Ganoderterpene A, a New Triterpenoid from Ganoderma lucidum, Attenuates LPS-Induced Inflammation and Apoptosis via Suppressing MAPK and TLR-4/NF-κB Pathways in BV-2 Cells

Design, synthesis, in vitro and in vivo biological evaluation of pterostilbene derivatives for anti-inflammation therapy

Pterostilbene (PST) is a naturally derived stilbene compound in grapes, blueberries, and other fruits. It is also a natural dietary compound with a wide range of biological activities such as antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antitumor, and so on. Structural modifications based on the chemical scaffold of the pterostilbene skeleton are of great importance for drug discovery. In this study, pterostilbene skeletons were used to design novel anti-inflammatory compounds with high activity and low toxicity. A total of 30 new were found and synthesised, and their anti-inflammatory activity and safety were screened. Among them, compound E2 was the most active (against NO: IC50 = 0.7 μM) than celecoxib. Further studies showed that compound E2 exerted anti-inflammatory activity by blocking LPS-induced NF-κB/MAPK signalling pathway activation. In vivo experiments revealed that compound E2 had a good alleviating effect on acute colitis in mice. In conclusion, compound E2 may be a promising anti-inflammatory lead compound.

Ganoderic Acid A Mitigates Inflammatory Bowel Disease through Modulation of AhR Activity by Microbial Tryptophan Metabolism

Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), including Crohn's disease and ulcerative colitis, is a complex gastrointestinal condition influenced by genetic, microbial, and environmental factors, among which the gut microbiota plays a crucial role and has emerged as a potential therapeutic target. Ganoderic acid A (GAA), which is a lanostane triterpenoid compound derived from edible mushroom Ganoderma lucidum, has demonstrated the ability to modulate gut dysbiosis. Thus, we investigated the impact of GAA on IBD using a dextran sodium sulfate (DSS)-induced colitis mouse model. GAA effectively prevented colitis, preserved epithelial and mucus layer integrity, and modulated the gut microbiota. In addition, GAA promoted tryptophan metabolism, especially 3-IAld generation, activated the aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR), and induced IL-22 production. Fecal microbiota transplantation validated the mediating role of the gut microbiota in the IBD protection conferred by GAA. Our study suggests that GAA holds potential as a nutritional intervention for ameliorating IBD by influencing the gut microbiota, thereby regulating tryptophan metabolism, enhancing AhR activity, and ultimately improving gut barrier function.

The Biological Activity of Ganoderma lucidum on Neurodegenerative Diseases: The Interplay between Different Active Compounds and the Pathological Hallmarks

Neurodegenerative diseases represent a cluster of conditions characterized by the progressive degeneration of the structure and function of the nervous system. Despite significant advancements in understanding these diseases, therapeutic options remain limited. The medicinal mushroom Ganoderma lucidum has been recognized for its comprehensive array of bioactive compounds with anti-inflammatory and antioxidative effects, which possess potential neuroprotective properties. This literature review collates and examines the existing research on the bioactivity of active compounds and extracts from Ganoderma lucidum in modulating the pathological hallmarks of neurodegenerative diseases. The structural information and preparation processes of specific components, such as individual ganoderic acids and unique fractions of polysaccharides, are presented in detail to facilitate structure-activity relationship research and scale up the investigation of in vivo pharmacology. The mechanisms of these components against neurodegenerative diseases are discussed on multiple levels and elaborately categorized in different patterns. It is clearly presented from the patterns that most polysaccharides of Ganoderma lucidum possess neurotrophic effects, while ganoderic acids preferentially target specific pathogenic proteins as well as regulating autophagy. Further clinical trials are necessary to assess the translational potential of these components in the development of novel multi-target drugs for neurodegenerative diseases.

Mushroom-derived bioactive components with definite structures in alleviating the pathogenesis of Alzheimer's disease

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a complicated neurodegenerative condition with two forms: familial and sporadic. The familial presentation is marked by autosomal dominance, typically occurring early in individuals under 65 years of age, while the sporadic presentation is late-onset, occurring in individuals over the age of 65. The majority of AD cases are characterized by late-onset and sporadic. Despite extensive research conducted over several decades, there is a scarcity of effective therapies and strategies. Considering the lack of a cure for AD, it is essential to explore alternative natural substances with higher efficacy and fewer side effects for AD treatment. Bioactive compounds derived from mushrooms have demonstrated significant potential in AD prevention and treatment by different mechanisms such as targeting amyloid formation, tau, cholinesterase dysfunction, oxidative stress, neuroinflammation, neuronal apoptosis, neurotrophic factors, ER stress, excitotoxicity, and mitochondrial dysfunction. These compounds have garnered considerable interest from the academic community owing to their advantages of multi-channel, multi-target, high safety and low toxicity. This review focuses on the various mechanisms involved in the development and progression of AD, presents the regulatory effects of bioactive components with definite structure from mushroom on AD in recent years, highlights the possible intervention pathways of mushroom bioactive components targeting different mechanisms, and discusses the clinical studies, limitations, and future perspectives of mushroom bioactive components in AD prevention and treatment.

