Memory for intentions is uniquely associated with instrumental activities of daily living in healthy older adults

Memory in Spina Bifida, from Childhood to Adulthood: A Systematic Review

Background: Spina bifida (SB) is a rare congenital disease characterized by not only physical but also neuropsychological disturbances. Among these neuropsychological impairments, memory deficits are a significant concern, as they substantially hinder aspects of crucial importance in the lives of individuals with SB such as medical needs or daily life activities. The main objective is to conduct a systematic review of the current evidence on the memory deficits in the SB population, including children, adolescents, and adults. Methods: Four databases (PubMed, SCOPUS, Web of Science, and ProQuest) were systematically screened for eligible studies. Results: The present review reveals cognitive difficulties in different memory types among individuals with SB. These deficits, identified in childhood, seem to persist into adulthood. Specifically, impairments are evident in short-term memory, working memory, and long-term memory. The neuropsychological instruments applied in the studies that were included in this systematic review vary, however, most reach the same conclusions. Conclusions: The present findings underscore the importance of incorporating cognitive assessments, particularly those focused on the memory domain, into routine childhood evaluations for individuals with SB. Early identification of these cognitive difficulties allows for the timely implementation of cognitive interventions that could leverage the inherent plasticity of the developing brain, and prevent or delay the onset of these deficits in later adulthood for people with SB, ultimately improving their functionality and quality of life.

Effects of age-based stereotype threat on time-based prospective memory

The present study aimed to investigate the effect of a blatant activation of age-based stereotype threats (ABST) on time-based prospective memory (TBPM) in older adults. A sample of 74 adults from Hong Kong was randomly assigned to one of the two experimental conditions: the stereotyped condition (n = 36) or the neutral condition (n = 38). Participants were asked to read fictitious news reports related to dementia (stereotyped condition) or the importance of English oral skills (neutral condition). After, all participants performed a TBPM task using the Chinese lexical decision task as an ongoing task block. The results indicate a main effect of ABST on TBPM accuracy. Specifically, older adults under a blatant activation of ABST demonstrated lower TBPM accuracy (p < 0.05, ηp2 = 0.08). Further analyses based on age groups demonstrated that TBPM accuracy was only impaired in older participants (aged 70-80 years) (p < 0.05, ηp2 = 0.19). The study, for the first time, provides evidence that ABST can disrupt TBPM performance in older adults, especially when cues are blatantly activated.

Comparison of lifestyle, cognitive function, mental health, and quality of life between hospitalized older adults with COVID-19 and non-COVID-19 in South Korea: a cross-sectional study

BACKGROUND

The coronavirus disease (COVID-19) pandemic has greatly impacted older adults, resulting in many deaths. The impact of lifestyle and mental health on vulnerable groups, such as older adults, can be large and long lasting. Therefore, this study aimed to investigate the effects of COVID-19 confirmation on cognition, lifestyle, mental health, and quality of life in adults aged 55 years.

METHODS

The sample consisted of 111 people in the COVID group and 189 people in the non-COVID group aged over 55 years in South Korea. An online survey was conducted between January and May 2022. Participants responded to the following assessment tools: Yonsei Lifestyle Profile, Prospective and Retrospective Memory (PRMQ), Subjective Memory Complaints Questionnaire (SMCQ), Visual Analogue Scale, Patient Health Questionnaire-9 (PHQ-9), Insomnia Severity Index (ISI), Fear of COVID-19 Scale (FCV-19 S), and the World Health Organization Quality of Life Scale abbreviated version (WHOQOL-BREF). Differences in lifestyle, cognition, depression, anxiety, and quality of life were compared between the two groups.

RESULTS

There were significant differences in physical activity, diet, the total score of the PRMQ, PM (a sub-score of the PRMQ), PHQ-9, Korean version of the ISI (ISI-K), and WHOQOL-BREF scores between the COVID and non-COVID groups. However, there were no significant differences in activity participation, Self-Rating Anxiety Scale (SAS), or FCV-19 S between groups.

CONCLUSIONS

The study confirms that COVID-19 negatively affects memory, physical activity, diet, quality of life, depression, and insomnia in the older adults. Therefore, this study implicated that prevention and intervention strategies required improving the memory, lifestyle, and mental health of older adults with COVID-19.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

The study was conducted in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki, and approved by the Institutional Review Board of Yonsei university in Korea (Registration number: 1041849-202112-SB-226-03, Date of registration: 01042022).

Enhancing neurocognitive health, abilities, networks, & community engagement for older adults with cognitive impairments through technology: a scoping review introducing the ENHANCE Center

PURPOSE

Age associated cognitive impairments (CIs) result in difficulties with a wide range of daily activities. As the older adult population increases, so does the importance of understanding and supporting the needs and disabilities of those with CIs. The Enhancing Neurocognitive Health, Abilities, Networks, and Community Engagement (ENHANCE) Centre was established with a focus on developing assistive technology to support the socialisation, transportation, and prospective memory needs of older adults with CIs. The extent to which relevant literature in these domains existed was unknown.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

A scoping review identified existing research meeting the following criteria: participants aged 50+ years classified as having a CI due to mild cognitive impairment (MCI), traumatic brain injury (TBI), or stroke; and a focus on technology-based support for socialisation, transportation, and/or prospective memory activities.

RESULTS

Qualitative and quantitative data are reported from relevant studies. In addition to few studies available, it was common for studies to include 20 or fewer participants. Most assessed technology interactions at one time and few studies examined longitudinal use and benefit. While each paper examined one aspect of user-centred design, no technologies were reported that underwent all stages of the user-centred design process, from needs assessment to iterative design and usability testing, to efficacy trial.

CONCLUSIONS

Gaps highlight notable directions for future research and the important role ENHANCE can play in addressing the needs and disabilities of older adults with CIs. IMPLICATIONS FOR REHABILITATIONAlthough older adults with common cognitive impairments often experience challenges in the domains of socialisation, transportation, and/or prospective memory, few studies exist that examine assistive technology solutions in these domains.Additional research with more robust designs and larger sample sizes is needed to discover and assess assistive technology solutions for the needs and disabilities of older adults with mild cognitive impairment (MCI), traumatic brain injury (TBI), and post-stroke cognitive impairment (PSCI).The ENHANCE Centre will employ a systematic process of needs assessments, user testing, and efficacy tests to develop novel technology solutions to support the needs of older adults with common cognitive impairment.

Real-world compensatory strategy use in community-dwelling mid-life and older adults: An evaluation of quality

Objective: Older adults often spontaneously engage in compensatory strategies (CS) to support everyday task completion, but factors that influence success of chosen CS remain unclear. This study examines whether real-world prospective memory (PM) task completion is better predicted by CS count or a CS quality rating. Method: Seventy mid-life and older adult participants were presented four novel, real-world PM tasks via remote assessment and encouraged to use their typical CS. The examiner captured detailed information about planned CS at task presentation (T1) and utilized CS at follow-up testing (T2). From this information, count (CS Count; quantity of CS) and quality (CS Quality; rating of CS thoroughness and utility) scores were coded separately for the planned and utilized CS. PM task performance accuracy was also coded (PM Accuracy). Results: Hierarchical regressions revealed planned CS Count and Quality did not predict PM Accuracy. In contrast, the utilized CS Quality predicted a significant amount of PM Accuracy variance over and above CS Count, global cognition, and age (R2 = .47, ΔR2 = .24, ΔF = 29.36, p < .001, f2 = .45). Furthermore, utilized CS Quality accounted for a similar amount of variance in PM Accuracy when utilized CS Count was removed from the model. Conclusions: This study's CS coding system can capture and quantify the quality of strategies, which uniquely predicts real-world PM performance. This coding system may provide researchers with a nuanced CS measure and lead to improved CS interventions designed to support everyday PM performance, such as targeted CS trainings.

