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Okeke ES, Nwankwo CE, Ezeorba TPC, Iloh VC, Enochoghene AE. Occurrence and ecotoxicological impacts of polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) in electronic waste (e-waste) in Africa: Options for sustainable and eco-friendly management strategies. Toxicology 2024; 506:153848. [PMID: 38825032 DOI: 10.1016/j.tox.2024.153848] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/29/2024] [Revised: 05/23/2024] [Accepted: 05/27/2024] [Indexed: 06/04/2024]
Abstract
Polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) are persistent contaminants used as flame retardants in electronic products. PBDEs are contaminants of concern due to leaching and recalcitrance conferred by the stable and hydrophobic bromide residues. The near absence of legislatures and conscious initiatives to tackle the challenges of PBDEs in Africa has allowed for the indiscriminate use and consequent environmental degradation. Presently, the incidence, ecotoxicity, and remediation of PBDEs in Africa are poorly elucidated. Here, we present a position on the level of contamination, ecotoxicity, and management strategies for PBDEs with regard to Africa. Our review shows that Africa is inundated with PBDEs from the proliferation of e-waste due to factors like the increasing growth in the IT sector worsened by the procurement of second-hand gadgets. An evaluation of the fate of PBDEs in the African environment reveals that the environment is adequately contaminated, although reported in only a few countries like Nigeria and Ghana. Ultrasound-assisted extraction, microwave-assisted extraction, and Soxhlet extraction coupled with specific chromatographic techniques are used in the detection and quantification of PBDEs. Enormous exposure pathways in humans were highlighted with health implications. In terms of the removal of PBDEs, we found a gap in efforts in this direction, as not much success has been reported in Africa. However, we outline eco-friendly methods used elsewhere, including microbial degradation, zerovalent iron, supercritical fluid, and reduce, reuse, recycle, and recovery methods. The need for Africa to make and implement legislatures against PBDEs holds the key to reduced effect on the continent.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emmanuel Sunday Okeke
- Institute of Environmental Health and Ecological Security, School of Emergency Management, School of the Environment and Safety, Jiangsu University, 301 Xuefu Rd., Zhenjiang, Jiangsu 212013, China; Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Biological Science, University of Nigeria, Nsukka, Enugu State 410001, Nigeria; Natural Science Unit, School of General Studies, University of Nigeria, Nsukka, Enugu State 410001, Nigeria; College of Medicine and Veterinary Medicine, Deanery of Molecular, Genetic and Population Health Sciences, University of Edinburgh, United Kingdom.
| | - Chidiebele Emmanuel Nwankwo
- Natural Science Unit, School of General Studies, University of Nigeria, Nsukka, Enugu State 410001, Nigeria; Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Biological Sciences & Natural Science Unit, School of General Studies, University of Nigeria, Nsukka, Enugu State 410001, Nigeria; School of Food and Biological Engineering, Jiangsu University, 301 Xuefu Rd., Zhenjiang, Jiangsu 212013, China
| | - Timothy Prince Chidike Ezeorba
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Biological Science, University of Nigeria, Nsukka, Enugu State 410001, Nigeria; Department of Environmental Health and Risk Management, College of Life and Environmental Sciences, University of Birmingham, Edgbaston B15 2TT, United Kingdom
| | - Veronica Chisom Iloh
- School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Nigeria, Nsukka, Enugu State 410001, Nigeria
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Gu W, Geng Y, Xiao S, Gao Z, Wei W. The anthropogenic cycles of palladium in China during 2001-2020. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2023; 904:167248. [PMID: 37739081 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2023.167248] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/09/2023] [Revised: 09/19/2023] [Accepted: 09/19/2023] [Indexed: 09/24/2023]
Abstract
Palladium (Pd) is a strategic metal and can help reduce environmental pollution, especially from vehicle exhausts. China is the world's largest Pd consumer, but with very limited reserves. However, Pd anthropogenic cycles remain unclear in China. This study aims to uncover the dynamic Pd flows and stocks in China for the period of 2001-2020 by conducting dynamic material flow analysis. The results show that the demand for Pd had increased by 10 folds during the study period due to stricter vehicle emissions policies. Also, China mainly imported such resource from the United States, Western Europe, and East Asia, with a share of 88.8 %. However, due to insufficient end-of-life vehicle (ELV) recycling system, the total recycled Pd was only 12.3 tons although the end-of-life Pd flow increased from 3.7 tons in 2001 to 30.8 tons in 2020. This implies a great Pd recycling potential. Therefore, it is urgent to promote Pd recycling by establishing an effective Pd recycling system. In addition, other policy recommendations, such as diversifying Pd import partners, increasing Pd emergency reserves, and economic instruments, are raised by considering the Chinese realities so that the overall Pd resource efficiency can be improved.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wang Gu
- School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200240, China
| | - Yong Geng
- School of International and Public Affairs, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200030, China.
