, we simulate outbreaks in this setting and propose the use of pre-emptive vaccination within the men who have sex with men (MSM) community before the arrival and establishment of the virus.

Materials and methods

Using data driven heterogeneous sexual contact networks, we simulated outbreaks of mpox in Singapore, Hong Kong, and Sydney. An individual based SEIR compartmental model was used to simulate epidemic trajectories and the impact of different vaccination uptakes was assessed in their ability to avert or suppress outbreaks upon the arrival of mpox within the MSM populations.

Results

The highly dense sexual networks of Singapore and Sydney experience rapid outbreaks, with infection peaks occurring at day 41 and 23 respectively, compared to Hong Kong which occurs at day 77. Across the simulations with no vaccination, 68.2%-89.7% of the MSM community will become infected with mpox across the different cities, over a simulation period of 1 year. By implementing vaccination strategies, the infection rate across the cities can be reduced to as low as 3.1% of the population (range: 3.1%-82.2%) depending on the implementation and uptake of the vaccine. Vaccination is also extremely effective in slowing the start of the epidemic, delaying the epidemic peak by 36-50 days in Hong Kong, or even preventing the outbreak of mpox.

Discussion

With extremely dense and well-connected sexual contact networks, where 65.2%-83.2% of the population are connected to a super-spreader in the different contact networks, pre-emptive or immediate vaccination upon identification of the first case is strongly recommended to help better manage the outbreak of mpox and prevent potential straining of healthcare systems.

Elucidating the evolution of monkeypox virus genomes through phylo-geo-network and haplogroup analysis

BACKGROUND

As the world settles down from the COVID-19 pandemic, many countries are faced with an unexpected outbreak of monkeypox infection. Monkeypox is a zoonotic disease caused by monkeypox virus (MPXV), which is an enveloped, double stranded DNA virus belonging to the Poxviridae family. Presently, we construct and analyze the phylo-geo-network and the corresponding haplogroups. Presently, we performed the haplogroup analysis with their defining mutations and phylogenetic lineage study along with geographical distributions with the aim to understand the evolutionary path of the MPXV across the world.

RESULTS

Information about 719 full length genomes of MPXV were collected from GISAID repository and the sequences extracted from NCBI. The alignment of 719 MPXV genomes and their subsequent analysis revealed a total of 1530 segregating sites of which 330 were parsimony informative (PI) sites. The variations had a positive value of Tajima's D statistic indicating some mutations being prevalent and hence balancing selection. A total of 39 haplogroups were observed in the phylo-geo-network and their defining mutations along with the evolutionary path has been discussed. The phylo-geo-network revealed the nodal haplogroup is represented by GISAID ID 13889450, haplogroup A1, an isolate from Germany, having a total of 296 identical sequences in the study incident across 22 countries. The localized evolution is highlighted by country specific sequences and haplogroups. USA had a total of 58 genomes and 13 haplogroups as compared to Peru (89 genomes, 7 haplogroups) and Germany (26 genomes, 6 haplogroups).

CONCLUSIONS

The evolution of MPXV can be happening in a localized manner and hence accumulation of variations in the MPXV genomes needs to be monitored in order to be prepared for any possible threats.

Compositional features analysis by machine learning in genome represents linear adaptation of monkeypox virus

Introduction: The global headlines have been dominated by the sudden and widespread outbreak of monkeypox, a rare and endemic zoonotic disease caused by the monkeypox virus (MPXV). Genomic composition based machine learning (ML) methods have recently shown promise in identifying host adaptability and evolutionary patterns of virus. Our study aimed to analyze the genomic characteristics and evolutionary patterns of MPXV using ML methods. Methods: The open reading frame (ORF) regions of full-length MPXV genomes were filtered and 165 ORFs were selected as clusters with the highest homology. Unsupervised machine learning methods of t-distributed stochastic neighbor embedding (t-SNE), Principal Component Analysis (PCA), and hierarchical clustering were performed to observe the DCR characteristics of the selected ORF clusters. Results: The results showed that MPXV sequences post-2022 showed an obvious linear adaptive evolution, indicating that it has become more adapted to the human host after accumulating mutations. For further accurate analysis, the ORF regions with larger variations were filtered out based on the ranking of homology difference to narrow down the key ORF clusters, which drew the same conclusion of linear adaptability. Then key differential protein structures were predicted by AlphaFold 2, which meant that difference in main domains might be one of the internal reasons for linear adaptive evolution. Discussion: Understanding the process of linear adaptation is critical in the constant evolutionary struggle between viruses and their hosts, playing a significant role in crafting effective measures to tackle viral diseases. Therefore, the present study provides valuable insights into the evolutionary patterns of the MPXV in 2022 from the perspective of genomic composition characteristics analysis through ML methods.

