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Xiong Y, Yu J. LRRK2 in Parkinson's disease: upstream regulation and therapeutic targeting. Trends Mol Med 2024:S1471-4914(24)00189-8. [PMID: 39153957 DOI: 10.1016/j.molmed.2024.07.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/12/2024] [Revised: 07/02/2024] [Accepted: 07/03/2024] [Indexed: 08/19/2024]
Abstract
Mutations in leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2) are the most common causes of Parkinson's disease (PD) to date. Dysfunction in LRRK2 enzymatic activities and elevated protein levels are associated with the disease. How is LRRK2 activated, and what downstream molecular and cellular processes does LRRK2 regulate? Addressing these questions is crucial to decipher the disease mechanisms. In this review we focus on the upstream regulations and briefly discuss downstream substrates of LRRK2 as well as the cellular consequences caused by these regulations. Building on these basic findings, we discuss therapeutic strategies targeting LRRK2 and highlight the challenges in clinical trials. We further highlight the important questions that remains to be answered in the LRRK2 field.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yulan Xiong
- Department of Neuroscience, University of Connecticut School of Medicine, Farmington, CT 06030, USA.
| | - Jianzhong Yu
- Department of Physiology and Neurobiology, University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT 06269, USA
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2
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Zhu H, Tonelli F, Turk M, Prescott A, Alessi DR, Sun J. Rab29-dependent asymmetrical activation of leucine-rich repeat kinase 2. Science 2023; 382:1404-1411. [PMID: 38127736 PMCID: PMC10786121 DOI: 10.1126/science.adi9926] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/30/2023] [Accepted: 11/16/2023] [Indexed: 12/23/2023]
Abstract
Gain-of-function mutations in LRRK2, which encodes the leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2), are the most common genetic cause of late-onset Parkinson's disease. LRRK2 is recruited to membrane organelles and activated by Rab29, a Rab guanosine triphosphatase encoded in the PARK16 locus. We present cryo-electron microscopy structures of Rab29-LRRK2 complexes in three oligomeric states, providing key snapshots during LRRK2 recruitment and activation. Rab29 induces an unexpected tetrameric assembly of LRRK2, formed by two kinase-active central protomers and two kinase-inactive peripheral protomers. The central protomers resemble the active-like state trapped by the type I kinase inhibitor DNL201, a compound that underwent a phase 1 clinical trial. Our work reveals the structural mechanism of LRRK2 spatial regulation and provides insights into LRRK2 inhibitor design for Parkinson's disease treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hanwen Zhu
- Department of Structural Biology, St. Jude Children’s Research Hospital, Memphis, TN 38105, USA
| | - Francesca Tonelli
- MRC Protein Phosphorylation and Ubiquitylation Unit, School of Life Sciences, University of Dundee, Dundee DD1 5EH, UK
- Aligning Science Across Parkinson’s (ASAP) Collaborative Research Network, Chevy Chase, MD, USA
| | - Martin Turk
- Cryo-EM and Tomography Center, St. Jude Children’s Research Hospital, Memphis, TN 38105, USA
| | - Alan Prescott
- MRC Protein Phosphorylation and Ubiquitylation Unit, School of Life Sciences, University of Dundee, Dundee DD1 5EH, UK
| | - Dario R. Alessi
- MRC Protein Phosphorylation and Ubiquitylation Unit, School of Life Sciences, University of Dundee, Dundee DD1 5EH, UK
- Aligning Science Across Parkinson’s (ASAP) Collaborative Research Network, Chevy Chase, MD, USA
| | - Ji Sun
- Department of Structural Biology, St. Jude Children’s Research Hospital, Memphis, TN 38105, USA
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3
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Cao R, Chen C, Wen J, Zhao W, Zhang C, Sun L, Yuan L, Wu C, Shan L, Xi M, Sun H. Recent advances in targeting leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 as a potential strategy for the treatment of Parkinson's disease. Bioorg Chem 2023; 141:106906. [PMID: 37837728 DOI: 10.1016/j.bioorg.2023.106906] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/17/2023] [Revised: 09/24/2023] [Accepted: 10/06/2023] [Indexed: 10/16/2023]
Abstract
Parkinson's disease (PD) is the second most common neurodegenerative disease. Several single gene mutations involved in PD have been identified such as leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2), the most common cause of sporadic and familial PD. Its mutations have attracted much attention to therapeutically targeting this kinase. To date, many compounds including small chemical molecules with diverse scaffolds and RNA agents have been developed with significant amelioration in preclinical PD models. Currently, five candidates, DNL201, DNL151, WXWH0226, NEU-723 and BIIB094, have advanced to clinical trials for PD treatment. In this review, we describe the structure, pathogenic mutations and the mechanism of LRRK2, and summarize the development of LRRK2 inhibitors in preclinical and clinical studies, trying to provide an insight into targeting LRRK2 for PD intervention in future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ruiwei Cao
- Zhejiang Engineering Research Center of Fat-soluble Vitamin, Shaoxing University, Shaoxing 312000, China; Zhejiang Medicine Co. Ltd., Shaoxing 312500, China
| | - Caiping Chen
- Zhejiang Engineering Research Center of Fat-soluble Vitamin, Shaoxing University, Shaoxing 312000, China; Zhejiang Medicine Co. Ltd., Shaoxing 312500, China
| | - Jing Wen
- Zhejiang Medicine Co. Ltd., Shaoxing 312500, China
| | - Weihe Zhao
- Zhejiang Medicine Co. Ltd., Shaoxing 312500, China
| | | | - Longhui Sun
- Zhejiang Medicine Co. Ltd., Shaoxing 312500, China
| | - Liyan Yuan
- Zhejiang Medicine Co. Ltd., Shaoxing 312500, China
| | - Chunlei Wu
- Zhejiang Engineering Research Center of Fat-soluble Vitamin, Shaoxing University, Shaoxing 312000, China; College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Shaoxing University, Shaoxing 312000, China
| | - Lei Shan
- Zhejiang Engineering Research Center of Fat-soluble Vitamin, Shaoxing University, Shaoxing 312000, China
| | - Meiyang Xi
- Zhejiang Engineering Research Center of Fat-soluble Vitamin, Shaoxing University, Shaoxing 312000, China; College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Shaoxing University, Shaoxing 312000, China.
| | - Haopeng Sun
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing 210009, China.
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4
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Zhu C, Herbst S, Lewis PA. Leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 at a glance. J Cell Sci 2023; 136:jcs259724. [PMID: 37698513 PMCID: PMC10508695 DOI: 10.1242/jcs.259724] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 09/13/2023] Open
Abstract
Leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2) is a multidomain scaffolding protein with dual guanosine triphosphatase (GTPase) and kinase enzymatic activities, providing this protein with the capacity to regulate a multitude of signalling pathways and act as a key mediator of diverse cellular processes. Much of the interest in LRRK2 derives from mutations in the LRRK2 gene being the most common genetic cause of Parkinson's disease, and from the association of the LRRK2 locus with a number of other human diseases, including inflammatory bowel disease. Therefore, the LRRK2 research field has focused on the link between LRRK2 and pathology, with the aim of uncovering the underlying mechanisms and, ultimately, finding novel therapies and treatments to combat them. From the biochemical and cellular functions of LRRK2, to its relevance to distinct disease mechanisms, this Cell Science at a Glance article and the accompanying poster deliver a snapshot of our current understanding of LRRK2 function, dysfunction and links to disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christiane Zhu
- Department of Comparative Biomedical Sciences, Royal Veterinary College, University of London, London NW1 0TU, UK
- Department of Neurodegenerative diseases, UCL Queen Square Institute of Neurology, University College London, London WC1N 3BG, UK
| | - Susanne Herbst
- Department of Comparative Biomedical Sciences, Royal Veterinary College, University of London, London NW1 0TU, UK
- Department of Neurodegenerative diseases, UCL Queen Square Institute of Neurology, University College London, London WC1N 3BG, UK
- Aligning Science Across Parkinson's (ASAP) Collaborative Research Network, Chevy Chase, MD 20815, USA
| | - Patrick A. Lewis
- Department of Comparative Biomedical Sciences, Royal Veterinary College, University of London, London NW1 0TU, UK
- Department of Neurodegenerative diseases, UCL Queen Square Institute of Neurology, University College London, London WC1N 3BG, UK
- Aligning Science Across Parkinson's (ASAP) Collaborative Research Network, Chevy Chase, MD 20815, USA
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5
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Metcalfe RD, Martinez Fiesco JA, Bonet-Ponce L, Kluss JH, Cookson MR, Zhang P. Structure and regulation of full-length human leucine-rich repeat kinase 1. Nat Commun 2023; 14:4797. [PMID: 37558661 PMCID: PMC10412621 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-023-40532-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/13/2022] [Accepted: 07/26/2023] [Indexed: 08/11/2023] Open
Abstract
The human leucine-rich repeat kinases (LRRKs), LRRK1 and LRRK2 are large and unusually complex multi-domain kinases, which regulate fundamental cellular processes and have been implicated in human disease. Structures of LRRK2 have recently been determined, but the structure and molecular mechanisms regulating the activity of the LRRK1 as well as differences in the regulation of LRRK1 and LRRK2 remain unclear. Here, we report a cryo-EM structure of the LRRK1 monomer and a lower-resolution cryo-EM map of the LRRK1 dimer. The monomer structure, in which the kinase is in an inactive conformation, reveals key interdomain interfaces that control kinase activity as we validate experimentally. Both the LRRK1 monomer and dimer are structurally distinct compared to LRRK2. Overall, our results provide structural insights into the activation of the human LRRKs, which advance our understanding of their physiological and pathological roles.
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Affiliation(s)
- Riley D Metcalfe
- Center for Structural Biology, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, Frederick, MD, 21702, USA
| | - Juliana A Martinez Fiesco
- Center for Structural Biology, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, Frederick, MD, 21702, USA
| | - Luis Bonet-Ponce
- Cell Biology and Gene Expression Section, Laboratory of Neurogenetics, National Institute on Aging, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, 20892, USA
| | - Jillian H Kluss
- Cell Biology and Gene Expression Section, Laboratory of Neurogenetics, National Institute on Aging, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, 20892, USA
| | - Mark R Cookson
- Cell Biology and Gene Expression Section, Laboratory of Neurogenetics, National Institute on Aging, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, 20892, USA
| | - Ping Zhang
- Center for Structural Biology, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, Frederick, MD, 21702, USA.
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6
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Ito G, Utsunomiya-Tate N. Overview of the Impact of Pathogenic LRRK2 Mutations in Parkinson's Disease. Biomolecules 2023; 13:biom13050845. [PMID: 37238714 DOI: 10.3390/biom13050845] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/08/2023] [Revised: 04/25/2023] [Accepted: 05/15/2023] [Indexed: 05/28/2023] Open
Abstract
Leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2) is a large protein kinase that physiologically phosphorylates and regulates the function of several Rab proteins. LRRK2 is genetically implicated in the pathogenesis of both familial and sporadic Parkinson's disease (PD), although the underlying mechanism is not well understood. Several pathogenic mutations in the LRRK2 gene have been identified, and in most cases the clinical symptoms that PD patients with LRRK2 mutations develop are indistinguishable from those of typical PD. However, it has been shown that the pathological manifestations in the brains of PD patients with LRRK2 mutations are remarkably variable when compared to sporadic PD, ranging from typical PD pathology with Lewy bodies to nigral degeneration with deposition of other amyloidogenic proteins. The pathogenic mutations in LRRK2 are also known to affect the functions and structure of LRRK2, the differences in which may be partly attributable to the variations observed in patient pathology. In this review, in order to help researchers unfamiliar with the field to understand the mechanism of pathogenesis of LRRK2-associated PD, we summarize the clinical and pathological manifestations caused by pathogenic mutations in LRRK2, their impact on the molecular function and structure of LRRK2, and their historical background.