Computerized cognitive training for memory functions in mild cognitive impairment or dementia: a systematic review and meta-analysis

Dementia is a common medical condition in the ageing population, and cognitive intervention is a non-pharmacologic strategy to improve cognitive functions. This meta-analysis evaluated the benefits of computerized cognitive training (CCT) on memory functions in individuals with MCI or dementia. The study was registered prospectively with PROSPERO under CRD42022363715 and received no funding. The search was conducted on MEDLINE, Embase, and PsycINFO on Sept 19, 2022, and Google Scholar on May 9, 2023, to identify randomized controlled trials that examined the effects of CCT on memory outcomes in individuals with MCI or dementia. Mean differences and standard deviations of neuropsychological assessment scores were extracted to derive standardized mean differences. Our search identified 10,678 studies, of which 35 studies were included. Among 1489 participants with MCI, CCT showed improvements in verbal memory (SMD (95%CI) = 0.55 (0.35-0.74)), visual memory (0.36 (0.12-0.60)), and working memory (0.37 (0.10-0.64)). Supervised CCT showed improvements in verbal memory (0.72 (0.45-0.98)), visual memory (0.51 (0.22-0.79)), and working memory (0.33 (0.01-0.66)). Unsupervised CCT showed improvement in verbal memory (0.21 (0.04-0.38)) only. Among 371 participants with dementia, CCT showed improvement in verbal memory (0.64 (0.02-1.27)) only. Inconsistency due to heterogeneity (as indicated by I2 values) is observed, which reduces our confidence in MCI outcomes to a moderate level and dementia outcomes to a low level. The results suggest that CCT is efficacious on various memory domains in individuals with MCI. Although the supervised approach showed greater effects, the unsupervised approach can improve verbal memory while allowing users to receive CCT at home without engaging as many healthcare resources.

Older adults' self-reported prospective memory lapses in everyday life: Connections to inflammation and gender

OBJECTIVE

Limited research has focused on the association between inflammatory markers and features of subjective cognitive functioning among older adults. The present work examined links between inflammation and a specific subjective cognitive report: prospective memory (PM), or our memory for future intentions, such as attending an appointment or taking medication.

METHOD

We assessed self-reported PM lapses using a two-week ecological momentary assessment (EMA) diary protocol via smartphone as well as levels of blood-based inflammation among 231 dementia-free older adults (70-90 years, 66% women) enrolled in the Einstein Aging Study.

RESULTS

Overall, PM lapses were largely unrelated to inflammatory markers. However, a significant gender difference was observed in the link between basal levels of interleukin (IL)-8 and PM lapses: higher levels of basal IL-8 were associated with more PM lapses among men (estimate = 0.98, 95%CI: [0.43, 1.53], p < .001) but not women (estimate = -0.03, 95%CI: [-0.45, 0.39], p = .826). No other significant relationships between PM lapses and basal or stimulated (ex vivo) cytokine levels (IL-1β, IL-4, IL-6, IL-8, IL-10, tumor necrosis factor-alpha [TNF-α]) or C-reactive protein (CRP) emerged.

CONCLUSION

Elevated levels of IL-8 in older men may possibly be an early indicator of neurodegeneration that relates to PM performance. Future studies should continue to examine PM and inflammation across genders to identify possible mechanisms through which these constructs may indicate neurodegeneration and dementia risk.

Connecting memory and functional brain networks in older adults: a resting-state fMRI study

Limited research exists on the association between resting-state functional network connectivity in the brain and learning and memory processes in advanced age. This study examined within-network connectivity of cingulo-opercular (CON), frontoparietal control (FPCN), and default mode (DMN) networks, and verbal and visuospatial learning and memory in older adults. Across domains, we hypothesized that greater CON and FPCN connectivity would associate with better learning, and greater DMN connectivity would associate with better memory. A total of 330 healthy older adults (age range = 65-89) underwent resting-state fMRI and completed the Hopkins Verbal Learning Test-Revised (HVLT-R) and Brief Visuospatial Memory Test-Revised (BVMT-R) in a randomized clinical trial. Total and delayed recall scores were assessed from baseline data, and a learning ratio calculation was applied to participants' scores. Average CON, FPCN, and DMN connectivity values were obtained with CONN Toolbox. Hierarchical regressions controlled for sex, race, ethnicity, years of education, and scanner site, as this was a multi-site study. Greater within-network CON connectivity was associated with better verbal learning (HVLT-R Total Recall, Learning Ratio), visuospatial learning (BVMT-R Total Recall), and visuospatial memory (BVMT-R Delayed Recall). Greater FPCN connectivity was associated with better visuospatial learning (BVMT-R Learning Ratio) but did not survive multiple comparison correction. DMN connectivity was not associated with these measures of learning and memory. CON may make small but unique contributions to learning and memory across domains, making it a valuable target in future longitudinal studies and interventions to attenuate memory decline. Further research is necessary to understand the role of FPCN in learning and memory.

The effects of typical ageing on cognitive control: recent advances and future directions

Cognitive control is one of the most fundamental aspects of human life. Its ageing is an important contemporary research area due to the needs of the growing ageing population, such as prolonged independence and quality of life. Traditional ageing research argued for a global decline in cognitive control with age, typically characterised by slowing processing speed and driven by changes in the frontal cortex. However, recent advances questioned this perspective by demonstrating high heterogeneity in the ageing data, domain-specific declines, activity changes in resting state networks, and increased functional connectivity. Moreover, improvements in neuroimaging techniques have enabled researchers to develop compensatory models of neural reorganisation that helps negate the effects of neural losses and promote cognitive control. In this article on typical ageing, we review recent behavioural and neural findings related to the decline in cognitive control among older adults. We begin by reviewing traditional perspectives and continue with how recent work challenged those perspectives. In the discussion section, we propose key areas of focus for future research in the field.

Linking self-perceived cognitive functioning questionnaires using item response theory: The subjective cognitive decline initiative

OBJECTIVE

Self-perceived cognitive functioning, considered highly relevant in the context of aging and dementia, is assessed in numerous ways-hindering the comparison of findings across studies and settings. Therefore, the present study aimed to link item-level self-report questionnaire data from international aging studies.

METHOD

We harmonized secondary data from 24 studies and 40 different questionnaires with item response theory (IRT) techniques using a graded response model with a Bayesian estimator. We compared item information curves to identify items with high measurement precision at different levels of the self-perceived cognitive functioning latent trait. Data from 53,030 neuropsychologically intact older adults were included, from 13 English language and 11 non-English (or mixed) language studies.

RESULTS

We successfully linked all questionnaires and demonstrated that a single-factor structure was reasonable for the latent trait. Items that made the greatest contribution to measurement precision (i.e., "top items") assessed general and specific memory problems and aspects of executive functioning, attention, language, calculation, and visuospatial skills. These top items originated from distinct questionnaires and varied in format, range, time frames, response options, and whether they captured ability and/or change.

CONCLUSIONS

This was the first study to calibrate self-perceived cognitive functioning data of geographically diverse older adults. The resulting item scores are on the same metric, facilitating joint or pooled analyses across international studies. Results may lead to the development of new self-perceived cognitive functioning questionnaires guided by psychometric properties, content, and other important features of items in our item bank. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2023 APA, all rights reserved).

Prospective memory in multiple sclerosis: clinical utility of the Miami Prospective Memory Test

Objective: Multiple sclerosis (MS) is a chronic inflammatory disease of the central nervous system that frequently affects cognition. Persons with MS (PwMS) complain of difficulties with prospective memory (PM), the capacity to remember to perform an intended action at the appropriate moment in the future. The objective of this study was to assess the clinical utility of the Miami Prospective Memory Test (MPMT) in detecting PM deficits in MS. The test is brief, easy to administer and accessible, and allows direct comparison between scores on event- and time-based conditions. A secondary objective was to examine the relationship between PM performance and cognitive functioning. Method: Eighty-four PwMS between 27 and 78 years old were compared to 50 age-, sex- and education-matched healthy adults on the MPMT. Results: Time-based (TB) scores, but not event-based (EB) scores, were significantly lower in PwMS than in healthy adults. The MPMT showed good internal consistency, and correlations were found with disability assessed by the Expanded Disability Status Scale (EDSS). PM was also correlated with memory and executive/attention functioning. Conclusions: This study supports the clinical utility of the MPMT in assessing the presence of PM deficits in PwMS especially under TB constraints.