| | - Shijiang Xiao
- School of International and Public Affairs, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200030, China
| | - Ziyan Gao
- School of International and Public Affairs, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200030, China
| | - Wendong Wei
- School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200240, China
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3
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Yu G, Mao J, Tang Y, Pei S. Analysis of the coupled flows of aluminum and copper in household air conditioning system. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2023; 30:123643-123656. [PMID: 37991616 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-023-30861-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/06/2023] [Accepted: 10/31/2023] [Indexed: 11/23/2023]
Abstract
The global "copper-poor and aluminum-rich" situation has made the possibility of "copper saving with aluminum" an important topic. This study established a framework for analyzing multiple substances' coupled flows at the product level based on material flow analysis (MFA), and took the household air conditioning system of the Chinese mainland in 2020 as an example to characterize the coupled flows of aluminum and copper. The results showed that the system consumed 0.69 million tons of aluminum and 2.10 million tons of copper, and discharged 0.17 million tons of aluminum and 0.43 million tons of copper to the environment cumulatively to achieve 13.2 million terajoules of final heat exchanged and serve 1.24 billion square meters during lifetime in mainland China alone, secondary aluminum and copper accounted for only 22.61% and 24.83% of the total consumption, and the in-use stocks increased by 0.19 million tons of aluminum and 0.70 million tons of copper. The external dependency of copper ore was 92.83%, which was significantly higher than the 44.29% of bauxite. The comprehensive utilization efficiency of copper reached 77.88%, which was slightly higher than the 70.80% of aluminum. The conclusion indicates that under the premise of meeting use requirements, promoting "replacing copper with aluminum" can improve the stability and safety of China's material supply chain, but there is a need to further boost the production efficiency of aluminum in primary production.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guangjie Yu
- School of Environment, Beijing Normal University, No. 19, Xinjiekouwai St, Beijing, 100875, People's Republic of China
| | - Jiansu Mao
- School of Environment, Beijing Normal University, No. 19, Xinjiekouwai St, Beijing, 100875, People's Republic of China.
| | - Yuanyuan Tang
- School of Environment, Beijing Normal University, No. 19, Xinjiekouwai St, Beijing, 100875, People's Republic of China
| | - Siyuan Pei
- Industrial and Commercial Bank of China Limited, Beijing, 100010, People's Republic of China
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Deville A, Vazquez-Rowe I, Ita-Nagy D, Kahhat R. Ocean-based sources of plastic pollution: An overview of the main marine activities in the Peruvian EEZ. MARINE POLLUTION BULLETIN 2023; 189:114785. [PMID: 36881977 DOI: 10.1016/j.marpolbul.2023.114785] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/12/2023] [Revised: 02/20/2023] [Accepted: 02/22/2023] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
Marine-based activities are a critical source of plastic waste into the ocean. This is particularly important in countries with a competitive fishing industry, such as Peru. Thus, this study aimed to identify and quantify the major flows of plastic waste accumulating in the ocean from ocean-based sources within the Peruvian Economic Exclusive Zone. A material flow analysis was elaborated to analyze the stock of plastic and its release to the ocean by a set of Peruvian fleets, including the fishing industry, merchant vessels, cruises, and boating vessels. Results show that in 2018 between 2715 and 5584 metric tons of plastic waste entered the ocean. The fishing fleet was the most pollutant, representing approximately 97 % of the total. Moreover, fishing gear loss represented the highest single-activity contribution, although other sources, such as plastic packaging and antifouling emissions, have the potential to become vast sources of marine plastic pollution.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alejandro Deville
- Peruvian LCA & Industrial Ecology Network (PELCAN), Department of Engineering, Pontificia Universidad Católica del Perú, Av. Universitaria 1801, San Miguel, Lima 15088, Peru
| | - Ian Vazquez-Rowe
- Peruvian LCA & Industrial Ecology Network (PELCAN), Department of Engineering, Pontificia Universidad Católica del Perú, Av. Universitaria 1801, San Miguel, Lima 15088, Peru.
| | - Diana Ita-Nagy
- Peruvian LCA & Industrial Ecology Network (PELCAN), Department of Engineering, Pontificia Universidad Católica del Perú, Av. Universitaria 1801, San Miguel, Lima 15088, Peru
| | - Ramzy Kahhat
- Peruvian LCA & Industrial Ecology Network (PELCAN), Department of Engineering, Pontificia Universidad Católica del Perú, Av. Universitaria 1801, San Miguel, Lima 15088, Peru
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5
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Wang Y, Wang X, Wang H, Zhang X, Zhong Q, Yue Q, Du T, Liang S. Human health and ecosystem impacts of China's resource extraction. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2022; 847:157465. [PMID: 35868370 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.157465] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/13/2022] [Revised: 06/21/2022] [Accepted: 07/14/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
The throughput of materials fuels the economic process and underpins social well-being. These materials eventually return to the environment as waste or emissions. They can have significant environmental impacts throughout life cycle stages, such as biodiversity loss, adverse health effects, water stress, and climate change. China is the largest resource extractor globally, but the endpoint environmental impacts and the role of possible socioeconomic drivers associated with its resource extraction remain unclear. Here, we account for and analyze the two endpoint environmental impacts associated with China's resource extraction from 2000 to 2017 and quantify the relative contributions of various socioeconomic factors using structural decomposition analysis. The results show that the environmental impacts of China's resource extraction peaked in 2010. There was a significant decline from 2010 to 2017, in which human health damage decreased by 32.8 % and ecosystem quality damage decreased by 55.8 %. On the consumer side, the advancement in China's urbanization process led to an increase in the environmental impacts of urban residents' consumption, and the effect of investment on the environmental impacts decreased significantly after 2010. Decreases in the intensity of the environmental impacts in most sectors and improvements in production structure could reduce the impacts of resource extraction on human health and ecosystems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yao Wang
- State Environmental Protection Key Laboratory of Eco-Industry, Northeastern University, Shenyang 110819, China
| | - Xinzhe Wang
- State Environmental Protection Key Laboratory of Eco-Industry, Northeastern University, Shenyang 110819, China
| | - Heming Wang
- State Environmental Protection Key Laboratory of Eco-Industry, Northeastern University, Shenyang 110819, China.