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Affiliation(s)
- Genta Ito
- Department of Biomolecular Chemistry, Faculty of Pharma-Sciences, Teikyo University, Tokyo 173-8605, Japan
| | - Naoko Utsunomiya-Tate
- Department of Biomolecular Chemistry, Faculty of Pharma-Sciences, Teikyo University, Tokyo 173-8605, Japan
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7
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Ito K, Araki M, Katai Y, Nishimura Y, Imotani S, Inoue H, Ito G, Tomita T. Pathogenic LRRK2 compromises the subcellular distribution of lysosomes in a Rab12-RILPL1-dependent manner. FASEB J 2023; 37:e22930. [PMID: 37086089 DOI: 10.1096/fj.202200780rr] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/20/2022] [Revised: 03/31/2023] [Accepted: 04/05/2023] [Indexed: 04/23/2023]
Abstract
Mutations in leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2) cause familial Parkinson's disease (PD). Recent studies have shown that LRRK2 physiologically phosphorylates several Rab family proteins including Rab12 and that this phosphorylation is accelerated by the pathogenic mutations in LRRK2, although the significance in the PD pathogenesis remains unknown. Here we examined the effect of the overexpression of LRRK2 on the distribution of organelles in cultured cells and found that lysosomes become clustered in a perinuclear region upon the overexpression of pathogenic mutant LRRK2 in a manner dependent on its kinase activity. The perinuclear clustering of lysosomes was abolished by knocking out RAB12 as well as its effector protein RILPL1. Re-expression of Rab12 in RAB12 knockout cells suggested that the phosphorylation at Ser106 of Rab12 is required for the perinuclear clustering of lysosomes. Moreover, phosphorylated Rab12 was also accumulated on the clustered lysosomes, and the phosphorylation of Rab12 increased its interaction with RILPL1, leading us to conclude that the increase in the phosphorylation of Rab12 by pathogenic LRRK2 compromised intracellular lysosomal transport via the enhanced interaction of Rab12 with RILPL1. These data suggest the involvement of abnormal regulation of lysosomal transport in the LRRK2-mediated pathogenesis of PD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kyohei Ito
- Laboratory of Neuropathology and Neuroscience, Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Miho Araki
- Laboratory of Neuropathology and Neuroscience, Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan
| | | | | | | | | | - Genta Ito
- Department of Biomolecular Chemistry, Faculty of Pharma-Science, Teikyo University, Tokyo, Japan
- Social Cooperation Program of Brain and Neurological Disorders, Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Taisuke Tomita
- Laboratory of Neuropathology and Neuroscience, Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan
- Social Cooperation Program of Brain and Neurological Disorders, Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan
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8
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Mansour HM, Mohamed AF, El-Khatib AS, Khattab MM. Kinases control of regulated cell death revealing druggable targets for Parkinson's disease. Ageing Res Rev 2023; 85:101841. [PMID: 36608709 DOI: 10.1016/j.arr.2022.101841] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/04/2022] [Revised: 12/31/2022] [Accepted: 12/31/2022] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
Parkinson's disease (PD) is the second most prevalent neurodegenerative disorder in the world. Motor impairment seen in PD is associated with dopaminergic neurotoxicity in the striatum, and dopaminergic neuronal death in the substantia nigra pars compacta. Cell death has a significant effect on the development and progression of PD. Extensive research over the last few decades has unveiled new regulated cell death (RCD) mechanisms that are not dependent on apoptosis such as necroptosis, ferroptosis, and others. In this review, we will overview the mechanistic pathways of different types of RCD. Unlike accidental cell death, RCD subroutines can be regulated and the RCD-associated kinases are potential druggable targets. Hence, we will address an overview and analysis of different kinases regulating apoptosis such as receptor-interacting protein kinase 1 (RIPK-1), RIPK3, mixed lineage kinase (MLK), Ataxia telangiectasia muted (ATM), cyclin-dependent kinase (CDK), death-associated protein kinase 1 (DAPK1), Apoptosis-signaling kinase-1 (ASK-1), and Leucine-rich repeat kinase-2 (LRRK2). In addition to the role of RIPK1, RIPK3, and Mixed Lineage Kinase Domain like Pseudokinase (MLKL) in necroptosis. We also overview functions of AMP-kinase (AMPK), protein kinase C (PKC), RIPK3, and ATM in ferroptosis. We will recap the anti-apoptotic, anti-necroptotic, and anti-ferroptotic effects of different kinase inhibitors in different models of PD. Finally, we will discuss future challenges in the repositioning of kinase inhibitors in PD. In conclusion, this review kicks-start targeting RCD from a kinases perspective, opening novel therapeutic disease-modifying therapeutic avenues for PD.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Ahmed F Mohamed
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Cairo University, Cairo, Egypt
| | - Aiman S El-Khatib
- Egyptian Drug Authority, EDA, Giza, Egypt; Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Cairo University, Cairo, Egypt
| | - Mahmoud M Khattab
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Cairo University, Cairo, Egypt
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Is Glial Dysfunction the Key Pathogenesis of LRRK2-Linked Parkinson's Disease? Biomolecules 2023; 13:biom13010178. [PMID: 36671564 PMCID: PMC9856048 DOI: 10.3390/biom13010178] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2022] [Revised: 01/12/2023] [Accepted: 01/13/2023] [Indexed: 01/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Leucine rich-repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2) is the most well-known etiologic gene for familial Parkinson's disease (PD). Its gene product is a large kinase with multiple functional domains that phosphorylates a subset of Rab small GTPases. However, studies of autopsy cases with LRRK2 mutations indicate a varied pathology, and the molecular functions of LRRK2 and its relationship to PD pathogenesis are largely unknown. Recently, non-autonomous neurodegeneration associated with glial cell dysfunction has attracted attention as a possible mechanism of dopaminergic neurodegeneration. Molecular studies of LRRK2 in astrocytes and microglia have also suggested that LRRK2 is involved in the regulation of lysosomal and other organelle dynamics and inflammation. In this review, we describe the proposed functions of LRRK2 in glial cells and discuss its involvement in the pathomechanisms of PD.
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10
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Park Y, Liao J, Hoang QQ. Roc, the G-domain of the Parkinson's disease-associated protein LRRK2. Trends Biochem Sci 2022; 47:1038-1047. [PMID: 35840518 PMCID: PMC9669111 DOI: 10.1016/j.tibs.2022.06.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/11/2022] [Revised: 06/16/2022] [Accepted: 06/21/2022] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Mutation in leucine-rich repeat (LRR) kinase 2 (LRRK2) is a common cause of Parkinson's disease (PD). Aberrant LRRK2 kinase activity is associated with disease pathogenesis and thus it is an attractive drug target for combating PD. Intense efforts in the past nearly two decades have focused on the development of small-molecule inhibitors of the kinase domain of LRRK2 and have identified potent kinase inhibitors. However, most LRRK2 kinase inhibitors have shown adverse effects; therefore, alternative-mechanism-based strategies are desperately needed. In this review, we discuss the new insights gleaned from recent cryoelectron microscope (cryo-EM) structures of LRRK2 towards understanding the mechanisms of actions of LRRK2 and explore the potential new therapeutic avenues.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yangshin Park
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, IN 46202, USA; Stark Neurosciences Research Institute, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, IN 46202, USA
| | - Jingling Liao
- Department of Public Health, Academy of Nutrition and Health, Wuhan University of Science and Technology School of Medicine, 430074 Wuhan, China.
| | - Quyen Q Hoang
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, IN 46202, USA; Stark Neurosciences Research Institute, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, IN 46202, USA; Department of Neurology, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, IN 46202, USA.
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11
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Smith LJ, Lee CY, Menozzi E, Schapira AHV. Genetic variations in GBA1 and LRRK2 genes: Biochemical and clinical consequences in Parkinson disease. Front Neurol 2022; 13:971252. [PMID: 36034282 PMCID: PMC9416236 DOI: 10.3389/fneur.2022.971252] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/16/2022] [Accepted: 07/25/2022] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Variants in the GBA1 and LRRK2 genes are the most common genetic risk factors associated with Parkinson disease (PD). Both genes are associated with lysosomal and autophagic pathways, with the GBA1 gene encoding for the lysosomal enzyme, glucocerebrosidase (GCase) and the LRRK2 gene encoding for the leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 enzyme. GBA1-associated PD is characterized by earlier age at onset and more severe non-motor symptoms compared to sporadic PD. Mutations in the GBA1 gene can be stratified into severe, mild and risk variants depending on the clinical presentation of disease. Both a loss- and gain- of function hypothesis has been proposed for GBA1 variants and the functional consequences associated with each variant is often linked to mutation severity. On the other hand, LRRK2-associated PD is similar to sporadic PD, but with a more benign disease course. Mutations in the LRRK2 gene occur in several structural domains and affect phosphorylation of GTPases. Biochemical studies suggest a possible convergence of GBA1 and LRRK2 pathways, with double mutant carriers showing a milder phenotype compared to GBA1-associated PD. This review compares GBA1 and LRRK2-associated PD, and highlights possible genotype-phenotype associations for GBA1 and LRRK2 separately, based on biochemical consequences of single variants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laura J. Smith
- Department of Clinical and Movement Neurosciences, Queen Square Institute of Neurology, University College London (UCL), London, United Kingdom
- Aligning Science Across Parkinson's (ASAP) Collaborative Research Network, Chevy Chase, MD, United States
| | - Chiao-Yin Lee
- Department of Clinical and Movement Neurosciences, Queen Square Institute of Neurology, University College London (UCL), London, United Kingdom
- Aligning Science Across Parkinson's (ASAP) Collaborative Research Network, Chevy Chase, MD, United States
| | - Elisa Menozzi
- Department of Clinical and Movement Neurosciences, Queen Square Institute of Neurology, University College London (UCL), London, United Kingdom
- Aligning Science Across Parkinson's (ASAP) Collaborative Research Network, Chevy Chase, MD, United States
| | - Anthony H. V. Schapira
- Department of Clinical and Movement Neurosciences, Queen Square Institute of Neurology, University College London (UCL), London, United Kingdom
- Aligning Science Across Parkinson's (ASAP) Collaborative Research Network, Chevy Chase, MD, United States
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12
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Pérez-Carrión MD, Posadas I, Solera J, Ceña V. LRRK2 and Proteostasis in Parkinson's Disease. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:6808. [PMID: 35743250 PMCID: PMC9224256 DOI: 10.3390/ijms23126808] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/30/2022] [Revised: 06/16/2022] [Accepted: 06/17/2022] [Indexed: 02/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Parkinson's disease is a neurodegenerative condition initially characterized by the presence of tremor, muscle stiffness and impaired balance, with the deposition of insoluble protein aggregates in Lewy's Bodies the histopathological hallmark of the disease. Although different gene variants are linked to Parkinson disease, mutations in the Leucine-Rich Repeat Kinase 2 (LRRK2) gene are one of the most frequent causes of Parkinson's disease related to genetic mutations. LRRK2 toxicity has been mainly explained by an increase in kinase activity, but alternative mechanisms have emerged as underlying causes for Parkinson's disease, such as the imbalance in LRRK2 homeostasis and the involvement of LRRK2 in aggregation and spreading of α-synuclein toxicity. In this review, we recapitulate the main LRRK2 pathological mutations that contribute to Parkinson's disease and the different cellular and therapeutic strategies devised to correct LRRK2 homeostasis. In this review, we describe the main cellular control mechanisms that regulate LRRK2 folding and aggregation, such as the chaperone network and the protein-clearing pathways such as the ubiquitin-proteasome system and the autophagic-lysosomal pathway. We will also address the more relevant strategies to modulate neurodegeneration in Parkinson's disease through the regulation of LRRK2, using small molecules or LRRK2 silencing.
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Affiliation(s)
- María Dolores Pérez-Carrión
- Unidad Asociada Neurodeath, Universidad de Castilla-La Mancha, 02006 Albacete, Spain; (M.D.P.-C.); (I.P.)
- Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red Sobre Enfermedades Neurodegenerativas, Consorcio CIBER, Instituto de Salud Carlos III, 28029 Madrid, Spain
| | - Inmaculada Posadas
- Unidad Asociada Neurodeath, Universidad de Castilla-La Mancha, 02006 Albacete, Spain; (M.D.P.-C.); (I.P.)
- Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red Sobre Enfermedades Neurodegenerativas, Consorcio CIBER, Instituto de Salud Carlos III, 28029 Madrid, Spain
| | - Javier Solera
- Servicio de Medicina Interna, Complejo Hospitalario Universitario de Albacete, 02006 Albacete, Spain;
- Facultad de Medicina de Albacete, Universidad de Castilla-La Mancha, 02006 Albacete, Spain
| | - Valentín Ceña
- Unidad Asociada Neurodeath, Universidad de Castilla-La Mancha, 02006 Albacete, Spain; (M.D.P.-C.); (I.P.)
- Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red Sobre Enfermedades Neurodegenerativas, Consorcio CIBER, Instituto de Salud Carlos III, 28029 Madrid, Spain
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13
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Trinh J, Schymanski EL, Smajic S, Kasten M, Sammler E, Grünewald A. Molecular mechanisms defining penetrance of LRRK2-associated Parkinson's disease. MED GENET-BERLIN 2022; 34:103-116. [PMID: 38835904 PMCID: PMC11006382 DOI: 10.1515/medgen-2022-2127] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/06/2024]
Abstract
Mutations in Leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2) are the most frequent cause of dominantly inherited Parkinson's disease (PD). LRRK2 mutations, among which p.G2019S is the most frequent, are inherited with reduced penetrance. Interestingly, the disease risk associated with LRRK2 G2019S can vary dramatically depending on the ethnic background of the carrier. While this would suggest a genetic component in the definition of LRRK2-PD penetrance, only few variants have been shown to modify the age at onset of patients harbouring LRRK2 mutations, and the exact cellular pathways controlling the transition from a healthy to a diseased state currently remain elusive. In light of this knowledge gap, recent studies also explored environmental and lifestyle factors as potential modifiers of LRRK2-PD. In this article, we (i) describe the clinical characteristics of LRRK2 mutation carriers, (ii) review known genes linked to LRRK2-PD onset and (iii) summarize the cellular functions of LRRK2 with particular emphasis on potential penetrance-related molecular mechanisms. This section covers LRRK2's involvement in Rab GTPase and immune signalling as well as in the regulation of mitochondrial homeostasis and dynamics. Additionally, we explored the literature with regard to (iv) lifestyle and (v) environmental factors that may influence the penetrance of LRRK2 mutations, with a view towards further exposomics studies. Finally, based on this comprehensive overview, we propose potential future in vivo, in vitro and in silico studies that could provide a better understanding of the processes triggering PD in individuals with LRRK2 mutations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joanne Trinh
- Institute of Neurogenetics, University of Lübeck, Lübeck, Germany
| | - Emma L. Schymanski
- Luxembourg Centre for Systems Biomedicine, University of Luxembourg, Esch-sur-Alzette, Luxembourg
| | - Semra Smajic
- Luxembourg Centre for Systems Biomedicine, University of Luxembourg, Esch-sur-Alzette, Luxembourg
| | - Meike Kasten
- Institute of Neurogenetics, University of Lübeck, Lübeck, Germany
- Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, University of Lübeck, Lübeck, Germany
| | - Esther Sammler
- Medical Research Council (MRC) Protein Phosphorylation and Ubiquitylation Unit, School of Life Sciences, University of Dundee, Dundee, UK
- Department of Neurology, School of Medicine, Dundee, Ninewells Hospital, Dundee, UK
| | - Anne Grünewald
- Luxembourg Centre for Systems Biomedicine, University of Luxembourg, Esch-sur-Alzette, Luxembourg
- Institute of Neurogenetics, University of Lübeck, Lübeck, Germany
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14
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Chang EES, Ho PWL, Liu HF, Pang SYY, Leung CT, Malki Y, Choi ZYK, Ramsden DB, Ho SL. LRRK2 mutant knock-in mouse models: therapeutic relevance in Parkinson's disease. Transl Neurodegener 2022; 11:10. [PMID: 35152914 PMCID: PMC8842874 DOI: 10.1186/s40035-022-00285-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/11/2021] [Accepted: 01/26/2022] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Mutations in the leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 gene (LRRK2) are one of the most frequent genetic causes of both familial and sporadic Parkinson's disease (PD). Mounting evidence has demonstrated pathological similarities between LRRK2-associated PD (LRRK2-PD) and sporadic PD, suggesting that LRRK2 is a potential disease modulator and a therapeutic target in PD. LRRK2 mutant knock-in (KI) mouse models display subtle alterations in pathological aspects that mirror early-stage PD, including increased susceptibility of nigrostriatal neurotransmission, development of motor and non-motor symptoms, mitochondrial and autophagy-lysosomal defects and synucleinopathies. This review provides a rationale for the use of LRRK2 KI mice to investigate the LRRK2-mediated pathogenesis of PD and implications from current findings from different LRRK2 KI mouse models, and ultimately discusses the therapeutic potentials against LRRK2-associated pathologies in PD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eunice Eun Seo Chang
- Division of Neurology, Department of Medicine, Queen Mary Hospital, University of Hong Kong, Pok Fu Lam, Hong Kong, China
| | - Philip Wing-Lok Ho
- Division of Neurology, Department of Medicine, Queen Mary Hospital, University of Hong Kong, Pok Fu Lam, Hong Kong, China.
| | - Hui-Fang Liu
- Division of Neurology, Department of Medicine, Queen Mary Hospital, University of Hong Kong, Pok Fu Lam, Hong Kong, China
| | - Shirley Yin-Yu Pang
- Division of Neurology, Department of Medicine, Queen Mary Hospital, University of Hong Kong, Pok Fu Lam, Hong Kong, China
| | - Chi-Ting Leung
- Division of Neurology, Department of Medicine, Queen Mary Hospital, University of Hong Kong, Pok Fu Lam, Hong Kong, China
| | - Yasine Malki
- Division of Neurology, Department of Medicine, Queen Mary Hospital, University of Hong Kong, Pok Fu Lam, Hong Kong, China
| | - Zoe Yuen-Kiu Choi
- Division of Neurology, Department of Medicine, Queen Mary Hospital, University of Hong Kong, Pok Fu Lam, Hong Kong, China
| | - David Boyer Ramsden
- Institute of Metabolism and Systems Research, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, UK
| | - Shu-Leong Ho
- Division of Neurology, Department of Medicine, Queen Mary Hospital, University of Hong Kong, Pok Fu Lam, Hong Kong, China.