Memory performance mediates the relationship between depression and independence in instrumental activities of daily living among community-dwelling older adults: Evidence from the China Family Panel Study

Our objective was to examine the link between depression and independence in the instrumental activities of daily living (IADLs) and to explore the mediating role of memory performance through a cross-sectional analysis of a nationally representative sample of community-dwelling older adults in China. In total, 3730 respondents age ≥ 60 (51.7% males) from the 2020 survey of the China Family Panel Study (CFPS) constituted the study sample. Their depressive symptoms, memory performance, and independence in the IADLs were measured. Based on the descriptive statistics, bivariate correlation analysis and bootstrapping mediation analysis were conducted. As hypothesized, independence in the IADLs was negatively related to depression, while it was positively associated with memory performance. Moreover, after controlling for demographic factors, memory performance was demonstrated to be a partial mediator between depression and independence in the IADLs. These findings support the development of clinical interventions which prevent disability or maintain the physical functioning of older adults through alleviating depression and enhancing memory performance.

Longitudinal Predictors of Informant-Rated Everyday Function in Mild Cognitive Impairment

OBJECTIVE

To examine predictors of informant-reported everyday functioning in mild cognitive impairment (MCI) and relations between everyday function and conversion to dementia.

METHODS

Informants of participants (n = 2614) with mild cognitive impairment (MCI) were administered the Functional Activities Questionnaire (FAQ). Changes in dimensions of functional ability as determined by an exploratory factor analysis (EFA) were examined over 3 years and participant predictors of change were examined using multilevel modeling (MLM).

RESULTS

The FAQ consisted of 3 factors, multistep, finance, and memory/orientation daily tasks. Impairment in memory/orientation tasks was significantly higher than impairment in multistep tasks. Worse functioning was associated with greater depression, worse memory, worse speed/EF, higher years of education and identifying as White. There was variability in some of these associations with different FAQ factors. Impairments in financial and memory/orientation daily tasks predicted follow-up conversion to dementia.

CONCLUSIONS

Depression, speed/EF, and memory are consistently associated with domains of everyday functioning. Race, education, and age may be more variability associated with everyday functioning. Specific attention should be paid to subtle declines in the financial and memory/orientation domains as they may uniquely predict future dementia development. Depression may be a modifiable risk factor associated with functional impairment over time.

Prospective memory in adults with down syndrome

Prospective memory (PM) refers to the ability to remember one's intentions (what I must do), at the appropriate time, in the future (when I must do it). The objective of this work is to study the performance of people with Down syndrome (DS) compared to two control groups, matched by mental age and chronological age. For this purpose, an adapted version of the virtual week, which is an ecological test to simulate the functioning of PM in everyday life, was used. The results suggest that people with DS have difficulties in PM that mainly concern the binding (association) between prospective (when to do) and retrospective (what to do) components. Moreover, people with DS perform better in PM when the task is repeated and time-based. These results are discussed in light of studies conducted with other populations.

Factor Structure of the Memory for Intentions Test (MIsT): A Conceptual Replication in Older Adults and People with HIV Disease

OBJECTIVE

The Memory for Intentions Test (MIsT) is a clinical measure of prospective memory that has strong evidence for convergent, discriminative, and ecological validity. This study uses a conceptual replication design to evaluate the latent structure of the MIsT in two parallel samples who commonly experience prospective memory deficits: older adults and people living with HIV disease.

PARTICIPANTS AND METHODS

Study participants included 303 people with HIV disease (ages 18-67) and 267 community-dwelling older adults (ages 50-91). Confirmatory factor analyses of the MIsT were conducted separately in each sample. We evaluated a one-factor model, as well as three two-factor models with the MIsT items loading onto each factor based on cue type, delay interval, or response modality.

RESULTS

The one-factor model provided the best (and most parsimonious) fit to the data in both study samples. All two-factor models also demonstrated good fit statistics, although correlations between the two factors in each model were high and none of the two-factor models provided a significantly better fit than the one-factor model.

CONCLUSIONS

Results of this conceptual replication study provide support for a robust factor structure of the MIsT across older adults and people with HIV disease. A total score for the MIsT provides the most parsimonious solution, although available evidence and theory also support the potential use of subscales (e.g., cue type). Future studies of the MIsT would be useful to determine its psychometrics in different clinical populations and across demographic factors (e.g., race/ethnicity).

Assessment of Neurocognitive Functions, Olfaction, Taste, Mental, and Psychosocial Health in COVID-19 in Adults: Recommendations for Harmonization of Research and Implications for Clinical Practice

OBJECTIVE

To propose a set of internationally harmonized procedures and methods for assessing neurocognitive functions, smell, taste, mental, and psychosocial health, and other factors in adults formally diagnosed with COVID-19 (confirmed as SARS-CoV-2 + WHO definition).

METHODS

We formed an international and cross-disciplinary NeuroCOVID Neuropsychology Taskforce in April 2020. Seven criteria were used to guide the selection of the recommendations' methods and procedures: (i) Relevance to all COVID-19 illness stages and longitudinal study design; (ii) Standard, cross-culturally valid or widely available instruments; (iii) Coverage of both direct and indirect causes of COVID-19-associated neurological and psychiatric symptoms; (iv) Control of factors specifically pertinent to COVID-19 that may affect neuropsychological performance; (v) Flexibility of administration (telehealth, computerized, remote/online, face to face); (vi) Harmonization for facilitating international research; (vii) Ease of translation to clinical practice.

RESULTS

The three proposed levels of harmonization include a screening strategy with telehealth option, a medium-size computerized assessment with an online/remote option, and a comprehensive evaluation with flexible administration. The context in which each harmonization level might be used is described. Issues of assessment timelines, guidance for home/remote assessment to support data fidelity and telehealth considerations, cross-cultural adequacy, norms, and impairment definitions are also described.

CONCLUSIONS

The proposed recommendations provide rationale and methodological guidance for neuropsychological research studies and clinical assessment in adults with COVID-19. We expect that the use of the recommendations will facilitate data harmonization and global research. Research implementing the recommendations will be crucial to determine their acceptability, usability, and validity.

Prospective Memory Training for Healthy Older Adults: A Systematic Review

OBJECTIVES

This review systematically synthesizes existing evidence of prospective memory training for healthy older adults (> 55 years). Existing prospective memory training include strategy-based, process-based and combined regimens. Strategy-based training focuses on different mnemonics to compensate for aging declines in prospective memory. Process-based training aims to restore related cognitive processes to support prospective memory. Combined training utilizes both strategy-based and process-based regimens to enhance prospective memory performance.

METHODS

A total of 349 studies were identified from the Cochrane Library, EBSCO, PsycINFO and PubMed databases.

RESULTS

Using predefined inclusion and exclusion criteria, 11 studies were included in the review. There were six studies of strategy-based training, two studies of process-based training and three studies of combined training.

CONCLUSIONS

Overall, strategy-based training appears to facilitate prospective memory for healthy older adults. However, it is impossible to draw conclusions for process-based and combined training due to the preliminary nature of current evidence.

CLINICAL IMPLICATIONS

Mental imagery or the use of external aids can be useful strategy-based approaches to facilitate prospective memory in older adults. Strategy-based training should target multiple prospective memory phases simultaneously to encourage transfers. Further studies will be required to draw conclusions on the effectiveness of process-based and combined training.