The risk of mpox importation and subsequent outbreak potential in Chinese mainland: a retrospective statistical modelling study

BACKGROUND

The 2022-2023 mpox (monkeypox) outbreak has spread rapidly across multiple countries in the non-endemic region, mainly among men who have sex with men (MSM). In this study, we aimed to evaluate mpox's importation risk, border screening effectiveness and the risk of local outbreak in Chinese mainland.

METHODS

We estimated the risk of mpox importation in Chinese mainland from April 14 to September 11, 2022 using the number of reported mpox cases during this multi-country outbreak from Global.health and the international air-travel data from Official Aviation Guide. We constructed a probabilistic model to simulate the effectiveness of a border screening scenario during the mpox outbreak and a hypothetical scenario with less stringent quarantine requirement. And we further evaluated the mpox outbreak potential given that undetected mpox infections were introduced into men who have sex with men, considering different transmissibility, population immunity and population activity.

RESULTS

We found that the reduced international air-travel volume and stringent border entry policy decreased about 94% and 69% mpox importations respectively. Under the quarantine policy, 15-19% of imported infections would remain undetected. Once a case of mpox is introduced into active MSM population with almost no population immunity, the risk of triggering local transmission is estimated at 42%, and would rise to > 95% with over six cases.

CONCLUSIONS

Our study demonstrates that the reduced international air-travel volume and stringent border entry policy during the COVID-19 pandemic reduced mpox importations prominently. However, the risk could be substantially higher with the recovery of air-travel volume to pre-pandemic level. Mpox could emerge as a public health threat for Chinese mainland given its large MSM community.

Integrated Network Analysis of Symptom Clusters Across Monkeypox Epidemics From 1970 to 2023: Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

BACKGROUND

The worldwide spread of monkeypox (mpox) has witnessed a significant increase, particularly in nonendemic countries.

OBJECTIVE

We aimed to investigate the changing clinical symptoms associated with mpox from 1970 to 2023 and explore their interrelations.

METHODS

In this systematic review and meta-analysis, 3 electronic databases were searched for English peer-reviewed studies conducted from January 1970 to April 2023 that reported any symptoms among confirmed mpox cases. We categorized the mpox epidemics into 3 periods: 1970-2002 (period 1, within the African region), 2003-2021(period 2, epidemics outside Africa), and 2022-2023 (period 3, worldwide outbreak). Following PRISMA guidelines, a meta-analysis was performed to estimate the pooled prevalence for each symptom. The correlation among symptoms was analyzed and visualized using network analysis.

RESULTS

The meta-analysis included 61 studies that reported 21 symptoms in 720 patients from period 1, 39 symptoms in 1756 patients from period 2, and 37 symptoms in 12,277 patients from period 3. The most common symptom among patients from all 3 periods was rash (period 1: 92.6%, 95% CI 78.2%-100%; period 2: 100%, 95% CI 99.9%-100%; and period 3: 94.8%, 95% CI 90.9%-98.8%), followed by lymphadenopathy (period 1: 59.8%, 95% CI 50.3%-69.2%; period 2: 74.1%, 95% CI 64.2%-84.1%; and period 3: 61.1%, 95% CI 54.2%-68.1%). Fever (99%, 95% CI 97%-100%), enlarged lymph nodes (80.5%, 95% CI 75.4%-85.0%), and headache (69.1%, 95% CI 4%-100%) were the main symptoms in period 1, with a significant decrease in period 3: 37.9%, 31.2%, and 28.7%, respectively. Chills/rigors (73.3%, 95% CI 60.9%-85.7%), fatigue (68.2%, 95% CI 51.6%-84.8%), and dysphagia/swallowing difficulty (61.2%, 95% CI 10.5%-100%) emerged as primary new symptoms in period 2 and decreased significantly in period 3. Most other symptoms remained unchanged or decreased in period 3 compared to the former 2 periods. Nausea/vomiting had the highest degree of correlation (with 13 symptoms) and was highly positively correlated with lymphadenopathy (r=0.908) and conjunctivitis (r=0.900) in period 2. In contrast, rash and headache were 2 symptoms with the highest degree of correlation (with 21 and 21 symptoms, respectively) in period 3 and were highly positively correlated with fever (r=0.918 and 0.789, respectively).