Ganoderma lucidum ethanol extracts ameliorate hepatic fibrosis and promote the communication between metabolites and gut microbiota g_Ruminococcus through the NF-κB and TGF-β1/Smads pathways

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Ganoderma lucidum, a traditional edible medicinal mushroom, has been widely reported to improve liver diseases as a dietary intervention for people. Ganoderma lucidum extracts, primarily total triterpenoids (GLTTs), are one of the bioactive ingredients that have excellent beneficial effects on hepatic fibrosis. Therefore, its prevention and reversal are particularly critical due to the increasing number of patients with chronic liver diseases worldwide.

AIM OF THE STUDY

The study aimed to evaluate whether GLTTs had a hepatoprotective effect against hepatic fibrosis through metabolic perturbations and gut microbiota changes and its underlying mechanisms.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The compound compositions of GLTTs were quantified, and carbon tetrachloride (CCl4)-induced hepatic fibrosis rats were used to investigate the cause of the improvement in various physiological states with GLTTs treatment, and to determine whether its consequent effect was associated with endogenous metabolites and gut microbiota using UPLC-Q-TOF-MSE metabolomics and 16S rRNA gene sequencing technology.

RESULTS

GLTTs alleviated physical status, reduced liver pathological indicators, proinflammatory cytokines, and deposition of hepatic collagen fibers via regulating the NF-κB and TGF-β1/Smads pathways. The untargeted metabolomics analysis identified 16 potential metabolites that may be the most relevant metabolites for gut microbiota dysbiosis and the therapeutic effects of GLTTs in hepatic fibrosis. Besides, although GLTTs did not significantly affect the α-diversity indexes, significant changes were observed in the composition of microflora structure. In addition, Spearman analysis revealed strong correlations between endogenous metabolites and gut microbiota g_Ruminococcus with hepatic fibrosis.

CONCLUSION

GLTTs could provide a potential target for the practical design and application of novel functional food ingredients or drugs in the therapy of hepatic fibrosis.

Ganoderma lucidum-Derived Meroterpenoids Show Anti-Inflammatory Activity In Vitro

Ganoderma lucidum, known as the "herb of spiritual potency", is used for the treatment and prevention of various diseases, but the responsible constituents for its therapeutic effects are largely unknown. For the purpose of obtaining insight into the chemical and biological profiling of meroterpenoids in G. lucidum, various chromatographic approaches were utilized for the title fungus. As a result, six undescribed meroterpenoids, chizhienes A-F (1-6), containing two pairs of enantiomers (4 and 5), were isolated. Their structures were identified using spectroscopic and computational methods. In addition, the anti-inflammatory activities of all the isolates were evaluated by Western blot analysis in LPS-induced macrophage cells (RAW264.7), showing that 1 and 3 could dose dependently inhibit iNOS but not COX-2 expression. Further, 1 and 3 were found to inhibit nitric oxide (NO) production using the Greiss reagent test. The current study will aid in enriching the structural and biological diversity of Ganoderma-derived meroterpenoids.

Therapeutic potential of the medicinal mushroom Ganoderma lucidum against Alzheimer's disease

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a high-incidence neurodegenerative disorder, characterized by cognitive impairment, memory loss, and psychiatric abnormalities. Ganoderma lucidum is a famous medicinal fungus with a long history of dietary intake, containing various bioactive components, and have been documented to exhibit antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, anti-tumor, anti-aging, and immunomodulatory effects, among others. Recent studies have shown that G. lucidum and its components have promising therapeutic potential against AD from various aspects, which can delay the progression of AD, improve cognitive function and quality of life. The underlying mechanisms mainly include inhibiting tau hyperphosphorylation, inhibiting Aβ formation, affecting activated microglia, regulating NF-κB/MAPK signalling pathway, inhibiting neuronal apoptosis, modulating immune system, and inhibiting acetylcholinesterase, etc. This paper systematically reviewed the relevant studies on the therapeutic potential of G. lucidum and its active components for treatment of AD, key points related with the mechanism studies and clinical trials have been discussed, and further perspectives have been proposed. Totally, as a natural medicinal mushroom, G. lucidum has the potential to be developed as effective adjuvant for AD treatment owing to its therapeutic efficacy against multiple pathogenesis of AD. Further mechanical investigation and clinical trials can help unlock the complete potential of G. lucidum as a therapeutic option for AD.