The Chinese version of the Memory for Intentions Test (MIST): development and evaluation of its reliability and concurrent validity

This study aims to develop a simplified Chinese version of the "Memory for Intentions Test" (MIST), evaluate its reliability and concurrent validity, explore the inter-relationships among the MIST variables and the relationships between the MIST variables and socio-demographic factors.

Two hundred healthy, Chinese-speaking adults of the Han community participated in this study. Form A of the Chinese MIST and two prospective items of the Rivermead Behavioural Memory Test, Second Edition (RBMT-II, Chinese version) were administered to all participants to evaluate internal consistency, split-half reliability, and concurrent validity. Twenty of these participants were assessed twice on Form A with a two-week interval to examine test-retest reliability. They were also assessed on both Form A and Form B to examine alternate-form reliability.

The findings of the study indicated good internal consistency (Cronbach's α = .833) and excellent split-half reliability (r = .924-.930) among the six subscales of the Chinese MIST, although the internal consistency was low (Cronbach's α = .129) for individual PM trials. We also found adequate concurrent validity (ρ = .722, p< .001), test-retest reliability (ρ = .716, p < .001), and alternate-form reliability (ρ= .828, p < .001).

The Chinese MIST demonstrated suitable reliability and concurrent validity in the Chinese-speaking population. The present study provides a new standardized prospective memory test for the Chinese population, which would enhance future clinical research in this field on the Chinese mainland.

Prospective Memory and Default Mode Network Functional Connectivity in Normal and Pathological Aging

BACKGROUND

Prospective memory (PM), the ability to execute a previously formed intention given the proper circumstance, has been proven to be vulnerable to Alzheimer's disease. Previous studies have indicated the involvement of the frontoparietal networks; however, it is proposed that PM may also be associated with other neural substrates that support stimulus-dependent spontaneous cognition.

OBJECTIVE

The present study aimed to examine the hypothesis that PM deficit in Alzheimer's disease is related to altered functional connectivity (FC) within the default mode network (DMN).

METHODS

Thirty-four patients with very mild or mild dementia (17 with Alzheimer's disease and 17 with subcortical ischemic vascular disease) and 22 cognitively-normal participants aged above 60 received a computerized PM task and resting-state functional magnetic resonance imaging study. Seed-based functional connectivity analysis was performed at group level within the DMN.

RESULTS

We found that the dementia groups showed worse PM performance and altered FC within the DMN as compared to the normal aging individuals. The FC between the medial prefrontal cortices and precuneus/posterior cingulate cortex was significantly correlated with PM in normal aging, while the FC between the right precuneus and bilateral inferior parietal lobules was correlated with PM in patients with Alzheimer's disease.

CONCLUSION

These findings support a potential role for the DMN in PM, and corroborate that PM deficit in Alzheimer's disease was associated with altered FC within the posterior hubs of the DMN, with spatial patterning different from normal aging.

Using smartphone technology to improve prospective memory functioning: A randomized controlled trial

BACKGROUND

A decline in the ability to perform daily intentions-known as prospective memory-is a key driver of everyday functional impairment in dementia. In the absence of effective pharmacological treatments, there is a need for developing, testing, and optimizing behavioral interventions that can bolster daily prospective memory functioning. We investigated the feasibility and efficacy of smartphone-based strategies for prospective memory in persons with cognitive impairment.

METHODS

Fifty-two older adults (74.79 ± 7.20 years) meeting diagnostic criteria for mild cognitive impairment or mild dementia were enrolled in a 4-week randomized controlled trial. Participants were trained to use a digital voice recorder app or a reminder app to off-load prospective memory intentions. Prospective memory was assessed using experimenter-assigned tasks (e.g., call the laboratory on assigned days), standardized questionnaires, and structured interviews. Secondary dependent measures included days of phone and app usage, acceptability ratings, quality of life, and independent activities of daily living.

RESULTS

Participant ratings indicated that the intervention was acceptable and feasible. Furthermore, after the four-week intervention, participants reported improvements in daily prospective memory functioning on standardized questionnaires (p < 0.001, η_p²  = 0.285) and the structured interview (p < 0.001, d = 1.75). Participants performed relatively well on experimenter-assigned prospective memory tasks (51.7% ± 27.8%), with performance levels favoring the reminder app in Week 1, but reversing to favor the digital recorder app in Week 4 (p = 0.010, η_p²  = 0.079). Correlational analyses indicated that greater usage of the digital recorder or reminder app was associated with better prospective memory performance and greater improvements in instrumental activities of daily living (completed by care partners), even when controlling for condition, age, baseline cognitive functioning, and baseline smartphone experience.

CONCLUSIONS

Older adults with cognitive disorders can learn smartphone-based memory strategies and doing so benefits prospective memory functioning and independence.

Longitudinal declines in event-based, but not time-based, prospective memory among community-dwelling older adults

Age-related deficits in prospective memory (PM) are well established, but it is not known whether PM is stable over time among older adults. In this study, 271 community-dwelling older adults underwent abaseline neuropsychological evaluation and up to three follow-up visits, approximately 2.4 years apart. Mixed effects linear longitudinal models revealed small, but significant linear declines and between-subjects variability in event-based PM performance. There were no changes in performance on measures of time-based PM, retrospective memory, or executive functions. Changes in event-based PM were not associated with age, retrospective memory, executive functions, or everyday functioning. Among older adults, event-based PM appears to be more susceptible to linear declines than does time-based PM, which future research might examine with regard to the possible underlying cognitive mechanisms of cue encoding, monitoring, detection, and retrieval processes.

Prospective Memory and Regional Functional Connectivity in Subcortical Ischemic Vascular Disease

Objectives: Patients with subcortical ischemic vascular disease (SIVD) often have prominent frontal dysfunction. However, it remains unclear how SIVD affects prospective memory (PM), which strongly relies on the frontoparietal network. The present study aimed to investigate PM performance in patients with early stage SIVD as compared to those with Alzheimer's disease (AD) and to older adults with normal cognition, and to explore the neural correlates of PM deficits. Method: Patients with very-mild to mild dementia due to SIVD or AD and normal controls (NC) aged above 60 years were recruited. Seventy-three participants (20 SIVD, 22 AD, and 31 NC) underwent structural magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), cognitive screening tests, and a computerized PM test. Sixty-five of these participants (19 SIVD, 20 AD, and 26 NC) also received resting-state functional MRI. Results: The group with SIVD had significantly fewer PM hits than the control group on both time-based and non-focal event-based PM tasks. Among patients in the very early stage, only those with SIVD but not AD performed significantly worse than the controls. Correlational analyses showed that non-focal event-based PM in SIVD was positively correlated with regional homogeneity in bilateral superior and middle frontal gyri, while time-based PM was not significantly associated with regional homogeneity in any of the regions of interest within the dorsal frontoparietal regions. Conclusions: The findings of this study highlight the vulnerability of non-focal event-based PM to the disruption of regional functional connectivity in bilateral superior and middle frontal gyri in patients with SIVD.

Effect of Emotion on Prospective Memory in Those of Different Age Groups

The effect of emotion on prospective memory on those of different age groups and its neural mechanism in Chinese adults are still unclear. The present study investigated the effect of emotion on prospective memory during the encoding and retrieval phases in younger and older adults by using event-related potentials (ERPs). In the behavioral results, a shorter response time was found for positive prospective memory cues only in older group. In the ERP results, during the encoding phase, an increased late positive potential (LPP) was found for negative prospective memory cues in younger adults, while the amplitude of the LPP was marginally greater for positive prospective memory cues than for negative prospective memory cues in older adults. Correspondingly, younger adults showed an increased parietal positivity for negative prospective memory cues, while an elevated parietal positivity for positive prospective memory cues was found in older adults during the retrieval phase. This finding reflects the increased attentional processing of encoding and the more cognitive resources recruited to carry out a set of processes that are associated with the realization of delayed intentions when the prospective memory cues are emotional. The results reveal the effect of emotion on prospective memory during the encoding and retrieval phases in Chinese adults, modulated by aging, as shown by a positivity effect on older adults and a negativity bias in younger adults.