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15
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LRRK2 at Striatal Synapses: Cell-Type Specificity and Mechanistic Insights. Cells 2022; 11:cells11010169. [PMID: 35011731 PMCID: PMC8750662 DOI: 10.3390/cells11010169] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/27/2021] [Revised: 12/10/2021] [Accepted: 12/21/2021] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Mutations in leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2) cause Parkinson’s disease with a similar clinical presentation and progression to idiopathic Parkinson’s disease, and common variation is linked to disease risk. Recapitulation of the genotype in rodent models causes abnormal dopamine release and increases the susceptibility of dopaminergic neurons to insults, making LRRK2 a valuable model for understanding the pathobiology of Parkinson’s disease. It is also a promising druggable target with targeted therapies currently in development. LRRK2 mRNA and protein expression in the brain is highly variable across regions and cellular identities. A growing body of work has demonstrated that pathogenic LRRK2 mutations disrupt striatal synapses before the onset of overt neurodegeneration. Several substrates and interactors of LRRK2 have been identified to potentially mediate these pre-neurodegenerative changes in a cell-type-specific manner. This review discusses the effects of pathogenic LRRK2 mutations in striatal neurons, including cell-type-specific and pathway-specific alterations. It also highlights several LRRK2 effectors that could mediate the alterations to striatal function, including Rabs and protein kinase A. The lessons learned from improving our understanding of the pathogenic effects of LRRK2 mutations in striatal neurons will be applicable to both dissecting the cell-type specificity of LRRK2 function in the transcriptionally diverse subtypes of dopaminergic neurons and also increasing our understanding of basal ganglia development and biology. Finally, it will inform the development of therapeutics for Parkinson’s disease.
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16
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The Roc domain of LRRK2 as a hub for protein-protein interactions: a focus on PAK6 and its impact on RAB phosphorylation. Brain Res 2022; 1778:147781. [DOI: 10.1016/j.brainres.2022.147781] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/28/2021] [Revised: 12/21/2021] [Accepted: 01/04/2022] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
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17
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LRRK2 signaling in neurodegeneration: two decades of progress. Essays Biochem 2021; 65:859-872. [PMID: 34897411 DOI: 10.1042/ebc20210013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/26/2021] [Revised: 11/13/2021] [Accepted: 11/23/2021] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2) is a complex GTPase/kinase orchestrating cytoskeletal dynamics and multiple steps of the endolysosomal pathway through interaction with a host of partners and phosphorylation of a subset of Rab GTPases. Mutations in LRRK2 cause late-onset Parkinson's disease (PD) and common variants in the locus containing LRRK2 have been associated with sporadic PD, progressive supranuclear palsy as well as a number of inflammatory diseases. This review encompasses the major discoveries in the field of LRRK2 pathobiology, from the initial gene cloning to the latest progress in LRRK2 inhibition as a promising therapeutic approach to fight neurodegeneration.
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18
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Lee CY, Menozzi E, Chau KY, Schapira AHV. Glucocerebrosidase 1 and leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 in Parkinson disease and interplay between the two genes. J Neurochem 2021; 159:826-839. [PMID: 34618942 DOI: 10.1111/jnc.15524] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/16/2021] [Revised: 09/18/2021] [Accepted: 09/22/2021] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
Abstract
The glucocerebrosidase 1 gene (GBA1), bi-allelic variants of which cause Gaucher disease (GD), encodes the lysosomal enzyme glucocerebrosidase (GCase) and is a risk factor for Parkinson Disease (PD). GBA1 variants are linked to a reduction in GCase activity in the brain. Variants in Leucine-Rich Repeat Kinase 2 (LRRK2), such as the gain-of-kinase-function variant G2019S, cause the most common familial form of PD. In patients without GBA1 and LRRK2 mutations, GCase and LRRK2 activity are also altered, suggesting that these two genes are implicated in all forms of PD and that they may play a broader role in PD pathogenesis. In this review, we review the proposed roles of GBA1 and LRRK2 in PD, focussing on the endolysosomal pathway. In particular, we highlight the discovery of Ras-related in brain (Rab) guanosine triphosphatases (GTPases) as LRRK2 kinase substrates and explore the links between increased LRRK2 activity and Rab protein function, lysosomal dysfunction, alpha-synuclein accumulation and GCase activity. We also discuss the discovery of RAB10 as a potential mediator of LRRK2 and GBA1 interaction in PD. Finally, we discuss the therapeutic implications of these findings, including current approaches and future perspectives related to novel drugs targeting LRRK2 and GBA1.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chiao-Yin Lee
- Department of Clinical and Movement Neurosciences, UCL Queen Square Institute of Neurology, London, UK.,Aligning Science Across Parkinson's (ASAP) Collaborative Research Network, Chevy Chase, Maryland, USA
| | - Elisa Menozzi
- Department of Clinical and Movement Neurosciences, UCL Queen Square Institute of Neurology, London, UK.,Aligning Science Across Parkinson's (ASAP) Collaborative Research Network, Chevy Chase, Maryland, USA
| | - Kai-Yin Chau
- Department of Clinical and Movement Neurosciences, UCL Queen Square Institute of Neurology, London, UK.,Aligning Science Across Parkinson's (ASAP) Collaborative Research Network, Chevy Chase, Maryland, USA
| | - Anthony H V Schapira
- Department of Clinical and Movement Neurosciences, UCL Queen Square Institute of Neurology, London, UK.,Aligning Science Across Parkinson's (ASAP) Collaborative Research Network, Chevy Chase, Maryland, USA
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19
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Li X, Qi Z, Ni D, Lu S, Chen L, Chen X. Markov State Models and Molecular Dynamics Simulations Provide Understanding of the Nucleotide-Dependent Dimerization-Based Activation of LRRK2 ROC Domain. Molecules 2021; 26:5647. [PMID: 34577121 PMCID: PMC8467336 DOI: 10.3390/molecules26185647] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/22/2021] [Revised: 09/11/2021] [Accepted: 09/14/2021] [Indexed: 01/26/2023] Open
Abstract
Mutations in leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2) are recognized as the most frequent cause of Parkinson's disease (PD). As a multidomain ROCO protein, LRRK2 is characterized by the presence of both a Ras-of-complex (ROC) GTPase domain and a kinase domain connected through the C-terminal of an ROC domain (COR). The bienzymatic ROC-COR-kinase catalytic triad indicated the potential role of GTPase domain in regulating kinase activity. However, as a functional GTPase, the detailed intrinsic regulation of the ROC activation cycle remains poorly understood. Here, combining extensive molecular dynamics simulations and Markov state models, we disclosed the dynamic structural rearrangement of ROC's homodimer during nucleotide turnover. Our study revealed the coupling between dimerization extent and nucleotide-binding state, indicating a nucleotide-dependent dimerization-based activation scheme adopted by ROC GTPase. Furthermore, inspired by the well-known R1441C/G/H PD-relevant mutations within the ROC domain, we illuminated the potential allosteric molecular mechanism for its pathogenetic effects through enabling faster interconversion between inactive and active states, thus trapping ROC in a prolonged activated state, while the implicated allostery could provide further guidance for identification of regulatory allosteric pockets on the ROC complex. Our investigations illuminated the thermodynamics and kinetics of ROC homodimer during nucleotide-dependent activation for the first time and provided guidance for further exploiting ROC as therapeutic targets for controlling LRRK2 functionality in PD treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xinyi Li
- School of Medical Laboratory, Weifang Medical University, Weifang 261053, China;
- Medicinal Chemistry and Bioinformatics Center, School of Medicine, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200025, China;
| | - Zengxin Qi
- Department of Neurosurgery, Huashan Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai 200040, China;
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of Brain Function Restoration and Neural Regeneration, Huashan Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai 200040, China
- State Key Laboratory of Medical Neurobiology and MOE Frontiers Center for Brain Science, School of Basic Medical Sciences and Institutes of Brain Science, Fudan University, Shanghai 200433, China
| | - Duan Ni
- Medicinal Chemistry and Bioinformatics Center, School of Medicine, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200025, China;
| | - Shaoyong Lu
- Medicinal Chemistry and Bioinformatics Center, School of Medicine, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200025, China;
| | - Liang Chen
- Department of Neurosurgery, Huashan Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai 200040, China;
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of Brain Function Restoration and Neural Regeneration, Huashan Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai 200040, China
- State Key Laboratory of Medical Neurobiology and MOE Frontiers Center for Brain Science, School of Basic Medical Sciences and Institutes of Brain Science, Fudan University, Shanghai 200433, China
| | - Xiangyu Chen
- School of Medical Laboratory, Weifang Medical University, Weifang 261053, China;
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20
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Xu L, Nagai Y, Kajihara Y, Ito G, Tomita T. The Regulation of Rab GTPases by Phosphorylation. Biomolecules 2021; 11:biom11091340. [PMID: 34572553 PMCID: PMC8469595 DOI: 10.3390/biom11091340] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/17/2021] [Revised: 09/08/2021] [Accepted: 09/09/2021] [Indexed: 01/11/2023] Open
Abstract
Rab proteins are small GTPases that act as molecular switches for intracellular vesicle trafficking. Although their function is mainly regulated by regulatory proteins such as GTPase-activating proteins and guanine nucleotide exchange factors, recent studies have shown that some Rab proteins are physiologically phosphorylated in the switch II region by Rab kinases. As the switch II region of Rab proteins undergoes a conformational change depending on the bound nucleotide, it plays an essential role in their function as a ‘switch’. Initially, the phosphorylation of Rab proteins in the switch II region was shown to inhibit the association with regulatory proteins. However, recent studies suggest that it also regulates the binding of Rab proteins to effector proteins, determining which pathways to regulate. These findings suggest that the regulation of the Rab function may be more dynamically regulated by phosphorylation than just through the association with regulatory proteins. In this review, we summarize the recent findings and discuss the physiological and pathological roles of Rab phosphorylation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lejia Xu
- Laboratory of Neuropathology and Neuroscience, Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo 113-0033, Japan; (L.X.); (Y.N.); (Y.K.)
| | - Yuki Nagai
- Laboratory of Neuropathology and Neuroscience, Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo 113-0033, Japan; (L.X.); (Y.N.); (Y.K.)
| | - Yotaro Kajihara
- Laboratory of Neuropathology and Neuroscience, Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo 113-0033, Japan; (L.X.); (Y.N.); (Y.K.)
| | - Genta Ito
- Department of Biomolecular Chemistry, Faculty of Pharma-Science, Teikyo University, Tokyo 173-8605, Japan
- Social Cooperation Program of Brain and Neurological Disorders, Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo 113-0033, Japan
- Correspondence: (G.I.); (T.T.)
| | - Taisuke Tomita
- Laboratory of Neuropathology and Neuroscience, Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo 113-0033, Japan; (L.X.); (Y.N.); (Y.K.)
- Social Cooperation Program of Brain and Neurological Disorders, Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo 113-0033, Japan
- Correspondence: (G.I.); (T.T.)