Rapid Discovery of Aβ42 Fibril Disintegrators from Ganoderma lucidum via Ligand Fishing and Their Neuroprotective Effects on Alzheimer's Disease

An amyloid-β (Aβ) fibril is a vital pathogenic factor of Alzheimer's disease (AD). Aβ fibril disintegrators possess great potential to be developed into novel anti-AD agents. Here, a ligand fishing method was employed to rapidly discover Aβ42 fibril disintegrators from Ganoderma lucidum using Aβ42 fibril-immobilized magnetic beads, which led to the isolation of six Aβ42 fibril disintegrators including ganodermanontriol, ganoderic acid DM, ganoderiol F, ganoderol B, ganodermenonol, and ergosterol. Neuroprotective evaluation in vitro exhibited that these Aβ42 fibril disintegrators could significantly mitigate Aβ42-induced neurotoxicity. Among these six disintegrators, ergosterol and ganoderic acid DM with stronger protecting activity were further selected to evaluate their neuroprotective effect on AD in vivo. Results showed that ergosterol and ganoderic acid DM could significantly alleviate Aβ42-induced cognitive dysfunction and hippocampus neuron loss in vivo. Moreover, ergosterol and ganoderic acid DM could significantly inhibit Aβ42-induced neuron apoptosis and Nrf2-mediated neuron oxidative stress in vitro and in vivo.

Discovery from Hypericum elatoides and synthesis of hyperelanitriles as α-aminopropionitrile-containing polycyclic polyprenylated acylphloroglucinols

The search for lead compounds with anti-neuroinflammatory activity from structurally 'optimized' natural products is a crucial and promising strategy in the quest to discover safe and efficacious agents for treating neurodegenerative diseases. A phytochemical investigation on the aerial portions of Hypericum elatoides led to the isolation of five nitrogenous polycyclic polyprenylated acylphloroglucinols (PPAPs), hyperelanitriles A-D (1-4) and hyperelamine A (5). Their structures were determined by spectroscopic analysis, ECD and NMR calculations, and X-ray crystallography. To the best of our knowledge, compounds 1-4 represent the first examples of acylphloroglucinols featuring an α-aminonitrile moiety, while 5 is a rare enamine-containing PPAP. Further, the synthesis of these naturally occurring PPAP-based nitriles or amines was accomplished. Compound 5 exhibited inhibitory activity against LPS-activated NO production in BV-2 cells, potentially through the suppression of TLR-4/NF-κB signaling. Here we show the isolation, structural elucidation, synthesis, and bioactive evaluation of compounds 1-5.

Ganoderic acid C2 exerts the pharmacological effects against cyclophosphamide-induced immunosuppression: a study involving molecular docking and experimental validation

Triterpenoids, as the main active ingredient of Ganoderma lucidum fermented extract, exert multiple pharmacological activities, including immunomodulatory properties. Our study aimed to reveal the pharmacological effects and potential mechanisms of Ganoderic acid C2 (GAC) against cyclophosphamide (CY)-associated immunosuppression. Target genes were collected from several public databases, including the DisGeNET, Comparative Toxicogenomics Database, GeneCards, and PharmMapper. STRING database was used to construct the protein-protein interaction of network. Subsequently, molecular docking was carried out to visualize the protein-GAC interactions. Experimental validations, including ELISA and qRT-PCR were performed to confirm the pharmacological activities of GAC on CY-induced immunosuppression model. A total of 56 GAC-related targets were identified to be closely associated with CY-induced immunosuppression. Enrichment analyses results revealed that these targets were mainly involved in immune and inflammatory response-related pathways. STAT3 and TNF were identified as the core targets of GAC. Molecular docking indicated that GAC combined well with STAT3 and TNF protein. In addition, animal experiments indicated that GAC improved immunity as well as STAT3 and TNF genes expression in CY-induced immunosuppression, which further verified the prediction through bioinformatics analysis and molecular docking. We successfully revealed the potential therapeutics mechanisms underlying the effect of GAC against CY-induced immunosuppression based on the combination of bioinformatics analysis, molecular docking, and animal experiments. Our findings lay a theoretical foundation for the in-depth development and utilization of Ganoderma lucidum fermentation product in the future, and also provide theoretical guidance for the development of innovative drugs that assist in improving immunity.