Revisiting the Age-Prospective Memory Paradox Using Laboratory and Ecological Tasks

Prospective memory (PM) is the ability to perform a planned action at a future time. Older adults have shown moderate declines in PM, which are thought to be driven by age-related changes in the prefrontal cortex. However, an age-PM paradox is often reported, whereby deficits are evident in laboratory-based PM tasks, but not naturalistic PM tasks. The key aims of this study were to: (1) examine the age-PM paradox using the same sample across laboratory and ecological settings; and (2) determine whether self-reported PM and cognitive factors such as working memory and IQ are associated PM performance. Two PM tasks were administered (ecological vs. laboratory) to a sample of 23 community-dwelling older adults (M_age = 72.30, SD_age = 5.62) and 28 young adults (M_age = 20.18, SD_age = 3.30). Participants also completed measures of general cognitive function, working memory, IQ, and self-reported memory. Our results did not support the existence of the age-PM paradox. Strong age effects across both laboratory and ecological PM tasks were observed in which older adults consistently performed worse on the PM tasks than young adults. In addition, PM performance was significantly associated with self-reported PM measures in young adults. For older adults, IQ was associated with time-based PM. These findings suggest that the age-PM paradox is more complex than first thought and there are differential predictors of PM performance for younger and older adults.

Brief report: A randomized controlled trial of a compensatory cognitive training to improve prospective memory performance in people with schizophrenia or depression

People with schizophrenia or depression have prospective memory (PM) deficits, which affect their daily living. Given the paucity of research into training to correct PM deficits, we subjected a group of participants to a Chinese version of the PM module of the Cognitive Compensatory Training (CCT-C-PM) intervention to study its effect on their PM performance. Specifically, we independently randomized two diagnostic cohorts (schizophrenia and depression) into control groups (occupational therapy only) or experimental groups (CCT-C-PM and occupational therapy). The schizophrenia cohort had 17 participants in its control group and 23 participants in its experimental group. The depression cohort had 10 participants in its control group and 12 participants in its experimental group. The sociodemographic information of the participants was collected. Their symptoms and PM performances were measured at baseline and after treatment (after the completion of the CCT-C-PM intervention in the experimental group and the same timeframe in the control group). The treatment effects were examined by a repeated measure analysis of variance/analysis of covariance and a post hoc Scheffé test. The effect sizes (Cohen's d) of treatments against the controls were also calculated. There was no difference between the experimental and control groups in either cohort in terms of sociodemographic data, symptoms, and PM measures at baseline. The sex combination differed across the groups in the depression cohort. We found that the CCT-C-PM improved PM, especially event-based PM, for which large effect sizes were seen. The effect on time-based PM was unclear and requires future study. Our findings suggest that the CCT-C-PM is a viable training method for improving PM.

Individual Differences and Features of Self-reported Memory Lapses as Risk Factors for Alzheimer Disease Among Adults Aged 50 Years and Older: Protocol for a Coordinated Analysis Across Two Longitudinal Data Sets

BACKGROUND

Increasing evidence has promoted the clinical utility of self-reported memory problems for detecting early impairment associated with Alzheimer disease (AD). However, previous studies investigating memory problems often conflated the types of problems (ie, retrospective and prospective) with their features (ie, frequency and consequences). This bias limits the specificity of traditional measures of memory problems and minimizes their ability to detect differential trajectories associated with cognitive decline. In this study, we use a novel measure of self-reported memory problems that uses daily reports of memory lapses to disentangle types from features for analyzing the impact of each dimension in two longitudinal data sets. Furthermore, this study explores the individual difference factors of age and gender as potential moderators of the relationships between self-reported memory lapses and objective cognitive decline.

OBJECTIVE

The aim of this study is to describe the protocol for a secondary data analysis project that explores the relationship between experiences of daily memory lapses and their associations with cognitive decline in middle-aged and older adults.

METHODS

This study uses multilevel, coordinated analyses across two measurement burst data sets to examine the links between features and consequences of memory lapses (retrospective and prospective) and their association with objective cognitive decline. This study's sample (N=392; aged 50-85 years; n=254, 64.8% women) is drawn from two ongoing, nationally funded research studies: The Effects of Stress on Cognitive Aging, Physiology, and Emotion study and the Einstein Aging Study. Both studies assess the daily experience of memory lapses, including the type as well as the emotional and functional outcomes, and objective measures of cognition, such as processing speed and episodic memory. We will use multilevel modeling to test our conceptual model demonstrating that differences in frequency and types of memory lapses show differential trends in their relationships with cognitive decline and that these relationships vary by the age and gender of participants.

RESULTS

This project was funded in August 2019. The approval for secondary data analysis was given by the institutional review board in February 2020. Data analysis for this project has not yet started.

CONCLUSIONS

The early and accurate identification of individuals most at risk for cognitive decline is of paramount importance. Previous research exploring self-reported memory problems and AD is promising; however, limitations in measurement may explain previous reports of inconsistences. This study addresses these concerns by examining daily reports of memory lapses, how these vary by age and gender, and their relationship with objective cognitive performance. Overall, this study aims to identify the key features of daily memory lapses and the differential trajectories that best predict cognitive decline to help inform future AD risk screening tools.

INTERNATIONAL REGISTERED REPORT IDENTIFIER (IRRID)

DERR1-10.2196/25233.

Developing a vocational social rehabilitation model to increase the independence of the instrumental activity of daily living (ADL) among people with severe mental illness

Background: One of the efforts made to return people with severe mental illness to the community is to prepare with sufficient skills so then they can return to a productive life. The purpose of this study was to develop a vocational social rehabilitation model to increase the independence of the instrumental activity of daily living (ADL) among people with severe mental illness.

Design and Methods: The study was conducted in 2 stages. Phase 1 used an observational design with a cross sectional approach. It was conducted at the Menur Mental Hospital from March to July 2020. The population of this study were all people with severe mental illness with a psychotic degree scoring ≥30. The total sample was 100. The data was analyzed using the Partial Least Square. The second phase was carried out by compiling modules from strategic issues and conducting expert consultations.

Results: The results of phase 1 showed that the instrumental ADL independence was directly influenced by perceived behavior, memory phase, motivation phase, skills and intention. Additionally, it is indirectly influenced by socio-demography, mental illness severity, attitude towards behavior, subjective norm, perceived behavioral control, attention, retention, motor reproduction, motivation and skill. The results of the phase 2 carried out were used to compile modules based on the stages of vocational rehabilitation consisting of determining eligibility, preparatory counseling, implementing rehabilitation, evaluation and ongoing support.

Conclusion: The vocational social rehabilitation model is related to the independence of the Instrumental ADL among people with severe mental illness.

Prospective memory impairment in neurological disorders: implications and management

Prospective memory is a core neurocognitive ability that refers to memory for future intentions, such as remembering to take medications and to switch off appliances. Any breakdown in prospective memory, therefore, has serious implications for the ability to function independently in everyday life. In many neurological disorders, including Parkinson disease and dementia, prospective memory deficits are common even in the earliest stages and typically become more severe with disease progression. Consequently, clinical assessment of prospective memory is of critical importance. This article provides an overview of the various manifestations and neural bases of prospective memory deficits. To facilitate clinical decision-making, validated measures of this construct are identified and their suitability for clinical practice is discussed, focusing in particular on clinical sensitivity and psychometric properties. The article concludes by reviewing the approaches that can be used to rehabilitate different types of prospective memory impairment, and algorithms to guide the evaluation and treatment of these impairments are provided.

The impact of sociocultural factors on prospective memory performance in HIV+ Latinx adults

OBJECTIVE

Prospective memory (PM), a salient component of neurocognitive functioning for people living with HIV (PLH), is necessary for planning and coordinating health-related behaviors and instrumental tasks of daily living. However, little is known regarding the impact of sociocultural factors on PM in diverse populations, particularly Latinx PLH. The aim of this study was to examine ethnic group differences and sociocultural factors related to PM.