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21
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Leschziner AE, Reck-Peterson SL. Structural Biology of LRRK2 and its Interaction with Microtubules. Mov Disord 2021; 36:2494-2504. [PMID: 34423856 PMCID: PMC9290818 DOI: 10.1002/mds.28755] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/16/2021] [Revised: 07/23/2021] [Accepted: 07/26/2021] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
Mutations in leucine rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2) are a major cause of familial Parkinson's disease (PD) and a risk factor for its sporadic form. LRRK2 hyperactivity has also been reported in sporadic PD, making LRRK2 an appealing target for PD small‐molecule therapeutics. At a cellular level, increasing evidence suggests that LRRK2 regulates membrane trafficking. Under some conditions LRRK2 also associates with microtubules, the cellular tracks used by dynein and kinesin motors to move membranes. At a structural level, however, relatively little was known about LRRK2. An important step toward bridging this gap took place last year with the publication of structures of LRRK2's cytosolic and microtubule‐bound forms. Here, we review the main findings from these studies and discuss what we see as the major challenges going forward with a focus on areas that will require structural information. We also introduce the structural techniques—cryo‐electron microscopy and cryo‐electron tomography—that were instrumental to solving the structures of LRRK2. © 2021 The Authors. Movement Disorders published by Wiley Periodicals LLC on behalf of International Parkinson and Movement Disorder Society
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Affiliation(s)
- Andres E Leschziner
- Department of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California, USA.,Division of Biological Sciences, Molecular Biology Section, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California, USA
| | - Samara L Reck-Peterson
- Department of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California, USA.,Division of Biological Sciences, Cell and Developmental Biology Section, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California, USA.,Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Chevy Chase, Maryland, USA
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22
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Abstract
Parkinson's disease (PD) is a common neurodegenerative disorder characterized by degeneration of the substantia nigra pars compacta and by accumulation of α-synuclein in Lewy bodies. PD is caused by a combination of environmental factors and genetic variants. These variants range from highly penetrant Mendelian alleles to alleles that only modestly increase disease risk. Here, we review what is known about the genetics of PD. We also describe how PD genetics have solidified the role of endosomal, lysosomal, and mitochondrial dysfunction in PD pathophysiology. Finally, we highlight how all three pathways are affected by α-synuclein and how this knowledge may be harnessed for the development of disease-modifying therapeutics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gabriel E Vázquez-Vélez
- Jan and Dan Duncan Neurological Research Institute, Texas Children's Hospital, Houston, Texas 77030, USA.,Program in Developmental Biology and Medical Scientist Training Program, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, Texas 77030, USA
| | - Huda Y Zoghbi
- Jan and Dan Duncan Neurological Research Institute, Texas Children's Hospital, Houston, Texas 77030, USA.,Program in Developmental Biology and Medical Scientist Training Program, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, Texas 77030, USA.,Departments of Molecular and Human Genetics and Pediatrics, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, Texas 77030, USA; .,Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Houston, Texas 77030, USA
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23
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Protein phosphatase 2A holoenzymes regulate leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 phosphorylation and accumulation. Neurobiol Dis 2021; 157:105426. [PMID: 34144124 DOI: 10.1016/j.nbd.2021.105426] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/03/2020] [Revised: 06/09/2021] [Accepted: 06/10/2021] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
LRRK2 is a highly phosphorylated multidomain protein and mutations in the gene encoding LRRK2 are a major genetic determinant of Parkinson's disease (PD). Dephosphorylation at LRRK2's S910/S935/S955/S973 phosphosite cluster is observed in several conditions including in sporadic PD brain, in several disease mutant forms of LRRK2 and after pharmacological LRRK2 kinase inhibition. However, the mechanism of LRRK2 dephosphorylation is poorly understood. We performed a phosphatome-wide reverse genetics screen to identify phosphatases involved in the dephosphorylation of the LRRK2 phosphosite S935. Candidate phosphatases selected from the primary screen were tested in mammalian cells, Xenopus oocytes and in vitro. Effects of PP2A on endogenous LRRK2 phosphorylation were examined via expression modulation with CRISPR/dCas9. Our screening revealed LRRK2 phosphorylation regulators linked to the PP1 and PP2A holoenzyme complexes as well as CDC25 phosphatases. We showed that dephosphorylation induced by different kinase inhibitor triggered relocalisation of phosphatases PP1 and PP2A in LRRK2 subcellular compartments in HEK-293 T cells. We also demonstrated that LRRK2 is an authentic substrate of PP2A both in vitro and in Xenopus oocytes. We singled out the PP2A holoenzyme PPP2CA:PPP2R2 as a powerful phosphoregulator of pS935-LRRK2. Furthermore, we demonstrated that this specific PP2A holoenzyme induces LRRK2 relocalization and triggers LRRK2 ubiquitination, suggesting its involvement in LRRK2 clearance. The identification of the PPP2CA:PPP2R2 complex regulating LRRK2 S910/S935/S955/S973 phosphorylation paves the way for studies refining PD therapeutic strategies that impact LRRK2 phosphorylation.
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24
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Abe T, Kuwahara T. Targeting of Lysosomal Pathway Genes for Parkinson's Disease Modification: Insights From Cellular and Animal Models. Front Neurol 2021; 12:681369. [PMID: 34194386 PMCID: PMC8236816 DOI: 10.3389/fneur.2021.681369] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/16/2021] [Accepted: 05/20/2021] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Previous genetic studies on hereditary Parkinson's disease (PD) have identified a set of pathogenic gene mutations that have strong impacts on the pathogenicity of PD. In addition, genome-wide association studies (GWAS) targeted to sporadic PD have nominated an increasing number of genetic variants that influence PD susceptibility. Although the clinical and pathological characteristics in hereditary PD are not identical to those in sporadic PD, α-synuclein, and LRRK2 are definitely associated with both types of PD, with LRRK2 mutations being the most frequent cause of autosomal-dominant PD. On the other hand, a significant portion of risk genes identified from GWAS have been associated with lysosomal functions, pointing to a critical role of lysosomes in PD pathogenesis. Experimental studies have suggested that the maintenance or upregulation of lysosomal activity may protect against neuronal dysfunction or degeneration. Here we focus on the roles of representative PD gene products that are implicated in lysosomal pathway, namely LRRK2, VPS35, ATP13A2, and glucocerebrosidase, and provide an overview of their disease-associated functions as well as their cooperative actions in the pathogenesis of PD, based on the evidence from cellular and animal models. We also discuss future perspectives of targeting lysosomal activation as a possible strategy to treat neurodegeneration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tetsuro Abe
- Department of Neuropathology, Graduate School of Medicine, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Tomoki Kuwahara
- Department of Neuropathology, Graduate School of Medicine, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan
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25
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Gulati A, Yeung CS, Lapointe B, Kattar SD, Gunaydin H, Scott JD, Childers KK, Methot JL, Simov V, Kurukulasuriya R, Pio B, Morriello GJ, Liu P, Tang H, Neelamkavil S, Wood HB, Rada VL, Ardolino MJ, Yan XC, Palte R, Otte K, Faltus R, Woodhouse J, Hegde LG, Ciaccio P, Minnihan EC, DiMauro EF, Fell MJ, Fuller PH, Ellis JM. Optimization of brain-penetrant picolinamide derived leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2) inhibitors. RSC Med Chem 2021; 12:1164-1173. [PMID: 34355182 DOI: 10.1039/d1md00097g] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/18/2021] [Accepted: 05/06/2021] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
The discovery of potent, kinome selective, brain penetrant LRRK2 inhibitors is the focus of extensive research seeking new, disease-modifying treatments for Parkinson's disease (PD). Herein, we describe the discovery and evolution of a picolinamide-derived lead series. Our initial optimization efforts aimed at improving the potency and CLK2 off-target selectivity of compound 1 by modifying the heteroaryl C-H hinge and linker regions. This resulted in compound 12 which advanced deep into our research operating plan (ROP) before heteroaryl aniline metabolite 14 was characterized as Ames mutagenic, halting its progression. Strategic modifications to our ROP were made to enable early de-risking of putative aniline metabolites or hydrolysis products for mutagenicity in Ames. This led to the discovery of 3,5-diaminopyridine 15 and 4,6-diaminopyrimidine 16 as low risk for mutagenicity (defined by a 3-strain Ames negative result). Analysis of key matched molecular pairs 17 and 18 led to the prioritization of the 3,5-diaminopyridine sub-series for further optimization due to enhanced rodent brain penetration. These efforts culminated in the discovery of ethyl trifluoromethyl pyrazole 23 with excellent LRRK2 potency and expanded selectivity versus off-target CLK2.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anmol Gulati
- Merck & Co., Inc. 33 Avenue Louis Pasteur Boston Massachusetts 02115 USA +1 617 992 2472 +1 617 992 3113
| | - Charles S Yeung
- Merck & Co., Inc. 33 Avenue Louis Pasteur Boston Massachusetts 02115 USA +1 617 992 2472 +1 617 992 3113
| | - Blair Lapointe
- Merck & Co., Inc. 33 Avenue Louis Pasteur Boston Massachusetts 02115 USA +1 617 992 2472 +1 617 992 3113
| | - Solomon D Kattar
- Merck & Co., Inc. 33 Avenue Louis Pasteur Boston Massachusetts 02115 USA +1 617 992 2472 +1 617 992 3113
| | - Hakan Gunaydin
- Merck & Co., Inc. 33 Avenue Louis Pasteur Boston Massachusetts 02115 USA +1 617 992 2472 +1 617 992 3113
| | - Jack D Scott
- Merck & Co., Inc. 2015 Galloping Hill Road Kenilworth New Jersey 07033 USA
| | - Kaleen K Childers
- Merck & Co., Inc. 33 Avenue Louis Pasteur Boston Massachusetts 02115 USA +1 617 992 2472 +1 617 992 3113
| | - Joey L Methot
- Merck & Co., Inc. 33 Avenue Louis Pasteur Boston Massachusetts 02115 USA +1 617 992 2472 +1 617 992 3113
| | - Vladimir Simov
- Merck & Co., Inc. 33 Avenue Louis Pasteur Boston Massachusetts 02115 USA +1 617 992 2472 +1 617 992 3113
| | - Ravi Kurukulasuriya
- Merck & Co., Inc. 33 Avenue Louis Pasteur Boston Massachusetts 02115 USA +1 617 992 2472 +1 617 992 3113
| | - Barbara Pio
- Merck & Co., Inc. 2015 Galloping Hill Road Kenilworth New Jersey 07033 USA
| | - Greg J Morriello
- Merck & Co., Inc. 2015 Galloping Hill Road Kenilworth New Jersey 07033 USA
| | - Ping Liu
- Merck & Co., Inc. 2015 Galloping Hill Road Kenilworth New Jersey 07033 USA
| | - Haiqun Tang
- Merck & Co., Inc. 2015 Galloping Hill Road Kenilworth New Jersey 07033 USA
| | | | - Harold B Wood
- Merck & Co., Inc. 2015 Galloping Hill Road Kenilworth New Jersey 07033 USA
| | - Vanessa L Rada
- Merck & Co., Inc. 770 Sumneytown Pike West Point Pennsylvania 19486 USA
| | - Michael J Ardolino
- Merck & Co., Inc. 33 Avenue Louis Pasteur Boston Massachusetts 02115 USA +1 617 992 2472 +1 617 992 3113
| | - Xin Cindy Yan
- Merck & Co., Inc. 33 Avenue Louis Pasteur Boston Massachusetts 02115 USA +1 617 992 2472 +1 617 992 3113
| | - Rachel Palte
- Merck & Co., Inc. 33 Avenue Louis Pasteur Boston Massachusetts 02115 USA +1 617 992 2472 +1 617 992 3113
| | - Karin Otte
- Merck & Co., Inc. 33 Avenue Louis Pasteur Boston Massachusetts 02115 USA +1 617 992 2472 +1 617 992 3113
| | - Robert Faltus
- Merck & Co., Inc. 33 Avenue Louis Pasteur Boston Massachusetts 02115 USA +1 617 992 2472 +1 617 992 3113
| | - Janice Woodhouse
- Merck & Co., Inc. 33 Avenue Louis Pasteur Boston Massachusetts 02115 USA +1 617 992 2472 +1 617 992 3113
| | - Laxminarayan G Hegde
- Merck & Co., Inc. 33 Avenue Louis Pasteur Boston Massachusetts 02115 USA +1 617 992 2472 +1 617 992 3113
| | - Paul Ciaccio
- Merck & Co., Inc. 33 Avenue Louis Pasteur Boston Massachusetts 02115 USA +1 617 992 2472 +1 617 992 3113
| | - Ellen C Minnihan
- Merck & Co., Inc. 33 Avenue Louis Pasteur Boston Massachusetts 02115 USA +1 617 992 2472 +1 617 992 3113
| | - Erin F DiMauro
- Merck & Co., Inc. 33 Avenue Louis Pasteur Boston Massachusetts 02115 USA +1 617 992 2472 +1 617 992 3113
| | - Matthew J Fell
- Merck & Co., Inc. 33 Avenue Louis Pasteur Boston Massachusetts 02115 USA +1 617 992 2472 +1 617 992 3113
| | - Peter H Fuller
- Merck & Co., Inc. 33 Avenue Louis Pasteur Boston Massachusetts 02115 USA +1 617 992 2472 +1 617 992 3113
| | - J Michael Ellis
- Merck & Co., Inc. 33 Avenue Louis Pasteur Boston Massachusetts 02115 USA +1 617 992 2472 +1 617 992 3113
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Abstract
Point mutations in leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2) are the most common cause of familial Parkinson's disease (PD) and are implicated in a significant proportion of apparently sporadic PD cases. Clinically, LRRK2-driven PD is indistinguishable from sporadic PD, making it an attractive genetic model for the much more common sporadic PD. In this review, we highlight recent advances in understanding LRRK2's subcellular functions using LRRK2-driven PD models, while also considering some of the limitations of these model systems. Recent developments of particular importance include new evidence of key LRRK2 functions in the endolysosomal system and LRRK2's regulation of and by Rab GTPases. Additionally, LRRK2's interaction with the cytoskeleton allowed elucidation of the LRRK2 structure and appears relevant to LRRK2 protein degradation and LRRK2 inhibitor therapies. We further discuss how LRRK2's interactions with other PD-driving genes, such as the VPS35, GBA1, and SNCA genes, may highlight cellular pathways more broadly disrupted in PD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ahsan Usmani
- Department of Pathology, University of California, San Diego, San Diego, California, USA
| | - Farbod Shavarebi
- Department of Pathology, University of California, San Diego, San Diego, California, USA
| | - Annie Hiniker
- Department of Pathology, University of California, San Diego, San Diego, California, USA
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27
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Abstract
Parkinson's disease (PD) is a progressive neurodegenerative disorder resulting from the death of dopamine neurons in the substantia nigra pars compacta. Our understanding of PD biology has been enriched by the identification of genes involved in its rare, inheritable forms, termed PARK genes. These genes encode proteins including α-syn, LRRK2, VPS35, parkin, PINK1, and DJ1, which can cause monogenetic PD when mutated. Investigating the cellular functions of these proteins has been instrumental in identifying signaling pathways that mediate pathology in PD and neuroprotective mechanisms active during homeostatic and pathological conditions. It is now evident that many PD-associated proteins perform multiple functions in PD-associated signaling pathways in neurons. Furthermore, several PARK proteins contribute to non-cell-autonomous mechanisms of neuron death, such as neuroinflammation. A comprehensive understanding of cell-autonomous and non-cell-autonomous pathways involved in PD is essential for developing therapeutics that may slow or halt its progression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nikhil Panicker
- Neuroregeneration and Stem Cell Programs, Institute for Cell Engineering, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD.,Department of Neurology, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD
| | - Preston Ge
- Neuroregeneration and Stem Cell Programs, Institute for Cell Engineering, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD.,Solomon H. Snyder Department of Neuroscience, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD.,Adrienne Helis Malvin Medical Research Foundation, New Orleans, LA
| | - Valina L Dawson
- Neuroregeneration and Stem Cell Programs, Institute for Cell Engineering, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD.,Department of Physiology, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD.,Department of Neurology, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD.,Solomon H. Snyder Department of Neuroscience, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD.,Adrienne Helis Malvin Medical Research Foundation, New Orleans, LA.,Diana Helis Henry Medical Research Foundation, New Orleans, LA
| | - Ted M Dawson
- Neuroregeneration and Stem Cell Programs, Institute for Cell Engineering, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD.,Department of Physiology, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD.,Department of Neurology, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD.,Solomon H. Snyder Department of Neuroscience, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD.,Department of Pharmacology and Molecular Sciences, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD.,Adrienne Helis Malvin Medical Research Foundation, New Orleans, LA.,Diana Helis Henry Medical Research Foundation, New Orleans, LA
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28
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Deniston CK, Salogiannis J, Mathea S, Snead DM, Lahiri I, Matyszewski M, Donosa O, Watanabe R, Böhning J, Shiau AK, Knapp S, Villa E, Reck-Peterson SL, Leschziner AE. Structure of LRRK2 in Parkinson's disease and model for microtubule interaction. Nature 2020; 588:344-349. [PMID: 32814344 PMCID: PMC7726071 DOI: 10.1038/s41586-020-2673-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 121] [Impact Index Per Article: 30.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/10/2019] [Accepted: 08/12/2020] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2) is the most commonly mutated gene in familial Parkinson's disease1 and is also linked to its idiopathic form2. LRRK2 has been proposed to function in membrane trafficking3 and colocalizes with microtubules4. Despite the fundamental importance of LRRK2 for understanding and treating Parkinson's disease, structural information on the enzyme is limited. Here we report the structure of the catalytic half of LRRK2, and an atomic model of microtubule-associated LRRK2 built using a reported cryo-electron tomography in situ structure5. We propose that the conformation of the LRRK2 kinase domain regulates its interactions with microtubules, with a closed conformation favouring oligomerization on microtubules. We show that the catalytic half of LRRK2 is sufficient for filament formation and blocks the motility of the microtubule-based motors kinesin 1 and cytoplasmic dynein 1 in vitro. Kinase inhibitors that stabilize an open conformation relieve this interference and reduce the formation of LRRK2 filaments in cells, whereas inhibitors that stabilize a closed conformation do not. Our findings suggest that LRRK2 can act as a roadblock for microtubule-based motors and have implications for the design of therapeutic LRRK2 kinase inhibitors.