| | - Xu Zhang
- State Environmental Protection Key Laboratory of Eco-Industry, Northeastern University, Shenyang 110819, China
| | - Qiumeng Zhong
- Key Laboratory for City Cluster Environmental Safety and Green Development of the Ministry of Education, School of Ecology, Environment and Resources, Guangdong University of Technology, Guangzhou 510006, China
| | - Qiang Yue
- State Environmental Protection Key Laboratory of Eco-Industry, Northeastern University, Shenyang 110819, China
| | - Tao Du
- State Environmental Protection Key Laboratory of Eco-Industry, Northeastern University, Shenyang 110819, China
| | - Sai Liang
- Key Laboratory for City Cluster Environmental Safety and Green Development of the Ministry of Education, School of Ecology, Environment and Resources, Guangdong University of Technology, Guangzhou 510006, China
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Billy RG, Monnier L, Nybakke E, Isaksen M, Müller DB. Systemic Approaches for Emission Reduction in Industrial Plants Based on Physical Accounting: Example for an Aluminum Smelter. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2022; 56:1973-1982. [PMID: 35042334 PMCID: PMC8812049 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.1c05681] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/15/2023]
Abstract
Greenhouse gas (GHG) accounting in industrial plants usually has multiple purposes, including mandatory reporting, shareholder and stakeholder communication, developing key performance indicators (KPIs), or informing cost-effective mitigation options. Current carbon accounting systems, such as the one required by the European Union Emission Trading Scheme (EU ETS), ignore the system context in which emissions occur. This hampers the identification and evaluation of comprehensive mitigation strategies considering linkages between materials, energy, and emissions. Here, we propose a carbon accounting method based on multilevel material flow analysis (MFA), which aims at addressing this gap. Using a Norwegian primary aluminum production plant as an example, we analyzed the material stocks and flows within this plant for total mass flows of goods as well as substances such as aluminum and carbon. The results show that the MFA-based accounting (i) is more robust than conventional tools due to mass balance consistency and higher granularity, (ii) allows monitoring the performance of the company and defines meaningful KPIs, (iii) can be used as a basis for the EU ETS reporting and linked to internal reporting, (iv) enables the identification and evaluation of systemic solutions and resource efficiency strategies for reducing emissions, and (v) has the potential to save costs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Romain G. Billy
- Industrial
Ecology Programme, Department of Energy and Process Engineering, Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU), Høgskoleringen 5, 7034 Trondheim, Norway
| | - Louis Monnier
- Industrial
Ecology Programme, Department of Energy and Process Engineering, Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU), Høgskoleringen 5, 7034 Trondheim, Norway
- Utopies, 25 Rue Titon, 75011 Paris, France
| | - Even Nybakke
- Hydro
Aluminium, Drammensveien 264, 0283 Oslo, Norway
| | | | - Daniel B. Müller
- Industrial
Ecology Programme, Department of Energy and Process Engineering, Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU), Høgskoleringen 5, 7034 Trondheim, Norway
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Dzombak DA, Gorman MR. Expanding Perspectives of Element Cycling from 1970 to 2020: The Influence of Stumm and Morgan. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2021; 55:14342-14346. [PMID: 34235931 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.1c01983] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
There has been significant advancement in understanding of element cycles over the past 50 years, and the contributions of the three editions of Aquatic Chemistry by Stumm and Morgan on the critical role of reactions in the aqueous phase on the global cycles of elements have been substantial. The primary focus of investigation of biogeochemical element cycles has been on the "grand nutrients" carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus, and sulfur. The basic chemistry and chemical systems perspective of Aquatic Chemistry helped elucidate the cycles of these elements. Most of the element cycling research beyond the grand nutrients has occurred in the past 20 years and has focused on commodity metals in widespread use, that is, the "technological nutrients". Focus in Aquatic Chemistry on metal chemistry has contributed to understanding of metal cycles. Development of integrated anthropogenic-biogeochemical cycles of metals, led by Graedel and collaborators, has revealed that anthropogenic mobilization of metals dominates the cycles. Integrated "anthrobiogeochemical" element cycles provide for more detailed understanding of sources and their cascading impacts, and enable identification of priorities for source control and/or element recovery. The fundamentals of water chemistry and their application in engineered and natural systems, as presented so effectively in Aquatic Chemistry, have contributed to advancement of anthrobiogeochemical cycle development and analysis and, directly or indirectly, to the scholars who will continue to evolve the understanding and use of element cycles in the years ahead.