CONCLUSIONS

The manifestation of symptoms in patients with mpox has become more diverse, leading to an increase in their correlation. Although the prevalence of rash remains steady, other symptoms have decreased. It is necessary to surveil the evolving nature of mpox and the consequential changes in clinical characteristics. Epidemic countries may shift their focus on the potential association among symptoms and the high synergy risk.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

PROSPERO Registration: CRD42023403282; http://tinyurl.com/yruuas5n.

Sensitive and specific CRISPR-Cas12a assisted nanopore with RPA for Monkeypox detection

Monkeypox virus (MPXV) poses a global health emergency, necessitating rapid, simple, and accurate detection to manage its spread effectively. The Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeats (CRISPR) technique has emerged as a promising next-generation molecular diagnostic approach. Here, we developed a highly sensitive and specific CRISPR-Cas12a assisted nanopore (SCAN) with isothermal recombinase polymerase amplification (RPA) for MPXV detection. The RPA-SCAN method offers a sensitivity unachievable with unamplified SCAN while also addressing the obstacles of PCR-SCAN for point-of-care applications. We demonstrated that size-counting of single molecules enables analysis of reaction-time dependent distribution of the cleaved reporter. Our MPXV-specific RPA assay achieved a limit of detection (LoD) of 19 copies in a 50 μL reaction system. By integrating 2 μL of RPA amplifications into a 20 μL CRISPR reaction, we attained an overall LoD of 16 copies/μL (26.56 aM) of MPXV at a 95% confidence level using the SCAN sensor. We also verified the specificity of RPA-SCAN in distinguishing MPXV from cowpox virus with 100% accuracy. These findings suggest that the isothermal RPA-SCAN device is well-suited for highly sensitive and specific Monkeypox detection. Given its electronic nature and miniaturization potential, the RPA-SCAN system paves the way for diagnosing a wide array of other infectious pathogens at the point of care.

Analysing monkeypox epidemic drivers: Policy simulation and multi-index modelling across 39 nations

Background

This study aimed to analyse the drivers of the monkeypox (Mpox) epidemic and policy simulation to support health care policies against the Mpox epidemic.

Methods

We established a three-round selection mechanism for 164 factors using Lasso and negative binomial regression to investigate the correlation between significant drivers and the cumulative confirmed cases of Mpox. Policy simulation for each driver was evaluated, and the varying effects of implementation at different times were examined.

Results

HIV/AIDS prevalence and air transport passengers carried were significant determinants of the risk of the Mpox epidemic across various countries, with regression coefficients of 1.417 and 0.766, respectively. A decrease in HIV/AIDS prevalence by 10, 20, 30, and 40% corresponded to reductions in the number of Mpox cases by 6.28, 6.55, 6.87, and 7.26%, respectively. Similarly, 20, 40, 60, and 80% travel restrictions led to reductions in Mpox cases by 7.16, 15.63, 26.28%, and 41.46%, respectively. Controlling air transport passengers carried in the first month could postpone outbreak onset by 0.5-2.0 months.

Conclusions

Mpox prevention and control policies should primarily focus on travel restrictions during high disease-risk periods and flight suspensions from high-risk nations in combination with regular HIV/AIDS prevention and treatment strategies.