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Affiliation(s)
- C K Deniston
- Department of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA, USA
- Genomics Institute of the Novartis Research Foundation, La Jolla, CA, USA
| | - J Salogiannis
- Department of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA, USA
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Chevy Chase, MD, USA
| | - S Mathea
- Institute of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Goethe-Universität, Frankfurt, Germany
| | - D M Snead
- Department of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA, USA
| | - I Lahiri
- Department of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA, USA
- Department of Biological Sciences, Indian Institute of Science Education and Research Mohali, Mohali, India
| | - M Matyszewski
- Department of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA, USA
| | - O Donosa
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Chevy Chase, MD, USA
| | - R Watanabe
- Division of Biological Sciences, Molecular Biology Section, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA, USA
- La Jolla Institute for Immunology, La Jolla, CA, USA
| | - J Böhning
- Division of Biological Sciences, Molecular Biology Section, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA, USA
- Sir William Dunn School of Pathology, Oxford University, Oxford, UK
| | - A K Shiau
- Small Molecule Discovery Program, Ludwig Institute for Cancer Research, La Jolla, CA, USA
- Division of Biological Sciences, Cell and Developmental Biology Section, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA, USA
| | - S Knapp
- Institute of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Goethe-Universität, Frankfurt, Germany
| | - E Villa
- Division of Biological Sciences, Molecular Biology Section, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA, USA
| | - S L Reck-Peterson
- Department of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA, USA.
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Chevy Chase, MD, USA.
- Division of Biological Sciences, Cell and Developmental Biology Section, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA, USA.
| | - A E Leschziner
- Department of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA, USA.
- Division of Biological Sciences, Molecular Biology Section, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA, USA.
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29
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Pathological Functions of LRRK2 in Parkinson's Disease. Cells 2020; 9:cells9122565. [PMID: 33266247 PMCID: PMC7759975 DOI: 10.3390/cells9122565] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/13/2020] [Revised: 11/26/2020] [Accepted: 11/27/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Mutations in the gene encoding leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2) are common genetic risk factors for both familial and sporadic Parkinson’s disease (PD). Pathogenic mutations in LRRK2 have been shown to induce changes in its activity, and abnormal increase in LRRK2 kinase activity is thought to contribute to PD pathology. The precise molecular mechanisms underlying LRRK2-associated PD pathology are far from clear, however the identification of LRRK2 substrates and the elucidation of cellular pathways involved suggest a role of LRRK2 in microtubule dynamics, vesicular trafficking, and synaptic transmission. Moreover, LRRK2 is associated with pathologies of α-synuclein, a major component of Lewy bodies (LBs). Evidence from various cellular and animal models supports a role of LRRK2 in the regulation of aggregation and propagation of α-synuclein. Here, we summarize our current understanding of how pathogenic mutations dysregulate LRRK2 and discuss the possible mechanisms leading to neurodegeneration.
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30
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Stiegler AL, Boggon TJ. The pseudoGTPase group of pseudoenzymes. FEBS J 2020; 287:4232-4245. [PMID: 32893973 PMCID: PMC7544640 DOI: 10.1111/febs.15554] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/11/2020] [Revised: 08/21/2020] [Accepted: 09/01/2020] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Pseudoenzymes are emerging as significant mediators and regulators of signal transduction. These proteins maintain enzyme folds and topologies, but are disrupted in the conserved motifs required for enzymatic activity. Among the pseudoenzymes, the pseudoGTPase group of atypical GTPases has recently expanded and includes the Rnd and RGK groups, RhoH and the RhoBTB proteins, mitochondrial RhoGTPase and centaurin-γ groups, CENP-M, dynein LIC, Entamoeba histolytica RabX3, leucine-rich repeat kinase 2, and the p190RhoGAP proteins. The wide range of cellular functions associated with pseudoGTPases includes cell migration and adhesion, membrane trafficking and cargo transport, mitosis, mitochondrial activity, transcriptional control, and autophagy, placing the group in an expanding portfolio of signaling pathways. In this review, we examine how the pseudoGTPases differ from canonical GTPases and consider their mechanistic and functional roles in signal transduction. We review the amino acid differences between the pseudoGTPases and discuss how these proteins can be classified based on their ability to bind nucleotide and their enzymatic activity. We discuss the molecular and structural consequences of amino acid divergence from canonical GTPases and use comparison with the well-studied pseudokinases to illustrate the classifications. PseudoGTPases are fast becoming recognized as important mechanistic components in a range of cellular roles, and we provide a concise discussion of the currently identified members of this group. ENZYMES: small GTPases; EC number: EC 3.6.5.2.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amy L. Stiegler
- Department of Pharmacology, Yale University School of Medicine, 333 Cedar Street, New Haven, CT, 06520, USA
| | - Titus J. Boggon
- Department of Pharmacology, Yale University School of Medicine, 333 Cedar Street, New Haven, CT, 06520, USA
- Departments of Molecular Biophysics and Biochemistry, Yale University School of Medicine, 333 Cedar Street, New Haven, CT, 06520, USA
- Yale Cancer Center, Yale University School of Medicine, 333 Cedar Street, New Haven, CT, 06520, USA
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31
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Trinh D, Israwi AR, Arathoon LR, Gleave JA, Nash JE. The multi-faceted role of mitochondria in the pathology of Parkinson's disease. J Neurochem 2020; 156:715-752. [PMID: 33616931 DOI: 10.1111/jnc.15154] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/25/2020] [Revised: 07/29/2020] [Accepted: 07/31/2020] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Mitochondria are essential for neuronal function. They produce ATP to meet energy demands, regulate homeostasis of ion levels such as calcium and regulate reactive oxygen species that cause oxidative cellular stress. Mitochondria have also been shown to regulate protein synthesis within themselves, as well as within the nucleus, and also influence synaptic plasticity. These roles are especially important for neurons, which have higher energy demands and greater susceptibility to stress. Dysfunction of mitochondria has been associated with several neurodegenerative diseases, including Parkinson's disease, Alzheimer's disease, Huntington's disease, Glaucoma and Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis. The focus of this review is on how and why mitochondrial function is linked to the pathology of Parkinson's disease (PD). Many of the PD-linked genetic mutations which have been identified result in dysfunctional mitochondria, through a wide-spread number of mechanisms. In this review, we describe how susceptible neurons are predisposed to be vulnerable to the toxic events that occur during the neurodegenerative process of PD, and how mitochondria are central to these pathways. We also discuss ways in which proteins linked with familial PD control mitochondrial function, both physiologically and pathologically, along with their implications in genome-wide association studies and risk assessment. Finally, we review potential strategies for disease modification through mitochondrial enhancement. Ultimately, agents capable of both improving and/or restoring mitochondrial function, either alone, or in conjunction with other disease-modifying agents may halt or slow the progression of neurodegeneration in Parkinson's disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dennison Trinh
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Toronto Scarborough, Centre for Neurobiology of Stress, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | - Ahmad R Israwi
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Toronto Scarborough, Centre for Neurobiology of Stress, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | - Lindsay R Arathoon
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Toronto Scarborough, Centre for Neurobiology of Stress, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | - Jacqueline A Gleave
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Toronto Scarborough, Centre for Neurobiology of Stress, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | - Joanne E Nash
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Toronto Scarborough, Centre for Neurobiology of Stress, Toronto, ON, Canada
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32
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The In Situ Structure of Parkinson's Disease-Linked LRRK2. Cell 2020; 182:1508-1518.e16. [PMID: 32783917 DOI: 10.1016/j.cell.2020.08.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 119] [Impact Index Per Article: 29.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/30/2019] [Revised: 05/28/2020] [Accepted: 07/31/2020] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Mutations in leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2) are the most frequent cause of familial Parkinson's disease. LRRK2 is a multi-domain protein containing a kinase and GTPase. Using correlative light and electron microscopy, in situ cryo-electron tomography, and subtomogram analysis, we reveal a 14-Å structure of LRRK2 bearing a pathogenic mutation that oligomerizes as a right-handed double helix around microtubules, which are left-handed. Using integrative modeling, we determine the architecture of LRRK2, showing that the GTPase and kinase are in close proximity, with the GTPase closer to the microtubule surface, whereas the kinase is exposed to the cytoplasm. We identify two oligomerization interfaces mediated by non-catalytic domains. Mutation of one of these abolishes LRRK2 microtubule-association. Our work demonstrates the power of cryo-electron tomography to generate models of previously unsolved structures in their cellular environment.
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33
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Dopaminergic neurodegeneration induced by Parkinson's disease-linked G2019S LRRK2 is dependent on kinase and GTPase activity. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2020; 117:17296-17307. [PMID: 32631998 PMCID: PMC7382283 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1922184117] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Mutations in leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2) are the most common cause of late-onset, autosomal-dominant familial Parkinson's disease (PD). LRRK2 functions as both a kinase and GTPase, and PD-linked mutations are known to influence both enzymatic activities. While PD-linked LRRK2 mutations can commonly induce neuronal damage in culture models, the mechanisms underlying these pathogenic effects remain uncertain. Rodent models containing familial LRRK2 mutations often lack robust PD-like neurodegenerative phenotypes. Here, we develop a robust preclinical model of PD in adult rats induced by the brain delivery of recombinant adenoviral vectors with neuronal-specific expression of human LRRK2 harboring the most common G2019S mutation. In this model, G2019S LRRK2 induces the robust degeneration of substantia nigra dopaminergic neurons, a pathological hallmark of PD. Introduction of a stable kinase-inactive mutation or administration of the selective kinase inhibitor, PF-360, attenuates neurodegeneration induced by G2019S LRRK2. Neuroprotection provided by pharmacological kinase inhibition is mediated by an unusual mechanism involving the robust destabilization of human LRRK2 protein in the brain relative to endogenous LRRK2. Our study further demonstrates that G2019S LRRK2-induced dopaminergic neurodegeneration critically requires normal GTPase activity, as hypothesis-testing mutations that increase GTP hydrolysis or impair GTP-binding activity provide neuroprotection although via distinct mechanisms. Taken together, our data demonstrate that G2019S LRRK2 induces neurodegeneration in vivo via a mechanism that is dependent on kinase and GTPase activity. Our study provides a robust rodent preclinical model of LRRK2-linked PD and nominates kinase inhibition and modulation of GTPase activity as promising disease-modifying therapeutic targets.