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Affiliation(s)
- David A Dzombak
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 15213, United States
| | - Miranda R Gorman
- Project Drawdown, 3450 Sacramento St., Suite 506, San Francisco, California 94118, United States
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Liang C, Gracida-Alvarez UR, Gallant ET, Gillis PA, Marques YA, Abramo GP, Hawkins TR, Dunn JB. Material Flows of Polyurethane in the United States. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2021; 55:14215-14224. [PMID: 34618441 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.1c03654] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Today, polyurethanes are effectively not recycled and are made principally from nonrenewable, fossil-fuel-derived resources. This study provides the first high-resolution material flow analysis of polyurethane flows through the U.S. economy, tracking back to fossil fuels and covering polyurethane-relevant raw materials, trade, production, manufacturing, uses, historical stocks, and waste management. According to our analysis, in 2016, 2900 thousand tonnes (kt) of polyurethane were produced in the United States and 920 kt were imported for consumption, 2000 kt entered the postconsumer waste streams, and 390 kt were recycled and returned to the market in the form of carpet underlayment. The domestic production of polyurethane consumed 1100 kt of crude oil and 1100 kt of natural gas. With the developed polyurethane flow map, we point out the limitation of the existing mechanical recycling methods and identify that glycolysis, a chemical recycling method, can be used to recycle the main components of postconsumer polyurethane waste. We also explore how targeting biobased pathways could influence the supply chain and downstream markets of polyurethane and reduce the consumption of fossil fuels and the exposure to toxic precursors in polyurethane production.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chao Liang
- Institute for Sustainability and Energy at Northwestern, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois 60208, United States
| | - Ulises R Gracida-Alvarez
- Systems Assessment Center, Energy Systems Division, Argonne National Laboratory, Lemont, Illinois 60439, United States
| | - Ethan T Gallant
- Systems Assessment Center, Energy Systems Division, Argonne National Laboratory, Lemont, Illinois 60439, United States
| | - Paul A Gillis
- The Dow Chemical Company, Polyurethane R&D, Lake Jackson, Texas 77566, United States
| | - Yuri A Marques
- The Dow Chemical Company, Polyurethane R&D, Lake Jackson, Texas 77566, United States
| | - Graham P Abramo
- The Dow Chemical Company, Core Research and Development, Collegeville, Pennsylvania 19426, United States
| | - Troy R Hawkins
- Systems Assessment Center, Energy Systems Division, Argonne National Laboratory, Lemont, Illinois 60439, United States
| | - Jennifer B Dunn
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois 60208, United States
- Northwestern-Argonne Institute of Science and Engineering, Evanston, Illinois 60208, United States
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Wang QC, Wang P, Qiu Y, Dai T, Chen WQ. Byproduct Surplus: Lighting the Depreciative Europium in China's Rare Earth Boom. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2020; 54:14686-14693. [PMID: 32985873 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.0c02870] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Europium (Eu) is often regarded as a critical mineral due to its byproduct nature, importance to lighting technologies, and global supply concentration. However, the existing indicator-based criticality assessments have limitations to capture Eu's supply chain information and thus fall short of reflecting its true criticality. This study quantified the flows and stocks of Eu in mainland China from 1990 to 2018. Results show that: (1) China's Eu demand decreased by 75% from 2011 to 2018, as a result of the lighting technology transition from fluorescent lamps to light-emitting diodes, which significantly reduced Eu's importance; (2) the supply of Eu mined as a byproduct kept increasing together with the growing rare earth production, which caused a substantial supply surplus being ≈1900 t by 2018; (3) despite the leading role of China in global Eu production, Eu mined in China was exported mainly in the form of intermediate and final products, and ≈90% Eu embedded in domestically produced final products was used for export recently. This study indicates that Eu's criticality is not as severe as previously assessed and highlights the necessity of material flow analysis for a holistic and dynamic view on the entire supply chain of critical minerals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qiao-Chu Wang
- Key Lab of Urban Environment and Health, Institute of Urban Environment, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Xiamen, Fujian 361021, China
- Fujian Institute of Innovation, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Xiamen, Fujian 361021, China
| | - Peng Wang
- Key Lab of Urban Environment and Health, Institute of Urban Environment, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Xiamen, Fujian 361021, China
- Fujian Institute of Innovation, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Xiamen, Fujian 361021, China
| | - Yang Qiu
- Bren School of Environmental Science and Management, University of California, Santa Barbara, Bren Hall, 2400 University of California, Santa Barbara, California 93117, United States
| | - Tao Dai
- MLR Key Laboratory of Metallogeny and Mineral Assessment, Institute of Mineral Resources, CAGS, Beijing, 100037, China
- Research Center for Strategy of Global Mineral Resources, Chinese Academy of Geological Sciences, Beijing 100037, China
| | - Wei-Qiang Chen
- Key Lab of Urban Environment and Health, Institute of Urban Environment, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Xiamen, Fujian 361021, China
- Fujian Institute of Innovation, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Xiamen, Fujian 361021, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
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Chen J, Tang L, Chen WQ, Peaslee GF, Jiang D. Flows, Stock, and Emissions of Poly- and Perfluoroalkyl Substances in California Carpet in 2000-2030 under Different Scenarios. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2020; 54:6908-6918. [PMID: 32352763 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.9b06956] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/21/2023]
Abstract
In this study, we present a holistic analysis of the stock and emissions of poly- and perfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) in California carpet in 2000-2030. Our high estimate is that, in 2017, the total PFAS accumulated in in-use carpet stock and landfilled carpet are ∼60 and ∼120 tonnes, respectively, and the resultant PFAS emissions are ∼800 and ∼100 kg, respectively. Among the three subclasses (side-chain polymers, PFAA, and nonpolymeric precursors), side-chain polymers dominate the in-use stock and landfill accumulation, while nonpolymeric precursors dominate the resultant emissions. Our low estimate is typically 8-15% of the high estimate and follows similar trends and subclass breakdowns as the high estimate. California's new Carpet Stewardship Regulations (24% recycling of end-of-life carpet) will reduce the landfilled PFAS by 6% (7 tonnes) at the cost of increasing the in-use stock by 2% (2 tonnes) in 2030. Aggressive PFAS phase-out by carpet manufacturers (i.e., reduce PFAS use by 15% annually starting 2020) could reduce the in-use PFAS stock by 50% by 2030, but its impact on the total landfilled PFAS is limited. The shift toward short-chain PFAS will also significantly reduce the in-use stock of long-chain PFAS in carpet by 2030 (only 25% of the total PFAS will be long-chain). Among the data gaps identified, a key one is the current area-based PFAS emission reporting (i.e., g PFAS emitted/area carpet/time), which leads to the counterintuitive result that reducing the PFAS use in carpet production has no impact on the PFAS emissions from in-use stock and landfills. Future technical studies should either confirm this or consider a mass-based unit (e.g., g PFAS emitted/g PFAS used/time) for better integration into regional substance flow analysis. Other noticeable data gaps include the lack of time-series data on emissions from the in-use stock and on leaching of side-chain polymers from landfills.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jinjin Chen
- Environmental Engineering Department, Montana Tech, Butte, Montana 59701, United States