Human mpox: global trends, molecular epidemiology and options for vaccination

The eradication of smallpox and the cessation of vaccination have led to the growth of the susceptible human population to poxviruses. This has led to the increasing detection of zoonotic orthopoxviruses. Among those viruses, monkeypox virus (MPV) is the most commonly detected in Western and Central African regions. Since 2022, MPV is causing local transmission in newly affected countries all over the world. While the virus causing the current outbreak remains part of clade II (historically referred to as West African clade), it has a significant number of mutations as compared to other clade II sequences and is therefore referred to as clade IIb. It remains unclear whether those mutations may have caused a change in the virus phenotype. Vaccine effectiveness data show evidence of a high cross-protection of vaccines designed to prevent smallpox against mpox. These vaccines therefore represent a great opportunity to control human-to-human transmission, provided that their availability has short time-frames and that mistakes from the recent past (vaccine inequity) will not be reiterated.

Clinical and Epidemiological Characteristics of Mpox in HIV-Infected and Uninfected Men Who Have Sex with Men: A Retrospective Study in Lisbon

The resurgence of Mpox, predominantly among men who have sex with men (MSM), has prompted an analysis of its clinical manifestations and epidemiological patterns, particularly in individuals living with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). This retrospective study aims to delineate and compare the clinical presentations and epidemiological characteristics of Mpox among HIV-positive and HIV-negative individuals. A total of 58 confirmed Mpox cases from a dermatology department in Lisbon were analyzed, focusing on mucocutaneous manifestations, systemic symptoms, and laboratory parameters. Our findings indicate no significant difference in disease severity and presentation between HIV-positive and HIV-negative groups, suggesting that HIV status may not be a determinant of Mpox severity, but rather an indicator of increased sexual risk behaviors, a recognized risk factor for Mpox transmission.

Time series analysis and short-term forecasting of monkeypox outbreak trends in the 10 major affected countries

BACKGROUND

Considering the rapidly spreading monkeypox outbreak, WHO has declared a global health emergency. Still in the category of being endemic, the monkeypox disease shares numerous clinical characters with smallpox. This study focuses on determining the most effective combination of autoregressive integrated moving average model to encapsulate time dependent flow behaviour of the virus with short run prediction.

METHODS

This study includes the data of confirmed reported cases and cumulative cases from eight most burdened countries across the globe, over the span of May 18, 2022, to December 31, 2022. The data was assembled from the website of Our World in Data and it involves countries such as United States, Brazil, Spain, France, Colombia, Mexico, Peru, United Kingdom, Germany and Canada. The job of modelling and short-term forecasting is facilitated by the employment of autoregressive integrated moving average. The legitimacy of the estimated models is argued by offering numerous model performance indices such as, root mean square error, mean absolute error and mean absolute prediction error.

RESULTS

The best fit models were deduced for each country by using the data of confirmed reported cases of monkeypox infections. Based on diverse set of performance evaluation criteria, the best fit models were then employed to provide forecasting of next twenty days. Our results indicate that the USA is expected to be the hardest-hit country, with an average of 58 cases per day with 95% confidence interval of (00-400). The second most burdened country remained Brazil with expected average cases of 23 (00-130). The outlook is not much better for Spain and France, with average forecasts of 52 (00-241) and 24 (00-121), respectively.

CONCLUSION

This research provides profile of ten most severely hit countries by monkeypox transmission around the world and thus assists in epidemiological management. The prediction trends indicate that the confirmed cases in the USA may exceed than other contemporaries. Based on the findings of this study, it remains plausible to recommend that more robust health surveillance strategy is required to control the transmission flow of the virus especially in USA.