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34
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Marchand A, Drouyer M, Sarchione A, Chartier-Harlin MC, Taymans JM. LRRK2 Phosphorylation, More Than an Epiphenomenon. Front Neurosci 2020; 14:527. [PMID: 32612495 PMCID: PMC7308437 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2020.00527] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/01/2020] [Accepted: 04/28/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Mutations in the Leucine Rich Repeat Kinase 2 (LRRK2) gene are linked to autosomal dominant Parkinson's disease (PD), and genetic variations at the LRRK2 locus are associated with an increased risk for sporadic PD. This gene encodes a kinase that is physiologically multiphosphorylated, including clusters of both heterologous phosphorylation and autophosphorylation sites. Several pieces of evidence indicate that LRRK2's phosphorylation is important for its pathological and physiological functioning. These include a reduced LRRK2 heterologous phosphorylation in PD brains or after pharmacological inhibition of LRRK2 kinase activity as well as the appearance of subcellular LRRK2 accumulations when this protein is dephosphorylated at heterologous phosphosites. Nevertheless, the regulatory mechanisms governing LRRK2 phosphorylation levels and the cellular consequences of changes in LRRK2 phosphorylation remain incompletely understood. In this review, we present current knowledge on LRRK2 phosphorylation, LRRK2 phosphoregulation, and how LRRK2 phosphorylation changes affect cellular processes that may ultimately be linked to PD mechanisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Antoine Marchand
- University of Lille, Inserm, CHU Lille, U1172 - LilNCog - Lille Neuroscience & Cognition, Lille, France
- Inserm, UMR-S 1172, Team “Brain Biology and Chemistry”, Lille, France
| | - Matthieu Drouyer
- University of Lille, Inserm, CHU Lille, U1172 - LilNCog - Lille Neuroscience & Cognition, Lille, France
- Inserm, UMR-S 1172, Team “Brain Biology and Chemistry”, Lille, France
| | - Alessia Sarchione
- University of Lille, Inserm, CHU Lille, U1172 - LilNCog - Lille Neuroscience & Cognition, Lille, France
- Inserm, UMR-S 1172, Team “Brain Biology and Chemistry”, Lille, France
| | - Marie-Christine Chartier-Harlin
- University of Lille, Inserm, CHU Lille, U1172 - LilNCog - Lille Neuroscience & Cognition, Lille, France
- Inserm, UMR-S 1172, Team “Brain Biology and Chemistry”, Lille, France
| | - Jean-Marc Taymans
- University of Lille, Inserm, CHU Lille, U1172 - LilNCog - Lille Neuroscience & Cognition, Lille, France
- Inserm, UMR-S 1172, Team “Brain Biology and Chemistry”, Lille, France
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35
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Fluctuation Imaging of LRRK2 Reveals that the G2019S Mutation Alters Spatial and Membrane Dynamics. Molecules 2020; 25:molecules25112561. [PMID: 32486414 PMCID: PMC7321188 DOI: 10.3390/molecules25112561] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/19/2020] [Revised: 05/20/2020] [Accepted: 05/22/2020] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Mutations within the Leucine-Rich Repeat Kinase 2 (LRRK2) gene are the most common genetic cause of autosomal and sporadic Parkinson’s disease (PD). LRRK2 is a large multidomain kinase that has reported interactions with several membrane proteins, including Rab and Endophilin, and has recently been proposed to function as a regulator of vesicular trafficking. It is unclear whether or how the spatiotemporal organization of the protein is altered due to LRRK2 activity. Therefore, we utilized fluctuation-based microscopy along with FLIM/FRET to examine the cellular properties and membrane recruitment of WT LRRK2-GFP (WT) and the PD mutant G2019S LRRK2-GFP (G2019S). We show that both variants can be separated into two distinct populations within the cytosol; a freely diffusing population associated with monomer/dimer species and a slower, likely vesicle-bound population. G2019S shows a significantly higher propensity to self-associate in both the cytosol and membrane regions when compared to WT. G2019S expression also resulted in increased hetero-interactions with Endophilin A1 (EndoA1), reduced cellular vesicles, and altered clathrin puncta dynamics associated with the plasma membrane. This finding was associated with a reduction in transferrin endocytosis in cells expressing G2019S, which indicates disruption of endocytic protein recruitment near the plasma membrane. Overall, this study uncovered multiple dynamic alterations to the LRRK2 protein as a result of the G2019S mutation—all of which could lead to neurodegeneration associated with PD.
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36
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Taylor M, Alessi DR. Advances in elucidating the function of leucine-rich repeat protein kinase-2 in normal cells and Parkinson's disease. Curr Opin Cell Biol 2020; 63:102-113. [PMID: 32036294 PMCID: PMC7262585 DOI: 10.1016/j.ceb.2020.01.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 71] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/29/2019] [Revised: 12/31/2019] [Accepted: 01/02/2020] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Autosomal dominant missense mutations that hyperactivate the leucine-rich repeat protein kinase-2 (LRRK2) are a common cause of inherited Parkinson's disease and therapeutic efficacy of LRRK2 inhibitors is being tested in clinical trials. In this review, we discuss the nuts and bolts of our current understanding of how the LRRK2 is misregulated by mutations and how pathway activity is affected by LRRK2 binding to membrane, microtubule filaments, and 14-3-3, as well as by upstream components such as Rab29 and VPS35. We discuss recent work that points toward a subset of Rab proteins comprising key physiological substrates that bind new sets of effectors, such as RILPL1/2, JIP3 and JIP4 after phosphorylation by LRRK2. We explore what is known about how LRRK2 regulates ciliogenesis, the endosomal-lysosomal system, immune responses and interplay with alpha-synuclein and tau and how this might be linked to Parkinson's' disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthew Taylor
- Medical Research Council Protein Phosphorylation and Ubiquitylation Unit, School of Life Sciences, University of Dundee, Dow Street, Dundee, DD1 5EH, UK
| | - Dario R Alessi
- Medical Research Council Protein Phosphorylation and Ubiquitylation Unit, School of Life Sciences, University of Dundee, Dow Street, Dundee, DD1 5EH, UK.
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37
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di Caudo C, Martínez-Valbuena I, Mundiñano IC, Gennetier A, Hernandez M, Carmona-Abellan M, Marcilla Garcia I, Kremer EJ, Luquin R. CAV-2-Mediated GFP and LRRK2 G2019S Expression in the Macaca fascicularis Brain. Front Mol Neurosci 2020; 13:49. [PMID: 32269512 PMCID: PMC7109318 DOI: 10.3389/fnmol.2020.00049] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/15/2019] [Accepted: 03/09/2020] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Parkinson’s disease is characterized by motor and nonmotor symptoms that gradually appear as a consequence of the selective loss of dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra pars compacta. Currently, no treatment can slow Parkinson’s disease progression. Inasmuch, there is a need to develop animal models that can be used to understand the pathophysiological mechanisms underlying dopaminergic neuron death. The initial goal of this study was to determine if canine adenovirus type 2 (CAV-2) vectors are effective gene transfer tools in the monkey brain. A second objective was to explore the possibility of developing a large nonhuman primate that expresses one of the most common genetic mutations causing Parkinson’s disease. Our studies demonstrate the neuronal tropism, retrograde transport, biodistribution, and efficacy of CAV-2 vectors expressing GFP and leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2G2019S) in the Macaca fascicularis brain. Our data also suggest that following optimization CAV-2-mediated LRRK2G2019S expression could help us model the neurodegenerative processes of this genetic subtype of Parkinson’s disease in monkeys.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carla di Caudo
- Division of Neuroscience, Center for Applied Medical Research (CIMA), Universidad de Navarra, Pamplona, Spain.,Department of Neurology, Clinica Universidad de Navarra, Pamplona, Spain
| | - Ivan Martínez-Valbuena
- Division of Neuroscience, Center for Applied Medical Research (CIMA), Universidad de Navarra, Pamplona, Spain.,Department of Neurology, Clinica Universidad de Navarra, Pamplona, Spain.,Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria de Navarra (IDISNA), Pamplona, Spain
| | - Iñaki-Carril Mundiñano
- Division of Neuroscience, Center for Applied Medical Research (CIMA), Universidad de Navarra, Pamplona, Spain
| | - Aurelie Gennetier
- Institut de Génétique Moléculaire de Montpellier, Université de Montpellier, CNRS, Montpellier, France
| | - Maria Hernandez
- Division of Neuroscience, Center for Applied Medical Research (CIMA), Universidad de Navarra, Pamplona, Spain.,Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria de Navarra (IDISNA), Pamplona, Spain
| | - Mar Carmona-Abellan
- Division of Neuroscience, Center for Applied Medical Research (CIMA), Universidad de Navarra, Pamplona, Spain.,Department of Neurology, Clinica Universidad de Navarra, Pamplona, Spain
| | - Irene Marcilla Garcia
- Division of Neuroscience, Center for Applied Medical Research (CIMA), Universidad de Navarra, Pamplona, Spain
| | - Eric J Kremer
- Institut de Génétique Moléculaire de Montpellier, Université de Montpellier, CNRS, Montpellier, France
| | - Rosario Luquin
- Division of Neuroscience, Center for Applied Medical Research (CIMA), Universidad de Navarra, Pamplona, Spain.,Department of Neurology, Clinica Universidad de Navarra, Pamplona, Spain.,Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria de Navarra (IDISNA), Pamplona, Spain
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38
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Mills RD, Liang LY, Lio DSS, Mok YF, Mulhern TD, Cao G, Griffin M, Kenche VB, Culvenor JG, Cheng HC. The Roc-COR tandem domain of leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 forms dimers and exhibits conventional Ras-like GTPase properties. J Neurochem 2019; 147:409-428. [PMID: 30091236 DOI: 10.1111/jnc.14566] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/12/2017] [Revised: 08/02/2018] [Accepted: 08/03/2018] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
The Parkinson's disease (PD)-causative leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2) belongs to the Roco family of G-proteins comprising a Ras-of-complex (Roc) domain followed by a C-terminal of Roc (COR) domain in tandem (called Roc-COR domain). Two prokaryotic Roc-COR domains have been characterized as 'G proteins activated by guanine nucleotide-dependent dimerization' (GADs), which require dimerization for activation of their GTPase activity and bind guanine nucleotides with relatively low affinities. Additionally, LRRK2 Roc domain in isolation binds guanine nucleotides with relatively low affinities. As such, LRRK2 GTPase domain was predicted to be a GAD. Herein, we describe the design and high-level expression of human LRRK2 Roc-COR domain (LRRK2 Roc-COR). Biochemical analyses of LRRK2 Roc-COR reveal that it forms homodimers, with the C-terminal portion of COR mediating its dimerization. Furthermore, it co-purifies and binds Mg2+ GTP/GDP at 1 : 1 stoichiometry, and it hydrolyzes GTP with Km and kcat of 22 nM and 4.70 × 10-4 min-1 , respectively. Thus, even though LRRK2 Roc-COR forms GAD-like homodimers, it exhibits conventional Ras-like GTPase properties, with high-affinity binding of Mg2+ -GTP/GDP and low intrinsic catalytic activity. The PD-causative Y1699C mutation mapped to the COR domain was previously reported to reduce the GTPase activity of full-length LRRK2. In contrast, this mutation induces no change in the GTPase activity, and only slight perturbations in the secondary structure contents of LRRK2 Roc-COR. As this mutation does not directly affect the GTPase activity of the isolated Roc-COR tandem, it is possible that the effects of this mutation on full-length LRRK2 occur via other functional domains. Open Practices Open Science: This manuscript was awarded with the Open Materials Badge. For more information see: https://cos.io/our-services/open-science-badges/.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ryan D Mills
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria, Australia.,Bio21 Institute of Molecular Science and Biotechnology, University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria, Australia
| | - Lung-Yu Liang
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria, Australia.,Bio21 Institute of Molecular Science and Biotechnology, University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria, Australia.,Cell Signaling Research Laboratories, University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria, Australia
| | - Daisy Sio-Seng Lio
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria, Australia.,Bio21 Institute of Molecular Science and Biotechnology, University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria, Australia.,Cell Signaling Research Laboratories, University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria, Australia
| | - Yee-Foong Mok
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria, Australia.,Bio21 Institute of Molecular Science and Biotechnology, University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria, Australia
| | - Terrence D Mulhern
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria, Australia.,Bio21 Institute of Molecular Science and Biotechnology, University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria, Australia
| | - George Cao
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria, Australia.,Bio21 Institute of Molecular Science and Biotechnology, University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria, Australia
| | - Michael Griffin
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria, Australia.,Bio21 Institute of Molecular Science and Biotechnology, University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria, Australia
| | - Vijaya B Kenche
- Bio21 Institute of Molecular Science and Biotechnology, University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria, Australia.,Florey Neuroscience Institute, University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria, Australia
| | - Janetta G Culvenor
- Department of Pathology, University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria, Australia
| | - Heung-Chin Cheng
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria, Australia.,Bio21 Institute of Molecular Science and Biotechnology, University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria, Australia.,Cell Signaling Research Laboratories, University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria, Australia
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39
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Ren C, Ding Y, Wei S, Guan L, Zhang C, Ji Y, Wang F, Yin S, Yin P. G2019S Variation in LRRK2: An Ideal Model for the Study of Parkinson's Disease? Front Hum Neurosci 2019; 13:306. [PMID: 31551736 PMCID: PMC6738350 DOI: 10.3389/fnhum.2019.00306] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/15/2019] [Accepted: 08/19/2019] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Parkinson's disease (PD) is the second most common neurodegenerative disorder and has plagued humans for more than 200 years. The etiology and detailed pathogenesis of PD is unclear, but is currently believed to be the result of the interaction between genetic and environmental factors. Studies have found that PD patients with the LRRK2:G2019S variation have the typical clinical manifestations of PD, which may be familial or sporadic, and have age-dependent pathogenic characteristics. Therefore, the LRRK2:G2019S variation may be an ideal model to study the interaction of multiple factors such as genetic, environmental and natural aging factors in PD in the future. This article reviewed the progress of LRRK2:G2019S studies in PD research in order to provide new research ideas and directions for the pathogenesis and treatment of PD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chao Ren
- Department of Neurology, The Affiliated Yantai Yuhuangding Hospital of Qingdao University, Yantai, China
- Department of Neurology, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Soochow University, Suzhou, China
- Institute of Neuroscience, Soochow University, Suzhou, China
| | - Yu Ding
- Institute of Neuroscience, Soochow University, Suzhou, China
- Department of Orthopedic Surgery, The First Affiliated Hospital of Soochow University, Suzhou, China
| | - Shizhuang Wei
- Institute of Neuroscience, Soochow University, Suzhou, China
| | - Lina Guan
- Department of Neurosurgical Intensive Care Unit, The Affiliated Yantai Yuhuangding Hospital of Qingdao University, Yantai, China
| | - Caiyi Zhang
- Department of Emergency and Rescue Medicine, Xuzhou Medical University, Xuzhou, China
| | - Yongqiang Ji
- Department of Nephrology, The Affiliated Yantai Yuhuangding Hospital of Qingdao University, Yantai, China
| | - Fen Wang
- Institute of Neuroscience, Soochow University, Suzhou, China
| | - Shaohua Yin
- Department of Nursing, The Affiliated Yantai Yuhuangding Hospital of Qingdao University, Yantai, China
| | - Peiyuan Yin
- Department of Blood Supply, Yantai Center Blood Station, Yantai, China
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40