| | - Linbin Tang
- Key Lab of Urban Environment and Health, Institute of Urban Environment, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Xiamen, Fujian 361021, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Science, Beijing, 100084, China
| | - Wei-Qiang Chen
- Key Lab of Urban Environment and Health, Institute of Urban Environment, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Xiamen, Fujian 361021, China
- Xiamen Key Lab of Urban Metabolism, Xiamen, 361021, China
| | - Graham F Peaslee
- Department of Physics, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, Indiana 46556, United States
| | - Daqian Jiang
- Environmental Engineering Department, Montana Tech, Butte, Montana 59701, United States
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11
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Wang Z, Xiao J, Wang L, Liang T, Guo Q, Guan Y, Rinklebe J. Elucidating the differentiation of soil heavy metals under different land uses with geographically weighted regression and self-organizing map. ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION (BARKING, ESSEX : 1987) 2020; 260:114065. [PMID: 32041011 DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2020.114065] [Citation(s) in RCA: 63] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/04/2019] [Revised: 01/07/2020] [Accepted: 01/23/2020] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Intensive anthropogenic activity has triggered serious heavy metal contamination of soil. Land use and land cover (LULC) changes bear significant impacts, either directly or indirectly, on the distribution of heavy metal in soils. A total of 180 samples were acquired from various land covers at different depths, namely surface soils (020 cm) and subsurface soils (20-40 cm). Spatial interpolation, geographically weighted regression (GWR) and self-organizing map (SOM) were used to discern how variations in the spatial distributions of soil heavy metals were caused by human activities for different land uses, and how these pollutants contributed to environmental risks. The medium concentrations of Cd, Cr, Cu, Pb and Zn in surface soil all exceeded the corresponding local background values in flat cropland and developed area soil. The overall ecological risk level of the study varied from low to medium. The GWR model indicated that the land use intensity had a certain influence on the accumulation of heavy metals in the surface soil. K-means clustering of the SOM revealed that the type of LULC also contributed to the redistribution of heavy metals in the surface soil.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhan Wang
- East China University of Technology, Nanchang, 330000, China; Key Laboratory of Land Surface Pattern and Simulation, Institute of Geographical Sciences and Natural Resources Research, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100101, China
| | - Jun Xiao
- State Key Laboratory of Loess and Quaternary Geology, Institute of Earth Environment, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Xi'an, 710061, China
| | - Lingqing Wang
- Key Laboratory of Land Surface Pattern and Simulation, Institute of Geographical Sciences and Natural Resources Research, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100101, China.
| | - Tao Liang
- Key Laboratory of Land Surface Pattern and Simulation, Institute of Geographical Sciences and Natural Resources Research, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100101, China
| | - Qingjun Guo
- Key Laboratory of Land Surface Pattern and Simulation, Institute of Geographical Sciences and Natural Resources Research, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100101, China
| | - Yunlan Guan
- East China University of Technology, Nanchang, 330000, China
| | - Jörg Rinklebe
- University of Wuppertal, School of Architecture and Civil Engineering, Institute of Foundation Engineering, Water- and Waste-Management, Soil- and Groundwater-Management, Pauluskirchstraße 7, 42285, Wuppertal, Germany; Department of Environment, Department of Environment and Energy, Sejong University, Seoul, 05006, Republic of Korea
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12
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Graedel TE. Material Flow Analysis from Origin to Evolution. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2019; 53:12188-12196. [PMID: 31549816 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.9b03413] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/28/2023]
Abstract
Material flow analysis (MFA), a central methodology of industrial ecology, quantifies the ways in which the materials that enable modern society are used, reused, and lost. Sankey diagrams, termed the "visible language of industrial ecology", are often employed to present MFA results. This Perspective assesses the history and current status of MFA, reviews the development of the methodology, presents current examples of metal, polymer, and fiber MFAs, and demonstrates that MFAs have been responsible for creating related industrial ecology specialties and stimulating connections between industrial ecology and a variety of engineering and social science fields. MFA approaches are now being linked with environmental input-output assessment, scenario development, and life cycle assessment, and these increasingly comprehensive assessments promise to be central tools for sustainable development and circular economy studies in the future. Current shortcomings and promising innovations are also presented, as are the implications of MFA results for corporate and national policy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas E Graedel
- Center for Industrial Ecology, School of Forestry and Environmental Studies , Yale University , New Haven , Connecticut 06511 , United States
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13
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Assessing the Long-Term Global Sustainability of the Production and Supply for Stainless Steel. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2019. [DOI: 10.1007/s41247-019-0056-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
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14
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Sun M, Yu Y, Song Y, Mao J. Quantitative analysis of the spatio-temporal evolution of the anthropogenic transfer of lead in China. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2018; 645:1554-1566. [PMID: 30248874 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.07.119] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/07/2018] [Revised: 07/09/2018] [Accepted: 07/09/2018] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
The redistribution of lead to meet human needs reflects the relationship between humans and land, and the redistribution process will influence the future evolution of the land surface. An analysis of the spatial transfer of lead was undertaken to determine the regional distribution of lead in each phase of its life cycle during 1990-2014 using the administrative unit of each province in Mainland China as the spatial unit. A quantitative analysis of the spatio-temporal evolution of the anthropogenic transfer of lead in China was conducted through a comparison of the differences in the spatio-temporal distribution of lead at different stages of its life cycle. The results showed that during 1990 to 2014, the mining of lead ore was gradually transferred from southern China to the northwest inland area and northern China, and lead within products was finally transferred to the eastern coastal area of China to complete its life cycle. The distribution of natural and social resources, supply and demand of markets, and foreign trade affect the lead anthropogenic transfer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mengying Sun
- State Key Joint Laboratoy of Environment Simulation and Pollution Control, School of Environment, Beijing Normal University, No.19, Xinjiekouwai Street, Haidian District, Beijing 100875, P.R. China
| | - Yanxu Yu
- State Key Joint Laboratoy of Environment Simulation and Pollution Control, School of Environment, Beijing Normal University, No.19, Xinjiekouwai Street, Haidian District, Beijing 100875, P.R. China
| | - Yao Song
- State Key Joint Laboratoy of Environment Simulation and Pollution Control, School of Environment, Beijing Normal University, No.19, Xinjiekouwai Street, Haidian District, Beijing 100875, P.R. China
| | - Jiansu Mao
- State Key Joint Laboratoy of Environment Simulation and Pollution Control, School of Environment, Beijing Normal University, No.19, Xinjiekouwai Street, Haidian District, Beijing 100875, P.R. China.