A new anti-neuroinflammation labdane diterpenoid from Salvia tricuspis

One new labdane diterpenoid, tricuspion A (1), as well as five known triterpenoids (2-6) were isolated from Salvia tricuspis Franch (family Labiatae). The structure of tricuspion A was identified by extensive spectroscopic analysis and by comparison with previously reported data. Compounds 1-6 were evaluated for their inhibitory effects on the NO production in LPS-stimulated BV-2 microglia cells, and 1 exhibited potent inhibitory activity with IC50 value of 14.92 ± 0.51 μM. Compound 1 might exert anti-neuroinflammatory activity through inhibiting the excessive production of NO and down-regulating the protein expression of iNOS and COX-2. As such, labdane diterpenoid (tricuspion A) could provide promising anti-neuroinflammatory lead compound for further structural modification.

Diversified cassane family diterpenoids from the leaves of Caesalpinia minax exerting anti-neuroinflammatory activity through suppressing MAPK and NF-κB pathways in BV-2 microglia

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Caesalpinia minax Hance, whose seeds are known as "Ku-shi-lian" in China, have been used in Chinese folk medicine for treatment of rheumatism, dysentery, and skin itching. However, the anti-neuroinflammatory constituents of its leaves and their mechanism are rarely reported.

AIM OF THE STUDY

To search for new anti-neuro-inflammatory compounds from the leaves of C. minax and elucidate their mechanism on anti-neuroinflammatory effect.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The main metabolites of the ethyl acetate fraction from C. minax were analyzed and purified via HPLC and various column chromatography techniques. Their structures were elucidated on the basis of 1D and 2D NMR, HR-ESI-MS, and single crystal X-ray diffraction analysis. Anti-neuroinflammatory activity was evaluated in BV-2 microglia cells induced by LPS. The expression levels of molecules in NF-κB and MAPK signaling pathways were analyzed through western blotting. Meanwhile, the time- and dose-dependent expression of associated proteins such as iNOS and COX-2 were detected by western blotting. Furthermore, Compounds 1 and 3 were performed on the NF-κB p65 active site using molecular docking simulation to elucidate the molecular level inhibition mechanism.

RESULTS

20 cassane diterpenoids, including two novel ones (caeminaxins A and B) were isolated from the leaves of C. minax Hance. Caeminaxins A and B possessed a rare unsaturated carbonyl moiety in their structures. Most of the metabolites exhibited potent inhibition effects with IC₅₀ values ranging from 10.86 ± 0.82 to 32.55 ± 0.47μM. Among them, caeminaxin A inhibited seriously the expression of iNOS and COX-2 proteins and restrained the phosphorylation of MAPK and the activation of NF-κB signaling pathways in BV-2 cells. The anti-neuro-inflammatory mechanism of caeminaxin A has been studied systematically for the first time. Furthermore, biosynthesis pathways for compounds 1-20 were discussed.

CONCLUSIONS

The new cassane diterpenoid, caeminaxin A, alleviated the expression of iNOS and COX-2 protein and down-regulated of intracellular MAPK and NF-κB signaling pathways. The results implied that cassane diterpenoids had potential to be developed into therapeutic agents for neurodegenerative disorders such as Alzheimer's disease.

Curcumin-dependent phenotypic transformation of microglia mediates resistance to pseudorabies-induced encephalitis

Pseudorabies virus (PRV) causes viral encephalitis, a devastating disease with high mortality worldwide. Curcumin (CUR) can reduce inflammatory damage by altering the phenotype of microglia; however, whether and how these changes mediate resistance to PRV-induced encephalitis is still unclear. In this study, BV2 cells were infected with/without PRV for 24 h and further treated with/without CUR for 24 h. The results indicated that CUR promoted the polarization of PRV-infected BV2 cells from the M1 phenotype to the M2 phenotype and reversed PRV-induced mitochondrial dysfunction. Furthermore, M1 BV2 cell secretions induced signalling pathways leading to apoptosis in PC-12 neuronal cells, and this effect was abrogated by the secretions of M2 BV2 cells. RNA sequencing and bioinformatics analysis predicted that this phenotypic shift may be due to changes in energy metabolism. Furthermore, Western blot analysis showed that CUR inhibited the increase in AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) phosphorylation, glycolysis, and triacylglycerol synthesis and the reduction in oxidative phosphorylation induced by PRV infection. Moreover, the ATP levels in M2 BV2 cells were higher than those in M1 cells. Furthermore, CUR prevented the increase in mortality, elevated body temperature, slowed growth, nervous system excitation, brain tissue congestion, vascular cuffing, and other symptoms of PRV-induced encephalitis in vivo. Thus, this study demonstrated that CUR protected against PRV-induced viral encephalitis by switching the phenotype of BV2 cells, thereby protecting neurons from inflammatory injury, and this effect was mediated by improving mitochondrial function and the AMPK/NF-κB p65-energy metabolism-related pathway.