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Yan K, Zhang W, Han X, Chang F, Liu Y. Inhibitory role of peroxiredoxin 2 in LRRK2 kinase activity induced cellular pathogenesis. J Biomed Res 2019; 34:103-113. [PMID: 32305964 DOI: 10.7555/jbr.33.20190090] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/03/2022] Open
Abstract
Parkinson's disease (PD) is a major neurodegenerative disease. One of the known genetic contributors to PD pathogenesis is leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2) whose mutations with elevated kinase activity could lead to both familial and sporadic PD. However, how the pathogenic kinase activity of LRRK2 is regulated remains largely unclear. Here we report that peroxiredoxin 2 (Prx2) was identified as a novel interacting protein to LRRK2 with preferential expression in dopaminergic neurons over other Prx proteins. We also confirmed that Prx2 interacted with LRRK2 through its COR domain and its overexpression significantly decreased the kinase activity of mutant LRRK2. Functionally, overexpressed Prx2 rescued the transfected cells from LRRK2 mutant induced apoptotic processes. Importantly, overexpressed Prx2 reversed the altered subcellular distribution of cation-independent mannose 6-phosphate receptor (CI-M6PR) induced by PD-mutant LRRK2. Our results suggest that, by interacting with LRRK2, Prx2 may play an inhibitory role in the LRRK2 mediated cellular toxicity in PD by inhibiting its kinase activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kang Yan
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Xenotransplantation, School of Basic Medical Science, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, Jiangsu 211166, China
| | - Wenfeng Zhang
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Xenotransplantation, School of Basic Medical Science, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, Jiangsu 211166, China
| | - Xu Han
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Xenotransplantation, School of Basic Medical Science, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, Jiangsu 211166, China
| | - Fei Chang
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Xenotransplantation, School of Basic Medical Science, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, Jiangsu 211166, China
| | - Yongjian Liu
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Xenotransplantation, School of Basic Medical Science, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, Jiangsu 211166, China
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41
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Wauters L, Terheyden S, Gilsbach BK, Leemans M, Athanasopoulos PS, Guaitoli G, Wittinghofer A, Gloeckner CJ, Versées W, Kortholt A. Biochemical and kinetic properties of the complex Roco G-protein cycle. Biol Chem 2019; 399:1447-1456. [PMID: 30067506 DOI: 10.1515/hsz-2018-0227] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/18/2018] [Accepted: 07/23/2018] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Roco proteins have come into focus after mutations in the gene coding for the human Roco protein Leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2) were discovered to be one of the most common genetic causes of late onset Parkinson's disease. Roco proteins are characterized by a Roc domain responsible for GTP binding and hydrolysis, followed by a COR dimerization device. The regulation and function of this RocCOR domain tandem is still not completely understood. To fully biochemically characterize Roco proteins, we performed a systematic survey of the kinetic properties of several Roco protein family members, including LRRK2. Together, our results show that Roco proteins have a unique G-protein cycle. Our results confirm that Roco proteins have a low nucleotide affinity in the micromolar range and thus do not strictly depend on G-nucleotide exchange factors. Measurement of multiple and single turnover reactions shows that neither Pi nor GDP release are rate-limiting, while this is the case for the GAP-mediated GTPase reaction of some small G-proteins like Ras and for most other high affinity Ras-like proteins, respectively. The KM values of the reactions are in the range of the physiological GTP concentration, suggesting that LRRK2 functioning might be regulated by the cellular GTP level.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lina Wauters
- VIB-VUB Center for Structural Biology, Pleinlaan 2, B-1050 Brussels, Belgium.,Department of Cell Biochemistry, University of Groningen, Groningen NL-9747 AG, The Netherlands.,Structural Biology Brussels, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Pleinlaan 2, B-1050 Brussels, Belgium
| | - Susanne Terheyden
- Department of Cell Biochemistry, University of Groningen, Groningen NL-9747 AG, The Netherlands.,Structural Biology Group, Max-Planck Institute of Molecular Physiology, D-44227 Dortmund, Germany
| | - Bernd K Gilsbach
- German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases (DZNE), Otfried-Müller-Str. 23, D-72076 Tübingen, Germany
| | - Margaux Leemans
- VIB-VUB Center for Structural Biology, Pleinlaan 2, B-1050 Brussels, Belgium.,Structural Biology Brussels, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Pleinlaan 2, B-1050 Brussels, Belgium
| | | | - Giambattista Guaitoli
- German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases (DZNE), Otfried-Müller-Str. 23, D-72076 Tübingen, Germany
| | - Alfred Wittinghofer
- Structural Biology Group, Max-Planck Institute of Molecular Physiology, D-44227 Dortmund, Germany
| | - Christian Johannes Gloeckner
- German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases (DZNE), Otfried-Müller-Str. 23, D-72076 Tübingen, Germany.,University of Tübingen, Institute for Ophthalmic Research, Center for Ophthalmology, D-72076 Tübingen, Germany
| | - Wim Versées
- VIB-VUB Center for Structural Biology, Pleinlaan 2, B-1050 Brussels, Belgium.,Structural Biology Brussels, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Pleinlaan 2, B-1050 Brussels, Belgium
| | - Arjan Kortholt
- Department of Cell Biochemistry, University of Groningen, Groningen NL-9747 AG, The Netherlands
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42
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Wu CX, Liao J, Park Y, Reed X, Engel VA, Hoang NC, Takagi Y, Johnson SM, Wang M, Federici M, Nichols RJ, Sanishvili R, Cookson MR, Hoang QQ. Parkinson's disease-associated mutations in the GTPase domain of LRRK2 impair its nucleotide-dependent conformational dynamics. J Biol Chem 2019; 294:5907-5913. [PMID: 30796162 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.ra119.007631] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/18/2019] [Revised: 02/15/2019] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Mutation in leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2) is a common cause of familial Parkinson's disease (PD). Recently, we showed that a disease-associated mutation R1441H rendered the GTPase domain of LRRK2 catalytically less active and thereby trapping it in a more persistently "on" conformation. However, the mechanism involved and characteristics of this on conformation remained unknown. Here, we report that the Ras of complex protein (ROC) domain of LRRK2 exists in a dynamic dimer-monomer equilibrium that is oppositely driven by GDP and GTP binding. We also observed that the PD-associated mutations at residue 1441 impair this dynamic and shift the conformation of ROC to a GTP-bound-like monomeric conformation. Moreover, we show that residue Arg-1441 is critical for regulating the conformational dynamics of ROC. In summary, our results reveal that the PD-associated substitutions at Arg-1441 of LRRK2 alter monomer-dimer dynamics and thereby trap its GTPase domain in an activated state.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chun-Xiang Wu
- From the Departments of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Indianapolis, Indiana 46202; The Stark Neurosciences Institute, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, Indiana 46202
| | - Jingling Liao
- From the Departments of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Indianapolis, Indiana 46202; The Stark Neurosciences Institute, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, Indiana 46202; Department of Public Health, Wuhan University of Science and Technology School of Medicine, 430081 Wuhan, China
| | - Yangshin Park
- From the Departments of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Indianapolis, Indiana 46202; The Stark Neurosciences Institute, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, Indiana 46202
| | - Xylena Reed
- the Laboratory of Neurogenetics, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland 20892
| | - Victoria A Engel
- From the Departments of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Indianapolis, Indiana 46202; The Stark Neurosciences Institute, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, Indiana 46202
| | - Neo C Hoang
- From the Departments of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Indianapolis, Indiana 46202; The Stark Neurosciences Institute, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, Indiana 46202
| | - Yuichiro Takagi
- From the Departments of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Indianapolis, Indiana 46202
| | - Steven M Johnson
- From the Departments of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Indianapolis, Indiana 46202
| | - Mu Wang
- From the Departments of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Indianapolis, Indiana 46202; the Department of Biological Sciences, Xi'an Jiaotong-Liverpool University, Suzhou, Jiangsu 215123 China
| | | | - R Jeremy Nichols
- the Department of Pathology, Stanford University, Stanford, California 94305
| | - Ruslan Sanishvili
- the X-ray Science Division, Argonne National Laboratory, Argonne, Illinois 60439
| | - Mark R Cookson
- the Laboratory of Neurogenetics, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland 20892
| | - Quyen Q Hoang
- From the Departments of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Indianapolis, Indiana 46202; The Stark Neurosciences Institute, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, Indiana 46202; Department of Neurology, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, Indiana 46202.
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43
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Li J, Sun Y, Chen J. Transcriptome sequencing in a 6-hydroxydopamine rat model of Parkinson's disease. Genes Genet Syst 2019; 94:61-69. [PMID: 30713215 DOI: 10.1266/ggs.18-00036] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
The neurotoxin 6-hydroxydopamine (6-OHDA) has been widely exploited as a tool for modeling Parkinson's disease (PD) in the rat. This study aimed to provide a comprehensive profile of the mRNAs and long noncoding RNAs (lncRNAs) in rats treated with 6-OHDA as a model of PD. Female SPF Wistar rats were randomly divided into two groups: a PD model group and a control group. The PD model was induced by 6-OHDA injection. RNA-seq analysis was performed on 6-OHDA-treated rats and corresponding controls. Novel lncRNAs were identified. Differentially expressed genes (DEGs) and differentially expressed lncRNAs were identified in the PD group compared with controls. Gene Ontology function and pathway enrichment analyses were conducted on the DEGs, followed by construction of a protein-protein interaction (PPI) network. In addition, prediction of lncRNA target genes and function prediction of lncRNAs were performed. Moreover, microRNAs (miRNAs) that interacted with the DEGs and differentially expressed lncRNAs were predicted to construct a miRNA-lncRNA-mRNA regulatory network. A total of 536 DEGs and 512 differentially expressed lncRNAs (44 up-regulated and 10 down-regulated known lncRNAs; 407 up-regulated and 51 down-regulated novel lncRNAs) were identified in the PD rat model compared with controls. The DEGs and target genes of lncRNAs were mainly associated with the innate immune response, 2'-5'-oligoadenylate synthetase activity, GTPase activity, GTP binding and the RIG-I-like receptor signaling pathway. IRF7 and ISG15 were hub proteins in the PPI network. Many mRNAs and lncRNAs interacted with other molecules in a competing endogenous RNA network, such as MAS1, TMPRSS2, NPTX1, XLOC_016191, XLOC_026924 and XLOC_005439. We conclude that IRF7, ISG15, MAS1, TMPRSS2, NPTX1, XLOC_016191, XLOC_026924 and XLOC_005439 may contribute critical roles in the pathogenesis of PD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jia Li
- Department of Neurology, China-Japan Union Hospital of Jilin University
| | - Yajuan Sun
- Department of Neurology, China-Japan Union Hospital of Jilin University
| | - Jiajun Chen
- Department of Neurology, China-Japan Union Hospital of Jilin University
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44
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Huang X, Wu C, Park Y, Long X, Hoang QQ, Liao J. The Parkinson's disease-associated mutation N1437H impairs conformational dynamics in the G domain of LRRK2. FASEB J 2018; 33:4814-4823. [PMID: 30592623 DOI: 10.1096/fj.201802031r] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
Parkinson disease-associated mutations within the GTPase domain Ras of complex proteins (ROC) of leucine rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2) result in an abnormal over-activation of its kinase domain. However, the mechanisms involved remain unclear. Recent study has shown that LRRK2 G-domain cycles between monomeric and dimeric conformations upon binding to GTP or guanosine diphosphate, and that the Parkinson's disease (PD)-associated R1441C/G/H mutations impair the G-domain monomer-dimer dynamics and trap the G-domain in a constitutive monomeric conformation. That led us to question whether other disease-associated mutations in G-domain would also affect its conformation. Here, we report that another PD-associated N1437H mutation also impairs its monomer-dimer conformational dynamics and GTPase activity. In contrast with mutations at R1441, ROCN1437H was found to be locked in a stable dimeric conformation in solution and its GTPase activity was ∼4-fold lower than that of the wild-type. Furthermore, the N1437H mutation reduced the GTP binding affinity by ∼2.5-fold when compared with other pathogenic G-domain mutations. Moreover, ROCN1437H was found to have a slower GTP dissociation rate, indicating that N1437H might interrupt the nucleotide exchange cycle. Taken together, our data support that conformational dynamics is important for LRRK2 GTPase activity and that the N1437H mutation impairs GTPase activity by locking the ROC domain in a persistently dimeric state.-Huang, X., Wu, C., Park, Y., Long, X., Hoang, Q. Q., Liao, J. The Parkinson's disease-associated mutation N1437H impairs conformational dynamics in the G domain of LRRK2.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaorong Huang
- School of Environmental and Biological Engineering, Nanjing University of Science and Technology, Nanjing, China
| | - Chunxiang Wu
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, School of Medicine, Indiana University, Indianapolis, Indiana, USA
| | - Yangshin Park
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, School of Medicine, Indiana University, Indianapolis, Indiana, USA.,Department of Neurology, School of Medicine, Indiana University, Indianapolis, Indiana, USA.,Stark Neurosciences Research Institute, School of Medicine, Indiana University, Indianapolis, Indiana, USA; and
| | - Xuwei Long
- School of Environmental and Biological Engineering, Nanjing University of Science and Technology, Nanjing, China
| | - Quyen Q Hoang
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, School of Medicine, Indiana University, Indianapolis, Indiana, USA.,Department of Neurology, School of Medicine, Indiana University, Indianapolis, Indiana, USA.,Stark Neurosciences Research Institute, School of Medicine, Indiana University, Indianapolis, Indiana, USA; and
| | - Jingling Liao
- School of Environmental and Biological Engineering, Nanjing University of Science and Technology, Nanjing, China.,Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, School of Medicine, Indiana University, Indianapolis, Indiana, USA.,Department of Public Health, Wuhan University of Science and Technology School of Medicine, Wuhan, China
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45
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Roco Proteins and the Parkinson's Disease-Associated LRRK2. Int J Mol Sci 2018; 19:ijms19124074. [PMID: 30562929 PMCID: PMC6320773 DOI: 10.3390/ijms19124074] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/15/2018] [Revised: 12/11/2018] [Accepted: 12/14/2018] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Small G-proteins are structurally-conserved modules that function as molecular on-off switches. They function in many different cellular processes with differential specificity determined by the unique effector-binding surfaces, which undergo conformational changes during the switching action. These switches are typically standalone monomeric modules that form transient heterodimers with specific effector proteins in the 'on' state, and cycle to back to the monomeric conformation in the 'off' state. A new class of small G-proteins called "Roco" was discovered about a decade ago; this class is distinct from the typical G-proteins in several intriguing ways. Their switch module resides within a polypeptide chain of a large multi-domain protein, always adjacent to a unique domain called COR, and its effector kinase often resides within the same polypeptide. As such, the mechanisms of action of the Roco G-proteins are likely to differ from those of the typical G-proteins. Understanding these mechanisms is important because aberrant activity in the human Roco protein LRRK2 is associated with the pathogenesis of Parkinson's disease. This review provides an update on the current state of our understanding of the Roco G-proteins and the prospects of targeting them for therapeutic purposes.