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15
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Li TY, Zhou JF, Wu CC, Bao LJ, Shi L, Zeng EY. Characteristics of Polybrominated Diphenyl Ethers Released from Thermal Treatment and Open Burning of E-Waste. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2018; 52:4650-4657. [PMID: 29600707 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.8b00780] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
Primitive processing of e-waste potentially releases abundant organic contaminants to the environment, but the magnitudes and mechanisms remain to be adequately addressed. We conducted thermal treatment and open burning of typical e-wastes, that is, plastics and printed circuit boards. Emission factors of the sum of 39 polybrominated diphenyl ethers (∑39PBDE) were 817-1.60 × 105 ng g-1 in thermal treatment and nondetected-9.14 × 104 ng g-1, in open burning. Airborne particles (87%) were the main carriers of PBDEs, followed by residual ashes (13%) and gaseous constituents (0.3%), in thermal treatment, while they were 30%, 43% and 27% in open burning. The output-input mass ratios of ∑39PBDE were 0.12-3.76 in thermal treatment and 0-0.16 in open burning. All PBDEs were largely affiliated with fine particles, with geometric mean diameters at 0.61-0.83 μm in thermal degradation and 0.57-1.16 μm in open burning from plastic casings, and 0.44-0.56 and nondetected- 0.55 μm, from printed circuit boards. Evaporation and reabsorption may be the main emission mechanisms for lightly brominated BDEs, but heavily brominated BDEs tend to affiliate with particles from heating or combustion. The different size distributions of particulate PBDEs in emission sources and adjacent air implicated a noteworthy redisposition process during atmospheric dispersal.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ting-Yu Li
- School of Environment and Guangdong Key Laboratory of Environmental Pollution and Health , Jinan University , Guangzhou 510632 , China
| | - Jun-Feng Zhou
- School of Environment and Guangdong Key Laboratory of Environmental Pollution and Health , Jinan University , Guangzhou 510632 , China
| | - Chen-Chou Wu
- School of Environment and Guangdong Key Laboratory of Environmental Pollution and Health , Jinan University , Guangzhou 510632 , China
| | - Lian-Jun Bao
- School of Environment and Guangdong Key Laboratory of Environmental Pollution and Health , Jinan University , Guangzhou 510632 , China
| | - Lei Shi
- School of Environment and Guangdong Key Laboratory of Environmental Pollution and Health , Jinan University , Guangzhou 510632 , China
| | - Eddy Y Zeng
- School of Environment and Guangdong Key Laboratory of Environmental Pollution and Health , Jinan University , Guangzhou 510632 , China
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16
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Ohno H, Sato H, Fukushima Y. Configuration of Materially Retained Carbon in Our Society: A WIO-MFA-Based Approach for Japan. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2018; 52:3899-3907. [PMID: 29547694 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.7b06412] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
To achieve the goals of Paris Agreement, global society is directing much effort in substantially reducing greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. In addition to energy-related efforts, prevention of carbon release into the atmosphere with carbon capture and storage (CCS) and/or utilization of biomass resources is considered indispensable to achieving the global objective. In this study, considering carbon-containing goods as carbon reservoirs in our society similar to forests and reservoirs enabling CCS, the flow of materially utilized carbon was quantified by input-output-based material flow analysis (IO-MFA). As a result, in 2011, 6.3 Mt-C of petroleum-derived carbon and 7.9 Mt-C of wood-derived carbon were introduced to the Japanese society as end-use products (e.g., automobiles and constructions) in various forms (e.g., plastics and synthetic rubbers). The total amount (14.2 Mt-C) corresponded to 4.1% (52.1 Mt-CO2) of annual CO2 emission in Japan in 2011. Subsequently, by referring to the technology that can treat carbon in the target forms in end-of-life products, the recoverability of carbon as a material has been discussed with respect to each form and end-use of carbon. By numerically showing the necessity and potential of implementing appropriate technologies, this study provides scientific direction for policymakers to establish a quality carbon cycle in our society.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hajime Ohno
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Graduate School of Engineering , Tohoku University , 6-6-07 Aramaki Aza Aoba , Aoba-ku, Sendai , Miyagi 980-8579 , Japan
| | - Hirokazu Sato
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Graduate School of Engineering , Tohoku University , 6-6-07 Aramaki Aza Aoba , Aoba-ku, Sendai , Miyagi 980-8579 , Japan
| | - Yasuhiro Fukushima
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Graduate School of Engineering , Tohoku University , 6-6-07 Aramaki Aza Aoba , Aoba-ku, Sendai , Miyagi 980-8579 , Japan
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17
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Jiang D, Chen WQ, Zeng X, Tang L. Dynamic Stocks and Flows Analysis of Bisphenol A (BPA) in China: 2000-2014. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2018; 52:3706-3715. [PMID: 29436224 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.7b05709] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/12/2023]
Abstract