METHOD

The sample of 127 PLH (91 Latinx and 36 non-Latinx white) completed measures of quality of education, socioeconomic status (SES), and a validated PM measure, the Memory for Intentions Screening Test (MIST). The Latinx group also completed a bicultural acculturation measure.

RESULTS

Results revealed the Latinx and the non-Latinx white groups did not significantly differ in overall MIST performance (all p > .05). In the entire sample, better quality of education was associated with better MIST performance (all p < .05). Within the Latinx group, higher Latinx acculturation was associated with worse MIST performance (p = .02), whereas higher U.S. acculturation was associated with better MIST performance at a trend level (p = .07). Multivariate regressions revealed quality of education and Latinx acculturation significantly predicted MIST performance and PM errors (all p < .05). SES was not related to the MIST (all p > .10).

CONCLUSIONS

In sum, clinicians must take sociocultural factors into consideration when working with Latinx PLH, as these factors influence cognitive functions (i.e., PM) vital to health-related behaviors. Integrating culturally-informed psychoeducation into care plans is an imperative first step. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2021 APA, all rights reserved).

Effects of Mental Imagery on Prospective Memory: A Process Analysis in Individuals with Amnestic Mild Cognitive Impairment

INTRODUCTION

Prospective memory (PM) is a multiphasic cognitive function important for autonomy and functional independence but is easily disrupted by pathological aging processes. Through cognitive simulation of perceptual experiences, mental imagery could be an effective compensatory strategy to enhance PM performance. Nevertheless, relevant research in individuals with amnestic mild cognitive impairment (MCI) has been limited, and the underlying mechanism of the therapeutic effect has not been sufficiently elucidated. The present study aimed to examine complex PM performances and the effect of mental imagery on each phase in older adults with MCI and to investigate the underlying cognitive mechanism from a process perspective.

METHODS

Twenty-eight MCI and 32 normal aging controls completed a seminaturalistic PM task, in addition to a series of neuropsychological tests. Participants from each group were randomly assigned to a mental imagery condition or a standard repeated encoding condition before performing the PM task. Four indices were used to measure performance in the intention formation, intention retention, intention initiation, and intention execution phases of PM. Performances in each phase was compared between the 2 diagnostic groups and the 2 instruction conditions.

RESULTS

The MCI group performed worse than the normal aging group in the intention formation and intention retention phases. The participants in the mental imagery condition performed significantly better than those in the standard condition during the intention formation, intention retention, and intention execution phases, regardless of the diagnostic group. Moreover, there was a significant interaction between the group and condition during intention retention, showing that people with MCI benefited even more from mental imagery than normal aging in this phase. Performance in the intention retention phase predicted performance in the intention initiation and intention execution phases.

DISCUSSION

PM deficits in MCI mainly manifest during planning and retaining intentions. Mental imagery was able to promote performance in all but the initiation phase, although a trend for improvement was observed in this phase. The effects of mental imagery may be exerted in the intention retention phase by strengthening the PM cue-action bond, thereby facilitating the probability of intention initiation and bolstering fidelity to the original plan during intention execution.

Improving Prospective Memory Performance in Community-dwelling Older Adults: Goal Management Training and Implementation Intentions

Aim: The present study tested a compensatory executive intervention for prospective memory (goal management training) for the first time in older adults. Prospective memory (the ability to remember and execute a task in the future) declines with age, with significant implications for older adults' activities of daily living and quality of life. Prospective memory interventions have focused primarily on the retrospective component of prospective memory (e.g., implementation intentions). However, executive dysfunction is also implicated in age-related prospective memory decline.Methods: Community-dwelling older adults were randomly allocated to receive goal management training, implementation intentions or no intervention. Prospective memory was assessed before and after the intervention with a well-validated laboratory-based prospective memory measure. Results: Contrary to predictions, neither goal management training nor implementation intentions were successful at improving prospective memory in healthy older adults. Participants who received goal management training were more likely to have difficulty comprehending the intervention. Post-hoc analyses suggested implementation intentions improved prospective memory specifically for participants with poorer baseline prospective memory. Conclusions: These results represent important cautionary findings about the possible limitations of goal management training to improve prospective memory in older adults. Future research should also consider the role of baseline prospective memory ability in affecting response to compensatory intervention.

The Relationship between Life Course Socioeconomic Conditions and Objective and Subjective Memory in Older Age

While objective memory performance in older adults was primarily shown to be affected by education as indicator of life course socioeconomic conditions, other life course socioeconomic conditions seem to relate to subjective memory complaints. However, studies differ in which life course stages were investigated. Moreover, studies have explored these effects in an isolated way, but have not yet investigated their unique effect when considering several stages of the life course simultaneously. This study, therefore, examined the respective influence of socioeconomic conditions from childhood up to late-life on prospective memory (PM) performance as an objective indicator of everyday memory as well as on subjective memory complaints (SMC) in older age using structural equation modeling. Data came from two waves of the Vivre-Leben-Vivere aging study (n=993, Mage=80.56). The results indicate that only socioeconomic conditions in adulthood significantly predicted late-life PM performance. PM performance was also predicted by age and self-rated health. In contrast, SMC in older age were not predicted by socioeconomic conditions at any stage of the life course but were predicted by level of depression. In line with the cognitive reserve hypothesis, present results highlight the significance of education and occupation (adulthood socioeconomic conditions) for cognitive functioning in later life.

Neurocognitive Correlates of Internet Search Skills for eHealth Fact and Symptom Information in a Young Adult Sample

As the Covid 19 crisis has revealed, the internet is a first-line tool for learning critical health-related information. However, internet searches are a complex and dynamic process that can be fraught with subtleties and potential error. The mechanics of searching for and using electronic health (eHealth) information is ostensibly cognitively demanding; yet we know little about the role of neurocognitive abilities in this regard. Fifty-six young adults completed two naturalistic eHealth search tasks: fact-finding (eHealth Fact) and symptom-diagnosis (eHealth Search). Participants also completed neurocognitive tests of attention, psychomotor speed, learning/memory, and executive functions. Shorter eHealth symptom-diagnosis search time was related to better executive functions, while better eHealth symptom-diagnosis search accuracy was related to better episodic and prospective memory. In contrast, neither eHealth Fact search time nor its accuracy were related to any of the neurocognitive measures. Our findings suggest a differential relationship between neurocognitive abilities and eHealth search behaviors among young adults such that higher-order abilities may be implicated in eHealth searches requiring greater synthesis of information. Future work should examine the cognitive architecture of eHealth search in persons with neurocognitive disorders, as well as that of other aspects of eHealth search behaviors (e.g., search term generation, website reliability, and decision-making).

Self-reported prospective memory after stroke

Prospective Memory (PM) is the memory for completing future intentions. This study aimed to compare self-reported PM of individuals with stroke to healthy controls, to determine if PM is impaired after stroke. Additionally, self-reported PM for individuals with stroke was compared to significant-other reports, ascertaining a level of self-awareness of PM function. Twenty-eight individuals with stroke, 25 significant-others, and 27 healthy controls completed the Brief Assessment of PM (BAPM) and the Prospective and Retrospective Memory Questionnaire (PRMQ) as part of a larger study. Individuals with stroke reported significantly more Basic Activities of Daily Living (BADL) PM failures compared to controls on Part A of the BAPM. On Part B, individuals with stroke reported BADL PM failures to be less problematic/important than controls, suggesting a lack of self-awareness into the consequences of PM failure. Individuals with stroke also reported significantly more PM and RM failures compared to controls on the PRMQ. No significant differences were found between individuals with stroke and their significant-others on both the BAPM and PRMQ. Results of this study helped to clarify the previous research and highlighted that individuals with stroke reported more PM failures than controls but underestimated the importance of such memory lapses.