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46
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Araki M, Ito G, Tomita T. Physiological and pathological functions of LRRK2: implications from substrate proteins. Neuronal Signal 2018; 2:NS20180005. [PMID: 32714591 PMCID: PMC7373236 DOI: 10.1042/ns20180005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/16/2018] [Revised: 09/18/2018] [Accepted: 09/19/2018] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2) encodes a 2527-amino acid (aa) protein composed of multiple functional domains, including a Ras of complex proteins (ROC)-type GTP-binding domain, a carboxyl terminal of ROC (COR) domain, a serine/threonine protein kinase domain, and several repeat domains. LRRK2 is genetically involved in the pathogenesis of both sporadic and familial Parkinson's disease (FPD). Parkinson's disease (PD) is the second most common neurodegenerative disorder, manifesting progressive motor dysfunction. PD is pathologically characterized by the loss of dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra pars compacta, and the presence of intracellular inclusion bodies called Lewy bodies (LB) in the remaining neurons. As the most frequent PD-causing mutation in LRRK2, G2019S, increases the kinase activity of LRRK2, an abnormal increase in LRRK2 kinase activity is believed to contribute to PD pathology; however, the precise biological functions of LRRK2 involved in PD pathogenesis remain unknown. Although biochemical studies have discovered several substrate proteins of LRRK2 including Rab GTPases and tau, little is known about whether excess phosphorylation of these substrates is the cause of the neurodegeneration in PD. In this review, we summarize latest findings regarding the physiological and pathological functions of LRRK2, and discuss the possible molecular mechanisms of neurodegeneration caused by LRRK2 and its substrates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Miho Araki
- Laboratory of Neuropathology and Neuroscience, Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, The University of Tokyo, 7-3-1 Hongo, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 113-0033, Japan
| | - Genta Ito
- Laboratory of Brain and Neurological Disorders, Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, The University of Tokyo, 7-3-1 Hongo, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 113-0033, Japan
| | - Taisuke Tomita
- Laboratory of Neuropathology and Neuroscience, Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, The University of Tokyo, 7-3-1 Hongo, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 113-0033, Japan
- Laboratory of Brain and Neurological Disorders, Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, The University of Tokyo, 7-3-1 Hongo, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 113-0033, Japan
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47
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Langston RG, Rudenko IN, Kumaran R, Hauser DN, Kaganovich A, Ponce LB, Mamais A, Ndukwe K, Dillman AA, Al-Saif AM, Beilina A, Cookson MR. Differences in Stability, Activity and Mutation Effects Between Human and Mouse Leucine-Rich Repeat Kinase 2. Neurochem Res 2018; 44:1446-1459. [PMID: 30291536 DOI: 10.1007/s11064-018-2650-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/20/2018] [Revised: 08/03/2018] [Accepted: 09/26/2018] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Mutations in the Leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2) gene have been implicated in the pathogenesis of Parkinson's disease (PD). Identification of PD-associated LRRK2 mutations has led to the development of novel animal models, primarily in mice. However, the characteristics of human LRRK2 and mouse Lrrk2 protein have not previously been directly compared. Here we show that proteins from different species have different biochemical properties, with the mouse protein being more stable but having significantly lower kinase activity compared to the human orthologue. In examining the effects of PD-associated mutations and risk factors on protein function, we found that conserved substitutions such as G2019S affect human and mouse LRRK2 proteins similarly, but variation around position 2385, which is not fully conserved between humans and mice, induces divergent in vitro behavior. Overall our results indicate that structural differences between human and mouse LRRK2 are likely responsible for the different properties we have observed for these two species of LRRK2 protein. These results have implications for disease modelling of LRRK2 mutations in mice and on the testing of pharmacological therapies in animals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rebekah G Langston
- Laboratory of Neurogenetics, Cell Biology and Gene Expression Section, NIA, NIH, Bethesda, MD, 20892, USA
| | - Iakov N Rudenko
- Laboratory of Neurogenetics, Cell Biology and Gene Expression Section, NIA, NIH, Bethesda, MD, 20892, USA
- Department of Neurology, SUNY at Stony Brook, Health Science Center, T12-020, Stony Brook, NY, 11794-8121, USA
| | - Ravindran Kumaran
- Laboratory of Neurogenetics, Cell Biology and Gene Expression Section, NIA, NIH, Bethesda, MD, 20892, USA
| | - David N Hauser
- Laboratory of Neurogenetics, Cell Biology and Gene Expression Section, NIA, NIH, Bethesda, MD, 20892, USA
- Sanford Burnham Prebys Medicial Discovery Institute, 10901 North Torrey Pines Road, La Jolla, CA, 92037, USA
| | - Alice Kaganovich
- Laboratory of Neurogenetics, Cell Biology and Gene Expression Section, NIA, NIH, Bethesda, MD, 20892, USA
| | - Luis Bonet Ponce
- Laboratory of Neurogenetics, Cell Biology and Gene Expression Section, NIA, NIH, Bethesda, MD, 20892, USA
| | - Adamantios Mamais
- Laboratory of Neurogenetics, Cell Biology and Gene Expression Section, NIA, NIH, Bethesda, MD, 20892, USA
| | - Kelechi Ndukwe
- Laboratory of Neurogenetics, Cell Biology and Gene Expression Section, NIA, NIH, Bethesda, MD, 20892, USA
- Medical College of Wisconsin, Medical School, 8701 W Watertown Plank Rd, Milwaukee, WI, 53226, USA
| | - Allissa A Dillman
- Laboratory of Neurogenetics, Cell Biology and Gene Expression Section, NIA, NIH, Bethesda, MD, 20892, USA
- Laboratory of Receptor Biology and Gene Expression, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Amr M Al-Saif
- Laboratory of Neurogenetics, Cell Biology and Gene Expression Section, NIA, NIH, Bethesda, MD, 20892, USA
| | - Aleksandra Beilina
- Laboratory of Neurogenetics, Cell Biology and Gene Expression Section, NIA, NIH, Bethesda, MD, 20892, USA
| | - Mark R Cookson
- Laboratory of Neurogenetics, Cell Biology and Gene Expression Section, NIA, NIH, Bethesda, MD, 20892, USA.
- Laboratory of Neurogenetics, Cell Biology and Gene Expression Section, National Institute on Aging, NIH, 35 Convent Drive, Room 1A-116, Bethesda, MD, 20892-3707, USA.
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48
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Mestre-Francés N, Serratrice N, Gennetier A, Devau G, Cobo S, Trouche SG, Fontès P, Zussy C, De Deurwaerdere P, Salinas S, Mennechet FJ, Dusonchet J, Schneider BL, Saggio I, Kalatzis V, Luquin-Piudo MR, Verdier JM, Kremer EJ. Exogenous LRRK2G2019S induces parkinsonian-like pathology in a nonhuman primate. JCI Insight 2018; 3:98202. [PMID: 30046008 DOI: 10.1172/jci.insight.98202] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/23/2017] [Accepted: 06/19/2018] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Parkinson's disease (PD) is the second most prevalent neurodegenerative disease among the elderly. To understand its pathogenesis and to test therapies, animal models that faithfully reproduce key pathological PD hallmarks are needed. As a prelude to developing a model of PD, we tested the tropism, efficacy, biodistribution, and transcriptional effect of canine adenovirus type 2 (CAV-2) vectors in the brain of Microcebus murinus, a nonhuman primate that naturally develops neurodegenerative lesions. We show that introducing helper-dependent (HD) CAV-2 vectors results in long-term, neuron-specific expression at the injection site and in afferent nuclei. Although HD CAV-2 vector injection induced a modest transcriptional response, no significant adaptive immune response was generated. We then generated and tested HD CAV-2 vectors expressing leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2) and LRRK2 carrying a G2019S mutation (LRRK2G2019S), which is linked to sporadic and familial autosomal dominant forms of PD. We show that HD-LRRK2G2019S expression induced parkinsonian-like motor symptoms and histological features in less than 4 months.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nadine Mestre-Francés
- MMDN, University of Montpellier, Ecole Pratique des Hautes Etudes, INSERM, PSL University, Montpellier, France
| | - Nicolas Serratrice
- Institut de Génétique Moléculaire de Montpellier, University of Montpellier, CNRS, Montpellier, France
| | - Aurélie Gennetier
- Institut de Génétique Moléculaire de Montpellier, University of Montpellier, CNRS, Montpellier, France
| | - Gina Devau
- MMDN, University of Montpellier, Ecole Pratique des Hautes Etudes, INSERM, PSL University, Montpellier, France
| | - Sandra Cobo
- MMDN, University of Montpellier, Ecole Pratique des Hautes Etudes, INSERM, PSL University, Montpellier, France
| | - Stéphanie G Trouche
- MMDN, University of Montpellier, Ecole Pratique des Hautes Etudes, INSERM, PSL University, Montpellier, France
| | - Pascaline Fontès
- MMDN, University of Montpellier, Ecole Pratique des Hautes Etudes, INSERM, PSL University, Montpellier, France
| | - Charleine Zussy
- Institut de Génétique Moléculaire de Montpellier, University of Montpellier, CNRS, Montpellier, France
| | | | - Sara Salinas
- Institut de Génétique Moléculaire de Montpellier, University of Montpellier, CNRS, Montpellier, France
| | - Franck Jd Mennechet
- Institut de Génétique Moléculaire de Montpellier, University of Montpellier, CNRS, Montpellier, France
| | - Julien Dusonchet
- Brain Mind Institute, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Bernard L Schneider
- Brain Mind Institute, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Isabella Saggio
- Department of Biology and Biotechnology "C. Darwin," Sapienza University of Rome, Rome, Italy.,Pasteur Institute, Cenci Bolognetti Foundation, Rome, Italy.,Institute of Molecular Biology and Pathology, CNR, Rome, Italy
| | - Vasiliki Kalatzis
- Institute of Neurosciences of Montpellier, INSERM, University of Montpellier, Montpellier, France
| | - M Rosario Luquin-Piudo
- Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria de Navarra, Pamplona, Spain.,Neurology Department, Clinica Universidad de Navarra, Pamplona, Spain.,Neuroscience Division, Center for Applied Medical Research, Universidad de Navarra, Pamplona, Spain
| | - Jean-Michel Verdier
- MMDN, University of Montpellier, Ecole Pratique des Hautes Etudes, INSERM, PSL University, Montpellier, France
| | - Eric J Kremer
- Institut de Génétique Moléculaire de Montpellier, University of Montpellier, CNRS, Montpellier, France
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49
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Chen ML, Wu RM. LRRK 2 gene mutations in the pathophysiology of the ROCO domain and therapeutic targets for Parkinson's disease: a review. J Biomed Sci 2018; 25:52. [PMID: 29903014 PMCID: PMC6000924 DOI: 10.1186/s12929-018-0454-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/19/2018] [Accepted: 05/31/2018] [Indexed: 01/13/2023] Open
Abstract
Parkinson’s disease (PD) is the most common movement disorder and manifests as resting tremor, rigidity, bradykinesia, and postural instability. Pathologically, PD is characterized by selective loss of dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra and the formation of intracellular inclusions containing α-synuclein and ubiquitin called Lewy bodies. Consequently, a remarkable deficiency of dopamine in the striatum causes progressive disability of motor function. The etiology of PD remains uncertain. Genetic variability in leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2) is the most common genetic cause of sporadic and familial PD. LRRK2 encodes a large protein containing three catalytic and four protein-protein interaction domains. Patients with LRRK2 mutations exhibit a clinical and pathological phenotype indistinguishable from sporadic PD. Recent studies have shown that pathological mutations of LRRK2 can reduce the rate of guanosine triphosphate (GTP) hydrolysis, increase kinase activity and GTP binding activity, and subsequently cause cell death. The process of cell death involves several signaling pathways, including the autophagic–lysosomal pathway, intracellular trafficking, mitochondrial dysfunction, and the ubiquitin–proteasome system. This review summarizes the cellular function and pathophysiology of LRRK2 ROCO domain mutations in PD and the perspective of therapeutic approaches.
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Affiliation(s)
- Meng-Ling Chen
- Department of Life Science, National Taiwan University, No. 1, Sec. 4, Roosevelt Road, Da-an Dist, Taipei City, 10617, Taiwan.,Department of Neurology, College of Medicine, National Taiwan University Hospital, National Taiwan University, No. 7, Chung-Shan South Road, Zhongzheng Dist, Taipei City, 10002, Taiwan
| | - Ruey-Meei Wu
- Department of Life Science, National Taiwan University, No. 1, Sec. 4, Roosevelt Road, Da-an Dist, Taipei City, 10617, Taiwan. .,Department of Neurology, College of Medicine, National Taiwan University Hospital, National Taiwan University, No. 7, Chung-Shan South Road, Zhongzheng Dist, Taipei City, 10002, Taiwan.
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50
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Abstract
Mutations in the gene encoding leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2) are known today as the most common genetic cause of Parkinson's disease (PD). LRRK2 is a large protein that is hypothesized to regulate other proteins as a scaffold in downstream signaling pathways. This is supported by the multiple domain composition of LRRK2 with several protein-protein interaction domains combined with kinase and GTPase activity. LRRK2 is highly phosphorylated at sites that are strictly controlled by upstream regulators, including its own kinase domain. In cultured cells, most pathogenic mutants display increased autophosphorylation at S1292, but decreased phosphorylation at sites controlled by other kinases. We only begin to understand how LRRK2 phosphorylation is regulated and how this impacts its physiological and pathological function. Intriguingly, LRRK2 kinase inhibition, currently one of the most prevailing disease-modifying therapeutic strategies for PD, induces LRRK2 dephosphorylation at sites that are also dephosphorylated in pathogenic variants. In addition, LRRK2 kinase inhibition can induce LRRK2 protein degradation, which might be related to the observed inhibitor-induced adverse effects on the lung in rodents and non-human primates, as it resembles the lung pathology in LRRK2 knock-out animals. In this review, we will provide an overview of how LRRK2 phosphorylation is regulated and how this complex regulation relates to several molecular and cellular features of LRRK2.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tina De Wit
- 1 Laboratory for Neurobiology and Gene Therapy, Department of Neurosciences, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Veerle Baekelandt
- 1 Laboratory for Neurobiology and Gene Therapy, Department of Neurosciences, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Evy Lobbestael
- 1 Laboratory for Neurobiology and Gene Therapy, Department of Neurosciences, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
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