Ganoapplins A and B with an unprecedented 6/6/6/5/6-fused pentacyclic skeleton from Ganoderma inhibit Tau pathology through activating autophagy

Ganoapplins A and B (1 and 2) with a 6/6/6/5/6-fused pentacyclic skeleton containing an aromatic E ring, were obtained from Ganoderma applanatum. Their structures were established through extensive spectroscopic analyses, quantum chemical calculations, including calculated chemical shifts with DP4 + analysis and electronic circular dichroism (ECD). A plausible biosynthetic pathway for 1 and 2 was proposed. Furthermore, their roles in activating autophagy were investigated and the cellular assays showed that 1 and 2 can inhibit tau pathology by inducing autophagy, suggesting their potential against Alzheimer's disease (AD).

Hyperhubeins A-I, Bioactive Sesquiterpenes with Diverse Skeletons from Hypericum hubeiense

Nine new sesquiterpenes, hyperhubeins A-I (1-9), and 14 known analogues (10-23) were isolated from the aerial portions of Hypericum hubeiense. Their structures and absolute configurations were determined unambiguously via spectroscopic analysis, single-crystal X-ray diffraction, and electronic circular dichroism calculations. Compounds 1-3 possess an unprecedented sesquiterpene carbon skeleton. Further, a plausible biosynthetic pathway from farnesyl diphosphate (FPP) is proposed. The isolated phytochemicals were evaluated for neuroprotective and anti-neuroinflammatory properties in vitro. Compounds 1, 2, 5-8, 14, and 21 displayed notable neuroprotective activity against hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂)-induced lesions in PC-12 cells at 10 μM. Additionally, compounds 1, 2, 12, and 13 exhibited inhibition of lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced nitric oxide (NO) production in BV-2 microglial cells, with their IC₅₀ values ranging from 4.92 to 6.81 μM. Possible interactions between these bioactive compounds and inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) were predicted via molecular docking. Moreover, Western blotting indicated that compound 12 exerted anti-neuroinflammatory activity by suppressing LPS-stimulated expression of toll-like receptor-4 (TLR-4) and inhibiting consequent activation of nuclear factor-kappa-B (NF-κB) signaling.

Anti-inflammatory effects of new human histamine H3 receptor ligands with flavonoid structure on BV-2 neuroinflammation

OBJECTIVE

Microglia play an important role in the neuroinflammation developed in response to various pathologies. In this study, we examined the anti-inflammatory effect of the new human histamine H₃ receptor (H₃R) ligands with flavonoid structure in murine microglial BV-2 cells.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

The affinity of flavonoids (E243 -flavone and IIIa-IIIc-chalcones) for human H₃R was evaluated in the radioligand binding assay. The cytotoxicity on BV-2 cell viability was investigated with the MTS assay. Preliminary evaluation of anti-inflammatory properties was screened by the Griess assay in an in vitro neuroinflammation model of LPS-treated BV-2 cells. The expression and secretion of pro-inflammatory cytokines were evaluated by real-time qPCR and ELISA, respectively. The expression of microglial cell markers were determined by immunocytochemistry.

RESULTS

Chalcone derivatives showed high affinity at human H₃R with K_i values < 25 nM. At the highest nontoxic concentration (6.25 μM) compound IIIc was the most active in reducing the level of nitrite in Griess assay. Additionally, IIIc treatment attenuated inflammatory process in murine microglia cells by down-regulating pro-inflammatory cytokines (IL-1β, IL-6, TNF-α) at both the level of mRNA and protein level. Our immunocytochemistry studies revealed expression of microglial markers (Iba1, CD68, CD206) in BV-2 cell line.

CONCLUSIONS

These results emphasize the importance of further research to accurately identify the anti-inflammatory mechanism of action of chalcones.

A Review of Ganoderma Triterpenoids and Their Bioactivities

For centuries, Ganoderma has been used as a traditional medicine in Asian countries to prevent and treat various diseases. Numerous publications are stating that Ganoderma species have a variety of beneficial medicinal properties, and investigations on different metabolic regulations of Ganoderma species, extracts or isolated compounds have been performed both in vitro and in vivo. However, it has frequently been questioned whether Ganoderma is simply a dietary supplement for health or just a useful "medication" for restorative purposes. More than 600 chemical compounds including alkaloids, meroterpenoids, nucleobases, nucleosides, polysaccharides, proteins, steroids and triterpenes were extracted and identified from Ganoderma, with triterpenes serving as the primary components. In recent years, Ganoderma triterpenes and other small molecular constituents have aroused the interest of chemists and pharmacologists. Meanwhile, considering the significance of the triterpene constituents in the development of new drugs, this review describes 495 compounds from 25 Ganoderma species published between 1984 and 2022, commenting on their source, biosynthetic pathway, identification, biological activities and biosynthesis, together with applications of advanced analytical techniques to the characterization of Ganoderma triterpenoids.