I could do it now, but I'd rather (forget to) do it later: examining links between procrastination and prospective memory failures

Prospective memory (PM) represents the ability to remember to perform planned actions after a certain delay. As previous studies suggest that even brief task-delays can negatively affect PM performance, the current study set out to examine whether procrastination (intentionally delaying task execution despite possible negative consequences) may represent a factor contributing to PM failures. Specifically, we assessed procrastination (via a standardized questionnaire as well as an objective behavioral measure) and PM failures (via a naturalistic PM task) in 92 young adults. Results show that participants' self-reports as well as their actual procrastination behavior predicted the number of PM failures, corroborating the impact of procrastination on PM. Subsequent cluster analyses suggest three distinct procrastination profiles (non-procrastinators, conscious procrastinators and unconscious procrastinators), providing new conceptual insights into different mechanisms of how procrastinating may lead to forgetting to perform planned tasks.

Bridging the gap between performance-based assessment and self-reported everyday functioning: An ecological momentary assessment approach

Objective: In the real-world environment, multiple and interacting state-dependent factors (e.g., fatigue, distractions) can cause cognitive failures and negatively impact everyday activities. This study used ecological momentary assessment (EMA) and a n-back task to examine the relationship between fluctuating levels of cognition measured in the real-world environment and self-report and performance-based measures of functional status.Method: Thirty-five community-dwelling older adults (M age = 71.80) completed a brief battery of objective and self-report measures of cognitive and functional status. After completing 100, 45-second trials to reach stable performance on a n-back task, EMA data collection began. Four times daily for one week, participants received prompts on a tablet to complete a n-back task and a brief survey. From the EMA n-back trials, measures of EMA average performance and intra-individual variability (IIV) across performances were created.Results: For the EMA n-back, the correlation between IIV and EMA average was weak and non-significant. IIV associated with self-report measures, and EMA average with the objective, performance-based functional status composite. Hierarchical regressions further revealed that IIV was a significant predictor of self-reported functional status and cognitive failures over and above EMA average performance and global cognitive status. In contrast, for the objective, functional status composite, IIV did not explain additional variance.Conclusions: The findings suggest that IIV and self-report measures of functional status and cognitive failures may capture a real-world cognitive capacity that fluctuates over time and with context; one that may not easily be captured by objective, performance-based measures designed to assess optimal function.

Comparing different tests to detect early manifestation of prospective memory decline in aging

Objective: Prospective memory (PM) is the ability to remember to perform future intentions. Previous studies have demonstrated that, compared to a younger cohort, healthy older adults have impairments in PM. Considering the importance of early detection of age-related PM decline, the present study aims to compare the performance of healthy older adults using three well-known PM tests commonly used in clinical settings.Method: In the present study, we tested 70 older adults (65-95 years old) using the Cambridge Prospective Memory Test (CAMPROMPT), the Memory for Intentions Screening Test (MIST) and the Royal Prince Alfred Prospective Memory Test (RPA-ProMem). In order to compare performance across tests and the interaction between age and cues, we performed a linear mixed model with random intercept and random slopes. Moreover, additional mixed models with random intercept were run for analyzing the additional information provided by MIST and RPA-ProMem regarding delay responses, response modality effects and type of errors committed.Results: Our data showed a drop in PM performance as age increased detected by all three tests. Furthermore, CAMPROMPT was the most sensitive test to identify differences in PM for event-and time-based cues, at least for participants with 65-77 years old. When data were analyzed in term of delay responses, participants were more accurate for 2 min delay (MIST) and 30 in delay (RPA-ProMem). Participants were less accurate when response modality was "verbal" compared to "action" (MIST) and made more PM errors as age increased.Conclusions: Overall, the study provides important information regarding age-related PM decline and can help researchers as well as clinicians in deciding the preferred test to evaluate PM performance.

An exploration of prospective memory components and subtasks of the Memory for Intentions Test (MIST)

Introduction: Prospective Memory (PM), the ability to execute future intentions, decreases with age and memory-related disorders and may be an early predictor of dementia. The Memory for Intentions Test (MIST) allows the assessment of multiple aspects of PM using a range of subtasks. The current study evaluated and explored a Portuguese version of the MIST and its subtasks.Method: Forty-one patients with Mild Cognitive Impairment (MCI) and forty healthy participants performed the MIST, neuropsychological tests and questionnaires. Analyses were performed testing relationships between MCI and PM components of the MIST, and differences between subtasks of the test were explored.Results: Reliability of the PM component was acceptable within the patient group, but not within the control group. PM components were significantly lower in the MCI patients, but this effect was dependent on subtasks. Groups differed most strongly at shorter intervals. PM scores predicted MCI status. Correlations were found between PM components and cognitive functioning scales.Conclusions: The Portuguese version of the MIST seems suitable for use in clinical practice and research. MCI is differentially related to different PM components and subtasks of the MIST.

Prospective memory errors in everyday life: does instruction matter?

Previous research on prospective memory (PM, the ability to remember executing an intention in the future) suggests that PM errors constitute the majority of all everyday memory errors in younger adults. However, no study so far has investigated this ratio from an ageing perspective, nor examined whether different instructions may influence PM error reporting. In the present study, 64 younger and 64 older adults completed a 5-day diary on PM, memory and cognition errors following different reporting instructions: participants had to either focus on (1) PM errors only, (2) any daily memory errors (prospective or retrospective) or (3) any kind of cognitive error. Error descriptions were coded into subcategories and analysed both quantitatively and qualitatively. Independently of given instructions, PM was the most frequent everyday error for both age groups. Overall, results confirm age differences for everyday PM (but not for retrospective memory and cognition), suggesting that everyday PM might be spared from age-related decline. From a qualitative point of view, there seem to be differences in the type of missed intentions, which correspond with existent theories of ageing. In conclusion, the present study allowed for a deeper insight into everyday PM functioning in younger and older adults.

One-year stability of prospective memory symptoms and performance in aging and HIV disease

Introduction: HIV disease and aging can both affect prospective memory (PM), which describes the complex process of executing delayed intentions and plays an essential role in everyday functioning. The current study investigated the course of PM symptoms and performance over approximately one year in younger and older persons with and without HIV disease. Method: Participants included 77 older (>50 years) and 35 younger (<40 years) HIV+ individuals and 44 older and 27 younger seronegative adults. Participants completed the Memory for Intentions Test to measure PM in the laboratory, the Prospective and Retrospective Memory Questionnaire to measure PM symptoms in daily life, and several clinical measures of executive functions and retrospective memory as a part of a comprehensive neurocognitive evaluation at baseline and at 14-month follow-up. Results: Findings showed additive, independent main effects of HIV and aging on time- and event-based PM performance in the laboratory, but no change in PM over time. There were no interactions between time and HIV or age groups. Parallel findings were observed for clinical measures of retrospective memory and executive functions. Older HIV+ adults endorsed the greatest frequency of PM symptoms, but there was no change in PM symptom severity over time and no interactions between time and HIV or age groups. There were no effects of HIV or aging on naturalistic PM performance longitudinally. Conclusion: Overall these findings suggest that PM symptoms and performance in the laboratory are stably impaired over the course of a year in the setting of aging and HIV disease.

Time-Based Prospective Memory Is Associated with Functional Performance in Persons with MS

OBJECTIVE

Persons with multiple sclerosis (MS) often report prospective memory (PM) failures that directly impact their everyday life. However, it is not known whether PM deficits confer an increased risk of poorer everyday functioning. The aims of this study were to: (1) compare time- (Time-PM) and event-based PM (Event-PM) performance between persons with MS and healthy controls (HCs), (2) examine the neuropsychological correlates of PM in MS, and (3) examine the relationship between PM and everyday functioning in MS.

METHOD

A between-subjects design was used to examine 30 adults with MS and 30 community-dwelling HC. Participants were administered the Memory for Intentions Screening Test (MIST) to assess PM skills, the Actual Reality™ (AR) to assess everyday functioning, and a battery of cognitive tests.