Bisphenol A (BPA), a synthetic organic chemical, is creating a new category of ecological and human health challenges due to unintended leakage. Effectively managing the use and leakage of BPA can benefit from an understanding of the anthropogenic BPA cycles (i.e., the size of BPA flows and stocks). In this work, we provide a dynamic analysis of the anthropogenic BPA cycles in China for 2000-2014. We find that China's BPA consumption has increased 10-fold since 2000, to ∼3 million tonnes/year. With the increasing consumption, China's in-use BPA stock has increased 500-fold to 14.0 million tonnes (i.e., 10.2 kg BPA/capita). It is unclear whether a saturation point has been reached, but in 2004-2014, China's in-use BPA stock has been increasing by 0.8 kg BPA/capita annually. Electronic products are the biggest contributor, responsible for roughly one-third of China's in-use BPA stock. Optical media (DVD/VCD/CDs) is the largest contributor to China's current End-of-Life (EoL) BPA flow, totaling 0.9 million tonnes/year. However, the EoL BPA flow due to e-waste will increase quickly, and will soon become the largest EoL BPA flow. The changing quantities and sources of EoL BPA flows may require a shift in the macroscopic BPA management strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daqian Jiang
- Environmental Engineering Department , Montana Tech , Butte , Montana 59701 , United States
| | - Wei-Qiang Chen
- Key Lab of Urban Environment and Health , Institute of Urban Environment, Chinese Academy of Sciences , Xiamen , Fujian 361021 , China
- Xiamen Key Lab of Urban Metabolism, Xiamen , 361021 , China
- University of Chinese Academy of Science , Beijing , 100049 , China
| | - Xianlai Zeng
- School of Environment , Tsinghua University , Beijing 100084 , China
| | - Linbin Tang
- Key Lab of Urban Environment and Health , Institute of Urban Environment, Chinese Academy of Sciences , Xiamen , Fujian 361021 , China
- Xiamen Key Lab of Urban Metabolism, Xiamen , 361021 , China
- University of Chinese Academy of Science , Beijing , 100049 , China
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18
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An Extended Model for Tracking Accumulation Pathways of Materials Using Input–Output Tables: Application to Copper Flows in Japan. SUSTAINABILITY 2018. [DOI: 10.3390/su10030876] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Recycling has become increasingly important as a means to mitigate not only waste issues but also problems related to primary resource use, such as a decrease in resource availability. In order to promote and plan future recycling efficiently, detailed information on the material stock in society is important. For a detailed analysis of material stocks, quantitative information on flows of a material, such as its accumulation pathways, final destinations, and its processing forms, are required. This paper develops a model for tracking accumulation pathways of materials using input–output tables (IOTs). The main characteristics of the proposed model are as follows: (1) accumulations in sectors other than the final demand sectors (i.e., endogenous sectors) are explicitly evaluated, (2) accumulations as accompaniments to products, such as containers and packaging, are distinguished from the products, and (3) processing forms of materials are considered. The developed model is applied to analyze copper flows in Japan using the Japanese IOTs for the year 2011. The results show that accumulations of copper in endogenous sectors were not negligibly small (9.24% of the overall flow). Although accumulations of copper as accompaniments were very small, they may be larger for other materials that are largely used as containers or packaging. It was found that the destinations of copper showed different characteristics depending on the processing forms.
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Nuss P, Blengini GA. Towards better monitoring of technology critical elements in Europe: Coupling of natural and anthropogenic cycles. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2018; 613-614:569-578. [PMID: 28926811 PMCID: PMC5681708 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2017.09.117] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2017] [Revised: 09/12/2017] [Accepted: 09/12/2017] [Indexed: 05/23/2023]
Abstract
The characterization of elemental cycles has a rich history in biogeochemistry. Well known examples include the global carbon cycle, or the cycles of the 'grand nutrients' nitrogen, phosphorus, and sulfur. More recently, efforts have increased to better understand the natural cycling of technology critical elements (TCEs), i.e. elements with a high supply risk and economic importance in the EU. On the other hand, tools such as material-flow analysis (MFA) can help to understand how substances and goods are transported and accumulated in man-made technological systems ('anthroposphere'). However, to date both biogeochemical cycles and MFA studies suffer from narrow system boundaries, failing to fully illustrate relative anthropogenic and natural flow magnitude and the degree to which human activity has perturbed the natural cycling of elements. We discuss important interconnections between natural and anthropogenic cycles and relevant EU raw material dossiers. Increased integration of both cycles could help to better capture the transport and fate of elements in nature including their environmental/human health impacts, highlight potential future material stocks in the anthroposphere (in-use stocks) and in nature (e.g., in soils, tailings, or mining wastes), and estimate anticipated emissions of TCEs to nature in the future (based on dynamic stock modeling). A preliminary assessment of natural versus anthropogenic element fluxes indicates that anthropogenic fluxes induced by the EU-28 of palladium, platinum, and antimony (as a result of materials uses) might be greater than the respective global natural fluxes. Increased combination of MFA and natural cycle data at EU level could help to derive more complete material cycles and initiate a discussion between the research communities of biogeochemists and material flow analysts to more holistically address the issues of sustainable resource management.