Biological Characteristics and Pathogenesis of Monkeypox Virus: An Overview

Although the smallpox virus has been eradicated worldwide, the World Health Organization (WHO) has issued a warning about the virus's potential to propagate globally. The WHO labeled monkeypox a world public health emergency in July 2022, requiring urgent prevention and treatment. The monkeypox virus is a part of the Poxviridae family, Orthopoxvirus genus, and is accountable for smallpox, which has killed over a million people in the past. Natural hosts of the virus include squirrels, Gambian rodents, chimpanzees, and other monkeys. The monkeypox virus has transmitted to humans through primary vectors (various animal species) and secondary vectors, including direct touch with lesions, breathing particles from body fluids, and infected bedding. The viral particles are ovoid or brick-shaped, 200-250 nm in diameter, contain a single double-stranded DNA molecule, and reproduce only in the cytoplasm of infected cells. Monkeypox causes fever, cold, muscle pains, headache, fatigue, and backache. The phylogenetic investigation distinguished between two genetic clades of monkeypox: the more pathogenic Congo Basin clade and the West Africa clade. In recent years, the geographical spread of the human monkeypox virus has accelerated despite a paucity of information regarding the disease's emergence, ecology, and epidemiology. Using lesion samples and polymerase chain reaction (PCR), the monkeypox virus was diagnosed. In the USA, the improved Ankara vaccine can now be used to protect people who are at a higher risk of getting monkeypox. Antivirals that we have now work well against smallpox and may stop the spread of monkeypox, but there is no particular therapy for monkeypox.

A Case of Neonatal Monkeypox Treated With Oral Tecovirimat

Since the Monkeypox virus outbreak erupted in May 2022, infection has been reported across all ages. Few cases exist in the medical literature about Monkeypox infection in neonates, and little is known about its clinical manifestations, disease course, or side effects of available antiviral agents in this age group. In this report, we describe the case of a 10-day-old neonate from the southern United States who presented with fevers and generalized papulopustular rash. She was treated empirically as a febrile neonate but mpox infection was suspected early because of the characteristic exanthem and its similarity to her mother's rash that she had developed a few days before the patient's presentation. Oral tecovirimat was initiated on the third day of admission and mpox was later confirmed by polymerase chain reaction analysis. The patient tolerated oral tecovirimat well and experienced a favorable outcome without lasting effects of infection.

Monkeypox: Past, Present, and Future

Monkeypox (Mpox) is a zoonotic disease caused by a virus (monkeypox virus-MPV) belonging to the Poxviridae family. In humans, the disease has an incubation period of 5-21 days and then progresses in two phases, the prodromal phase and the rash phase. The prodromal phase is characterized by non-specific symptoms such as fever, muscle pain, malaise, lymphadenopathy, headache, and chills. Skin lesions appear in the rash phase of the disease. These lesions progress through different stages (macules, papules, vesicles, and pustules). In May 2022, WHO reported an outbreak of human Mpox in several countries which were previously Mpox-free. As per the CDC report of March 01, 2023, a total of 86,231 confirmed cases of Mpox and 105 deaths have been reported from 110 countries and territories across the globe. Notably, more than 90% of these countries were reporting Mpox for the first time. The phylogenetic analysis revealed that this outbreak was associated with the virus from the West African clade. However, most of the cases in this outbreak had no evidence of travel histories to MPV-endemic countries in Central or West Africa. This outbreak was primarily driven by the transmission of the virus via intimate contact in men who have sex with men (MSM). The changing epidemiology of Mpox raised concerns about the increasing spread of the disease in non-endemic countries and the urgent need to control and prevent it. In this chapter, we present all the documented cases of Mpox from 1970 to 2023 and discuss the past, present, and future of MPV.

The Potential Relationship Between Cardiovascular Diseases and Monkeypox

Mpox, a novel epidemic disease, has broken out the period of coronavirus disease 2019 since May 2022, which was caused by the mpox virus. Up to 12 September 2023, there are more than 90,439 confirmed mpox cases in over 115 countries all over the world. Moreover, the outbreak of mpox in 2022 was verified to be Clade II rather than Clade I. Highlighting the significance of this finding, a growing body of literature suggests that mpox may lead to a series of cardiovascular complications, including myocarditis and pericarditis. It is indeed crucial to acquire more knowledge about mpox from a perspective from the clinical cardiologist. In this review, we would discuss the epidemiological characteristics and primary treatments of mpox to attempt to provide a framework for cardiovascular physicians.