RESULTS

The MS group performed significantly worse on Time-PM compared to HC but not on Event-PM tasks. While both Time-PM and Event-PM subscales were correlated with retrospective learning and memory, the MIST Time-PM subscale was correlated with executive functions. Significant correlations were observed between AR and the MIST Time-PM, but not Event-PM, subscales.

CONCLUSIONS

The results highlight the role of executive functions on Time-PM. Furthermore, significant relationships with AR extend the ecological validity of the MIST to MS populations.

Prospective Memory: Age related change is influenced by APOE genotype

Non-focal prospective memory (PM) is sensitive to age-related decline; an additional impairment in focal PM is characteristic of mild stage Alzheimer's disease. This research explored whether, by mid-adulthood, the distinct demands of focal and non-focal PM expose differences in carriers of an APOE ε4 allele, a genetic risk factor for Alzheimer's disease. Thirty-three young and 55 mid-age adults, differentiated by APOE genotype, completed a category-decision task with a concurrent focal or non-focal PM demand. Only mid-age ε4 carriers showed a cost of carrying a focal PM intention. In addition, mid-age ε4 carriers showed a significantly greater cost of carrying a non-focal PM intention than young ε4 carriers, supporting a profile of accelerated aging. Consistency in the profile of cost differences observed in mid-age ε4 carriers and pathological aging may indicate premature vulnerability. Future research correlating a shift in PM performance with early genotype differences in brain-based markers of decline is important.

Prospective Memory Predictions in Aging: Increased Overconfidence in Older Adults

INTRODUCTION

This study investigated whether young and older adults can predict their future performance on an event-based prospective memory (PM) task.

METHODS

Metacognitive awareness was assessed by asking participants to give judgments-of-learning (JOLs) on an item-level for the prospective (remembering that something has to be done) and retrospective (remembering what to do) PM component. In addition, to explore possible age differences in the ability to adapt predictions to the difficulty of the task, encoding time and the relatedness between the prospective and the retrospective PM component were varied.

RESULTS

Results revealed that both age groups were sensitive to our task manipulations and adapted their predictions appropriately. Moreover, item-level JOLs indicated that for the retrospective component, young and older adults were equally accurate and slightly overconfident. For the prospective component, predictions were fairly accurate in young adults, while older adults were overconfident. Thus, results suggest that general overconfidence is increased in older adults and concerns both components of PM.

DISCUSSION

Findings regarding the conceptual differences between the prospective and retrospective components of a PM task, as well as the link between aging and metamemory in PM are discussed.

Prospective memory partially mediates the association between aging and everyday functioning

Objective: Older adults commonly experience declines in everyday functioning, the reasons for which are multifactorial. Prospective memory (PM), or remembering to carry out intended actions, can be an executively demanding cognitive process that declines with older age and is independently associated with a variety of everyday functions (e.g. taking medication). This study examined the hypothesis that PM mediates the relationship between older age and poorer everyday functioning.Method: A total of 468 community-dwelling adults (ages 18-75) with a range of medical comorbidities (e.g. viral infection) were classified as dependent on four well-validated measures of manifest everyday functioning: activities of daily living, employment status, the Karnofsky Scale of Performance Status, and self-reported cognitive symptoms. Participants completed the Memory for Intentions Test (MIsT) to measure PM, alongside clinical tests of executive functions and retrospective memory.Results: Controlling for education and comorbidities, bootstrap analysis revealed a significant direct effect of age on everyday functioning and a significant mediated effect of age on everyday functioning through the indirect effect of time-based b = .006 [.003, .010] and event-based PM (b = .005, [.002, .009]), as well as slightly smaller effects for executive functions (b = .003, [.001, .005]) and retrospective memory (b = .002, [.001, .005]).Conclusions: These cross-sectional data suggest that executively demanding aspects of declarative memory play an important partial mediating role between an individual factor (i.e. age) and daily life activities, and highlight the possible benefit of targeting PM for improving everyday functioning in older adults.

Joint effects of stress and chronic cannabis use on prospective memory

RATIONALE

Prospective memory pervades our daily lives and failures can have detrimental consequences. This ability to execute delayed intentions may be impacted by stress, yet few studies have examined these effects. Moreover, as many cannabis users report using cannabis to cope with stress, it is important to understand how stress impacts memory in cannabis users.

OBJECTIVES

We assessed the effects of acute and chronic stress on prospective memory to examine whether stress differentially impacts prospective memory in cannabis users vs. non-users.

METHODS

Forty cannabis users and 42 non-users were assigned an episodic and a habitual prospective memory test before completing either the stress or no stress condition of the Maastricht Acute Stress Test (MAST). Participants were instructed to execute the habitual test during the MAST and the episodic test shortly after the MAST. Chronic stress was measured using the Perceived Stress Scale, and acute stress was measured using subjective ratings and cortisol.

RESULTS

There was a main effect of acute stress indicating that stress detrimentally impacted habitual prospective memory performance. Although there was not a significant stress x cannabis interaction, further planned comparisons indicated the habitual prospective memory impairment was selective to cannabis users. There were also significant negative correlations between (i) episodic prospective memory and both subjective stress as well as chronic stress, and (ii) habitual prospective memory and change in subjective stress.

CONCLUSIONS

This study is the first to reveal detrimental effects of acute stress on prospective memory performance, which may be exacerbated in cannabis users.

Prospective memory assessment in acute mild traumatic brain injury

Objective: Prospective memory (PM) is the ability to remember to perform an intention at the appropriate time in the future. It is of primary importance for daily living, and its disruption may impact functional autonomy. To date, few studies have examined PM during the acute phase of mild traumatic brain injury (mTBI), despite the high prevalence of this neurological condition and its potential impact on cognition. Method: Twenty mTBI patients (time since injury ranged from 45 to 73 days) and 15 healthy control participants performed the Ecological Test of Prospective Memory (TEMP), a simulated errand task in which participants were required to execute 10 event-based (EB) and five time-based (TB) tasks. The TEMP separately evaluates PM phases as well as prospective and retrospective components in event- and time-based conditions. Participants also completed a neuropsychological test battery. Correlations were performed between cognitive composite scores and the TEMP. Results: mTBI patients experienced difficulty in learning the content of intentions, retrieving these intentions in the time-based condition (prospective component) and recalling the associated actions in the event- and time-based conditions (retrospective component). Retrospective memory composite score was correlated with the learning and retention phases of the TEMP, whereas attention/working memory and executive composite scores were correlated with the time-based condition and performance on the ongoing task. Conclusion: These results suggest the presence of global PM impairment during the acute phase of mTBI, as well as impairment of retrospective memory, attention/working memory, and executive functions, which are key components for PM performance.

The Effect of Stereotype Threat on Age Differences in Prospective Memory Performance: Differential Effects on Focal Versus Nonfocal Tasks

OBJECTIVES

The current study examined the effects of stereotype threat on prospective memory (PM) performance in younger versus older adults by using a focal (i.e., low cognitive demands) and a nonfocal (i.e., high cognitive demands) PM task.

METHOD

Sixty younger and 60 older adults performed an event-based PM task, in which task instructions were experimentally manipulated. Half of the participants received instructions that emphasized the memory component of the task (memory condition; i.e., high stereotype threat for older adults) whereas the other half was instructed that the task evaluated participants' reading-ability (reading condition; i.e., low stereotype threat).

RESULTS

Older adults' PM performance was worse than younger adults' only in the memory condition and these effects were specific for nonfocal PM cues as well as for old-old adults.

DISCUSSION

Conceptually, this indicates that stereotype threat particularly impacts age effects for cognitive processes associated with executive control and that this particularly affects old-old adults. Therefore, the current findings illustrate for the first time that age differences in PM can be influenced by stereotype threat and suggest changes in controlled attention as possible cognitive pathway.