Lanostane triterpenoids from Ganoderma lucidum and their inhibitory effects against FAAH

Ganoderma lucidum is a famous edible and medicinal fungus. Through a bioactive phytochemical investigation of the ethanolic extracts of the fruiting bodies of G. lucidum, twenty-nine triterpenoids, including eleven previously undescribed triterpenoids, were isolated and characterized based on spectroscopic data. The inhibitory effects of all the triterpenes against fatty acid amide hydrolase (FAAH) were found to be in the range of 30-60% at 100 μM. Methyl ganoderate A displayed the strongest inhibitory activity (61%) against FAAH. Furthermore, all compounds displayed no cytotoxicity against LOVO and MCF-7 human cancer cells. Hence, our present study provides information about G. lucidum as a functional food or pharmaceutical supplement for the treatment of neuroinflammation.

Lanostane Triterpenoids and Ergostane Steroids from Ganoderma luteomarginatum and Their Cytotoxicity

Macrofungus Ganoderma luteomarginatum is one of the main species of Ganoderma fungi distributed in Hainan province of China, the fruiting bodies of which have been widely used in folk as a healthy food to prevent tumors. To explore the potential cytotoxic constituents from G. luteomarginatum, the phytochemical investigation on the ethyl acetate soluble fraction of 95% ethanolic extract from the fruiting bodies of this fungus led to the isolation of twenty-six lanostane triterpenoids (1–26), including three undescribed ones (1–3), together with eight ergostane steroids (27–34). The structures of three new lanostane triterpenoids were elucidated as lanosta-7,9(11)-dien-3β-acetyloxy-24,25-diol (1), lanosta-7,9(11)-dien-3-oxo-24,26-diol-25-methoxy (2), and lanosta-8,20(22)-dien-3,11,23-trioxo-7β,15β-diol-26-oic acid methyl ester (3) by the analysis of 1D, 2D NMR, and HRESIMS spectroscopic data. All isolates were assayed for their cytotoxic activities using three human cancer cell lines (K562, BEL-7402, and SGC-7901) and seven lanostane triterpenoids (1, 2, 7, 13, 18, 22, and 24), and one ergostane steroid (34) showed definite cytotoxicity with IC₅₀ values that ranged from 6.64 to 47.63 μg/mL. Among these cytotoxic lanostane triterpenoids, compounds 2 and 13 showed general cytotoxicity against three human cancer cell lines, while compounds 1 and 18 exhibited significant selective cytotoxicity against K562 cells with IC₅₀ values of 8.59 and 8.82 μg/mL, respectively. Furthermore, the preliminary structure–cytotoxicity relationships was proposed.

Ganoderma lucidum Modulates Inflammatory Responses following 1-Methyl-4-Phenyl-1,2,3,6-Tetrahydropyridine (MPTP) Administration in Mice

Ganoderma lucidum, one of the most valued medicinal mushrooms, has been used for health supplements and medicine in China. Our previous studies have proved that Ganoderma lucidum extract (GLE) could inhibit activation of microglia and protect dopaminergic neurons in vitro. In the present study, we investigated the anti-neuroinflammatory potential of GLE in vivo on Parkinsonian-like pathological dysfunction. Male C57BL/6J mice were subjected to acute 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine (MPTP) lesion, and a treatment group was administered intragastrically with GLE at a dose of 400 mg/kg. Immunohistochemistry staining showed that GLE efficiently repressed MPTP-induced microglia activation in nigrostriatal region. Accordingly, Bio-plex multiple cytokine assay indicated that GLE treatment modulates abnormal cytokine expression levels. In microglia BV-2 cells incubated with LPS, increased expression of iNOS and NLRP3 were effectively inhibited by 800 μg/mL GLE. Furthermore, GLE treatment decreased the expression of LC3II/I, and further enhanced the expression of P62. These results indicated that the neuroprotection of GLE in an experimental model of PD was partially related to inhibition of microglia activation in vivo and vitro, possibly through downregulating the iNOS/NLRP3 pathway, inhibiting abnormal microglial autophagy and lysosomal degradation, which provides new evidence for Ganoderma lucidum in PD treatment.