Plausible reasons for the resurgence of Mpox (formerly Monkeypox): an overview

Poxviruses are large and diversified viruses that cause an emerging zoonotic disease known as monkeypox (mpox). In the past, mpox predominated primarily in the rural rainforests of Central and West Africa. Recently, the exportation of mpoxv from Africa to other continents has been progressively reported. However, the lack of travel history to Africa in most of the currently reported cases in 2022 promotes the sign of changing epidemiology of this disease. Concerns over the geographic distribution and continued resurgence of mpox is growing. In this review, we addressed the geographic distribution, transmission, reasons for the resurgence of mpox, and vaccination. Although the precise cause of the resurgence in mpox cases is mostly unknown, several suggested factors are believed to be waning immunity, accumulation of unvaccinated people, ecological conditions, risk behaviors of men who have sex with men, and genetic evolution.

Environmental detection and spreading of mpox in healthcare settings: a narrative review

Monkeypox virus (MPXV), which causes Monkeypox (Mpox), has recently been found outside its usual geographic distribution and has spread to 117 different nations. The World Health Organization (WHO) designated the epidemic a Public Health Emergency of International Concern (PHEIC). Humans are at risk from MPXV's spread, which has raised concerns, particularly in the wake of the SARS-CoV-2 epidemic. The risk of virus transmission may rise due to the persistence of MPXV on surfaces or in wastewater. The risk of infection may also increase due to insufficient wastewater treatment allowing the virus to survive in the environment. To manage the infection cycle, it is essential to investigate the viral shedding from various lesions, the persistence of MPXV on multiple surfaces, and the length of surface contamination. Environmental contamination may contribute to virus persistence and future infection transmission. The best possible infection control and disinfection techniques depend on this knowledge. It is thought to spread mainly through intimate contact. However, the idea of virus transmission by environmental contamination creates great concern and discussion. There are more cases of environmental surfaces and wastewater contamination. We will talk about wastewater contamination, methods of disinfection, and the present wastewater treatment in this review as well as the persistence of MPXV on various environmental surfaces.

AI-assisted structural consensus-proteome prediction of human monkeypox viruses isolated within a year after the 2022 multi-country outbreak

IMPORTANCE

The 2022 outbreak of the monkeypox virus already involves, by April 2023, 110 countries with 86,956 confirmed cases and 119 deaths. Understanding an emerging disease on a molecular level is essential to study infection processes and eventually guide drug discovery at an early stage. To support this, we provide the so far most comprehensive structural proteome of the monkeypox virus, which includes 210 structural models, each computed with three state-of-the-art structure prediction methods. Instead of building on a single-genome sequence, we generated our models from a consensus of 3,713 high-quality genome sequences sampled from patients within 1 year of the outbreak. Therefore, we present an average structural proteome of the currently isolated viruses, including mutational analyses with a special focus on drug-binding sites. Continuing dynamic mutation monitoring within the structural proteome presented here is essential to timely predict possible physiological changes in the evolving virus.

Beyond Borders: Monkeypox Case on Madeira Island

Human infection with monkeypox virus (MPXV) is characterized by a pox-like rash in various areas, including the anogenital region, and is accompanied by fever, headaches, fatigue, myalgias, and lymphadenopathy. These symptoms may occur a few days before the rash or simultaneously. Nonspecific and vague symptoms, particularly in the recent outbreak of the MPXV, have led to unrecognized or very mild prodromes, which can delay diagnosis. Diagnosis involves laboratory confirmation through polymerase chain reaction (PCR). The symptomatology of MPX is self-limiting, resolving in about two to four weeks. Therefore, the therapeutic approach includes supportive care, monitoring, intervention for possible complications (e.g., bacterial superinfection, cellulitis, and bronchopneumonia), and the implementation of preventive contact measures.  This clinical case emphasizes the importance of conducting a thorough medical history and maintaining a high level of clinical suspicion, even in the absence of a history of contact with suspected or confirmed cases and in regions without active or suspected infectious cases.

Comprehensive overview of 2022 human monkeypox outbreak and its pathology, prevention, and treatment: A strategy for disease control

The 2022 Monkeypox virus, an evolved DNA strain originating in Africa, exhibits heightened human-to-human transmissibility and potential animal transmission. Its host remains unidentified. While its initial slow transmission rate restrained global impact, 2022 saw a surge in cases, causing widespread concern in over 103 countries by September. This virus's distinctive human-to-human transmission marks a crucial shift, demanding a prompt revaluation of containment strategies. However, the host source for this shift requires urgent research attention. Regrettably, no universal preventive or curative methods have emerged for this evolved virus. Repurposed from smallpox vaccines, only some vaccinations offer a partial defense. Solely one therapeutic drug is available. The article's essence is to provide a comprehensive grasp of the virus's epidemiology, morphology, immune invasion mechanisms, and existing preventive and treatment measures. This knowledge equips researchers to devise strategies against its spread and potential public health implications.

Pathogenicity and virulence of monkeypox at the human-animal-ecology interface

Monkeypox (Mpox) was mostly limited to Central and Western Africa, but recently it has been reported globally. The current review presents an update on the virus, including ecology and evolution, possible drivers of transmission, clinical features and management, knowledge gaps, and research priorities to reduce the disease transmission. The origin, reservoir(s) and the sylvatic cycle of the virus in the natural ecosystem are yet to be confirmed. Humans acquire the infection through contact with infected animals, humans, and natural hosts. The major drivers of disease transmission include trapping, hunting, bushmeat consumption, animal trade, and travel to endemic countries. However, in the 2022 epidemic, the majority of the infected humans in non-endemic countries had a history of direct contact with clinical or asymptomatic persons through sexual activity. The prevention and control strategies should include deterring misinformation and stigma, promoting appropriate social and behavioural changes, including healthy life practices, instituting contact tracing and management, and using the smallpox vaccine for high-risk people. Additionally, longer-term preparedness should be emphasized using the One Health approach, such as systems strengthening, surveillance and detection of the virus across regions, early case detection, and integrating measures to mitigate the socio-economic effects of outbreaks.

Egocentric sexual network analysis among gay and bisexual men who have sex with men with and without mpox infection

OBJECTIVES

Recent outbreaks of the mpox (monkeypox) virus have been detected in dense sexual networks of gay and bisexual men who have sex with men (GBMSM). The objective of this study is to describe and compare the epidemiological and behavioural characteristics, as well as the sexual networks, of GBMSM diagnosed with mild mpox in Spain.

METHODS

A prospective case-control study was conducted in Spain from July 2022 to February 2023. The study targeted a key population of GBMSM aged 18 years or older. Study participants were categorised into cases, those who were diagnosed with mpox virus infection; and controls, those who were not diagnosed. We examined and compared the sexual network characteristics of the two groups-mpox-positive (mpox-P) and mpox-negative (mpox-N) egos-using χ2, t-test and Wilcoxon test to examine the differences between the two groups in each section. Finally, we conducted univariable and multivariable logistic regressions to determine the factors associated with mpox infection.

RESULTS

Among the 105 participants, 35 (33.3%) were mpox-P. Compared with mpox-N, mpox-P respondents more frequently reported syphilis (mpox-P: 31.4%; mpox-N: 12.9%) and HIV (mpox-P: 45.7%; mpox-N: 18.6%), and mpox-P individuals to have had at least one sexual contact with a confirmed mpox case (mpox-P: 62.5%; mpox-N: 8.3%). In the egocentric network analysis, mpox-P respondents had a higher prevalence of group sex with alters (mpox-P: 18.5%; mpox-N: 8.9%) and one-time sexual partners (mpox-P: 46.1%; mpox-N: 31.7%). Multivariable logistic regressions showed that reporting stranger/client ties (adjusted OR (aOR)=10.3, 95% CI 1.39 to 76.6) with alters, being vaccinated for mpox (aOR=0.07, 95% CI 0.02 to 0.24) and tie strength heterogeneity (aOR=0.01, 95% CI 0.00 to 0.42) were associated with mpox infection.

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings highlight the role of demographic, epidemiological and sexual network characteristics in the transmission of mpox virus during the outbreak in Spain. These findings have important implications for future prevention efforts.