Highly oxygenated chemical constitutes and rearranged derivatives with neurotrophic activity from Ganoderma cochlear

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

The morphological characteristics of Ganoderma cochlear (Blume & T. Nees) Bres were identical to G. sinsense J.D. Zhao, L.W. Hsu & X.Q. Zhang, however, with the fungus stipe lying in the back of the pileus. Fruiting bodies and spores of G. cochear have been traditionally used for smoothing, sleeping improvement, memory impairment, anti-aging, and prolonging life. Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a chromic progressive neurodegenerative disorder associated with loss of memory and cognition. Hallmarks of AD include aging, amyloid-β plaques, neurofibrillary tangles, neuron loss, neuronal degeneration, network disruption, cognitive dysfunction, inflammation and oxidation stress. In this study, norlanostanoids from G. cochear are identified as potential neurotrophic chemists related to the memory impairment usage to slow down pathogenetic process and restore neural circuits for AD.

AIM OF STUDY

Chemical and biological investigations in this study uncovered the potential constituents related to the traditional usage of G. cochlear.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The extract of the mushrooms was purified using various column chromatography techniques and high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). The structures of the isolates were elucidated by combination of spectral, and single crystal X-ray diffraction analysis. The neurotrophic activity was evaluated by the differentiation state of PC12 cells, and the dose-dependent and time-dependant expression of growth-associated protein (GAP-43) was analyzed by western blotting.

RESULTS

Ganorbifates J-T (1-11), eleven previously undescribed triterpenoids together with five known trinorlanostanoids (12-16) were isolated from the fruiting bodies of G. Cochlear. Among them, ganorbifates N-O (5-6) had a demethylation at C-28 compared to the classic skeleton of 3,4-seco-25,26,27-trinorlanostanoids to form a new group of 3,4-seco-25,26,27,28-tetranorlanostanoids. Based on this, a novel skeleton of ganorbifate M (4) was further established by the arrangement of C-29 from C-4 to C-7. A plausible biosynthetic pathway of compounds 4-6 was proposed. Eight of the sixteen isolates showed neurotrophic activity with the concentration of 10 μM. Furthermore, compound 15 exhibited a dose-dependent neurogenic activity, and also strengthened the expression of the growth-associated protein (GAP-43) in NGF-induced PC-12 cells, whereas 11 showed an inhibitory effect at higher concentration.

CONCLUSION

These results demonstrated that 3,4-seco-norlanostanoids had reliable potential in promoting the outgrowth of PC-12 cells and could be used in the prevention and treatment of Alzheimer's disease, which is consist with the beneficial effects of G. Cochlear.

Ganoderma Lucidum Triterpenoids Improve Maternal Separation-Induced Anxiety- and Depression-like Behaviors in Mice by Mitigating Inflammation in the Periphery and Brain

Although early life stress (ELS) can increase susceptibility to adulthood psychiatric disorders and produce a greater inflammatory response in a stressful event, targeted preventive and therapeutic drugs still remain scarce. Ganoderma lucidum triterpenoids (GLTs) can exert anti-inflammatory effects in the periphery and central nervous systems. This study employed a combined model of “childhood maternal separation + adulthood sub-stress” to explore whether GLTs may alleviate anxiety- and depression-like behaviors in male and female mice by mitigating inflammation. Male and female pups were separated from their mothers for four hours per day from postnatal day 1 (PND 1) to PND 21; starting from PND 56, GLTs were administered intraperitoneally once daily for three weeks and followed by three days of sub-stress. Results showed that maternal separation increased the anxiety- and depression-like behaviors in both male and female mice, which disappeared after the preemptive GLTs treatment (40 mg/kg) before adulthood sub-stress. Maternal separation up-regulated the pro-inflammatory markers in the periphery and brain, and activated microglia in the prefrontal cortex and hippocampus. All the abnormalities were reversed by GLTs administration, with no adverse effects on immune organ indices, liver, and renal function. Our findings suggest that GLTs can be a promising candidate in treating ELS-induced psychiatric disorders.

Effects of Compound Elicitors on the Biosynthesis of Triterpenoids and Activity of Defense Enzymes from Inonotus hispidus (Basidiomycetes)

Inonotus hispidus has various health-promoting activities, such as anticancer effects and immune-stimulating activity. The commercialization of valuable plant triterpenoids faces major challenges, including low abundance in natural hosts and costly downstream purification procedures. In this work, orthogonal design was used to compound methyl jasmonate (MeJA), salicylic acid (SA), oleic acid, and Cu²⁺, and the effects of combinations on the total triterpenes biosynthesized were studied. The optimal combination was screened out and its effect on the activity of PAL, CAT, and SOD was studied. The optimal concentration of oleic acid was 2% when MeJA was 100 mol/L, and the total triterpenoid content and mycelia production were 3.918 g and 85.17 mg/g, respectively. MeJA treatment induced oxidative stress, and at the same time increased the activity of related defense enzymes. Oleic acid is thought to regulate cell permeability by recombining cell membranes. It promotes the material exchange process between cells and the environment without affecting cell growth. When oleic acid was used in combination with MeJA, a synergistic effect on triterpene production was observed. In conclusion, our findings provide a strategy for triterpenoid enrichment of I. hispidus.

Anti-Adipogenic Lanostane-Type Triterpenoids from the Edible and Medicinal Mushroom Ganoderma applanatum

Our previous research has shown that lanostane triterpenoids from Ganoderma applanatum exhibit significant anti-adipogenesis effects. In order to obtain more structurally diverse lanostane triterpenoids to establish a structure–activity relationship, we continued the study of lanostane triterpenoids from the fruiting bodies of G. applanatum, and forty highly oxygenated lanostane-type triterpenoinds (1–40), including sixteen new compounds (1–16), were isolated. Their structures were elucidated using NMR spectra, X-ray crystallographic analysis, and Mosher’s method. In addition, some of their parts were evaluated to determine their anti-adipogenesis activities in the 3T3-L1 cell model. The results showed that compounds 16, 22, 28, and 32 exhibited stronger anti-adipogenesis effects than the positive control (LiCl, 20 mM) at the concentration of 20 μM. Compounds 15 and 20 could significantly reduce the lipid accumulation during the differentiation process of 3T3-L1 cells, comparable to the untreated group. Their IC₅₀ values were 6.42 and 5.39 μM, respectively. The combined results of our previous and present studies allow us to establish a structure-activity relationship of lanostane triterpenoids, indicating that the A-seco-23→26 lactone skeleton could play a key role in anti-adipogenesis activity.

Triterpenoids from the fruiting bodies of Ganoderma lucidum and their inhibitory activity against FAAH

Seventeen triterpenoids including four new lanostane triterpenoids (1-3 and 5) were isolated from the fruiting bodies of Ganoderma lucidum by various chromatographic techniques. Their chemical structures were determined by extensive spectroscopic data, including 1D-NMR, 2D-NMR, and HRESIMS. In addition, the spectral data of compound 4 was reported for the first time. In an in vitro bioassay, most isolated triterpenoids could inhibit the hydrolysis activity of fatty acid amide hydrolase (FAAH). Furthermore, there is no cytotoxicity observed for these isolated triterpenoids. Therefore, G. lucidum showed the potential application for anti-neuroinflammation and more FAAH inhibitors may be explored from G. lucidum.

Triterpenoids and meroterpenoids from the edible Ganoderma resinaceum and their potential anti-inflammatory, antioxidant and anti-apoptosis activities

Ganoderma resinaceum, as a traditional edible mushroom, has been widely reported to improve neurodegenerative diseases characterized by oxidative stress and inflammation. In this study, five new terpenoids, including four lanostane triterpenoids, named ganoresinoid A-D (1-4) and one meroterpenoid, named ganoresinoid E (5), along with 27 known compounds (6-32), were isolated from the fruiting bodies of edible mushroom G. resinaceum. These structures were identified by NMR, HRESIMS data analysis. All metabolites were evaluated for anti-inflammatory, antioxidative and anti-apoptosis activities. Among them, ganoresinoid A showed notably restrained nitric oxide (NO), IL-1β, IL-6 and TNF-α levels in LPS-activated BV-2 microglial cells via suppressing TLR-4/ NF-κB and MAPK signaling pathway. Simultaneously, ganoresinoid A remarkably alleviated LPS-induced apoptosis by means of the decrease of mitochondrial membrane potential (MMP) and reactive oxygen species (ROS). In addition, ganoresinoid A demonstrated antioxidant effects in H₂O₂-induced SH-SY5Y cells by activating the Akt/GSK-3β/Nrf2 signaling pathway. Taken together, these results may provide a stronger theoretical basis for ganoresinoid A from G. resinaceum as nutrition intervention to alleviate neurodegenerative diseases.

((±)-Spiroganoapplanin A, a complex polycyclic meroterpenoid dimer from Ganoderma applanatum displaying the potential against Alzheimer’s disease

A pair of meroterpenoid dimers, (±)-spiroganoapplanain A (1) represents a new subtype of Ganoderma meroterpenoid dimers with a 6/5/5/6/5/6 hexacyclic system were isolated from Ganoderma applanatum. Their structures were determined...

Neuroprotective effects of a new triterpenoid from edible mushroom on oxidative stress and apoptosis through the BDNF/TrkB/ERK/CREB and Nrf2 signaling pathway in vitro and in vivo

Inonotus obliquus (Fr.) Pilat is an edible mushroom which is used to produce tea and syrup due to its medicinal properties.