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Affiliation(s)
- Philip Nuss
- European Commission, Joint Research Centre (JRC), Directorate D - Sustainable Resources, Ispra 21027, Italy.
| | - Gian Andrea Blengini
- European Commission, Joint Research Centre (JRC), Directorate D - Sustainable Resources, Ispra 21027, Italy; Politecnico di Torino, Corso Duca degli Abruzzi 24, 10129 Torino, Italy
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Zhang L, Chen T, Yang J, Cai Z, Sheng H, Yuan Z, Wu H. Characterizing copper flows in international trade of China, 1975-2015. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2017; 601-602:1238-1246. [PMID: 28605841 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2017.05.216] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/13/2017] [Revised: 05/23/2017] [Accepted: 05/23/2017] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
Since the economic reform, China has actively participated in the global market with rapid industrialization and gradually dominated the utilization and consumption of some critical materials, one of which is copper. China has reigned the global anthropogenic cycle of copper since 2004. We explore copper flows along with the international trade of China during 1975-2015, through life cycle lens, from ore to final products. Our main finding is that China has become more active in the copper-related trade, indicated by its great increase in trade volume and the number of trade partners. The physical volume of copper flows through trade increased over 119 times between 1975 and 2015, mainly because of more imported raw materials of copper and exported copper products. Generally, China is a net importer of copper, with increasing import dependence through the study period, whereas the degree of dependence slightly decreased from 2010 to 2015. The indicator of Export Support Rate took a decreasing percentage, which has fallen about 35% since 2010. It suggests China's changing position in the global resource and manufacturing market. In terms of trade price of different copper products, the price of imported copper concentrate was noticeably higher than that of exported one, revealing the poor copper resource endowment of China; while the different trend of copper semis in recent years signifies that China is in urgent need to improve its capability of producing high value-added semis. From international trade perspective, the copper resource of China presented stable supply as well as demand. The One Belt One Road strategy proposed by the state will further expand both the resource and market of copper.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ling Zhang
- College of Economics and Management, Nanjing Forestry University, Nanjing 210037, PR China
| | - Tianming Chen
- College of Urban and Environmental Sciences, Peking University, Beijing 100871, PR China
| | - Jiameng Yang
- College of Economics and Management, Nanjing Forestry University, Nanjing 210037, PR China
| | - Zhijian Cai
- College of Economics and Management, Nanjing Forestry University, Nanjing 210037, PR China
| | - Hu Sheng
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, School of the Environment, Nanjing University, Nanjing 210023, PR China
| | - Zengwei Yuan
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, School of the Environment, Nanjing University, Nanjing 210023, PR China.
| | - Huijun Wu
- School of earth and environment, Anhui University of Science and Technology, Huainan 232001, PR China
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Xue M, Kojima N, Machimura T, Tokai A. Flow, stock, and impact assessment of refrigerants in the Japanese household air conditioner sector. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2017; 586:1308-1315. [PMID: 28237472 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2017.02.145] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/08/2016] [Revised: 02/17/2017] [Accepted: 02/17/2017] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
Refrigerants provide society with great benefits while have the potential to cause adverse effects on the environment and human health. The present study estimated time-dependent flows and stocks and assessed the effects of refrigerants (R-22, R-410a, and R-32) in household air conditioners in Japan. It was found that stock of R-22 and R-410a peaked at 49,147t in 2000 and 55,994t in 2017, respectively. The largest flow of R-22 and R-410a to waste phase occurred at 3417t/yr. in 2005 and 4011t/yr. in 2023, respectively. The total global warming potential (GWP) due to refrigerant emissions increased from 3.6kt CO2 eq. in 1952 to 6999kt CO2 eq. in 2019, and then decreased to 5314kt CO2 eq. in 2030. The ozone depletion potential (ODP) peaked at 141t CFC-11 eq. in 2002. When substituting R-410a for R-22, the ODP decreased 50% while the GDP increased 8%. When substituting R-32 for R-410a, there was no effect on the ODP while the GDP decreased 6%. The human health damage due to the global warming effect of refrigerant emission was much higher than that due to the ozone depleting effect. The refrigerant emission in use and waste management phases dominated the human health damage. The dynamic estimation not only allows us to evaluate the performance of past policies but also supports the future sustainable management associated with the health effects of refrigerants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mianqiang Xue
- Division of Sustainable Energy and Environmental Engineering, Graduate School of Engineering, Osaka University, 2-1 Yamadaoka, Suita, Osaka 565 0871, Japan.
| | - Naoya Kojima
- Division of Sustainable Energy and Environmental Engineering, Graduate School of Engineering, Osaka University, 2-1 Yamadaoka, Suita, Osaka 565 0871, Japan
| | - Takashi Machimura
- Division of Sustainable Energy and Environmental Engineering, Graduate School of Engineering, Osaka University, 2-1 Yamadaoka, Suita, Osaka 565 0871, Japan
| | - Akihiro Tokai
- Division of Sustainable Energy and Environmental Engineering, Graduate School of Engineering, Osaka University, 2-1 Yamadaoka, Suita, Osaka 565 0871, Japan
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Shi YL, Chen WQ, Wu SL, Zhu YG. Anthropogenic Cycles of Arsenic in Mainland China: 1990-2010. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2017; 51:1670-1678. [PMID: 28043121 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.6b01669] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/12/2023]
Abstract
Arsenic (As) is a trace element in the global environment with toxicity to both humans and ecosystem. This study characterizes China's historical anthropogenic arsenic cycles (AACs) from 1990 to 2010. Key findings include the following: (1) the scale of China's AACs grew significantly during the studied period, making China the biggest miner, producer, and user of arsenic today; (2) the majority of arsenic flows into China's anthroposphere are the impurity of domestically mined nonferrous metal ores, which far exceeds domestic intentional demands; (3) China has been a net exporter of arsenic trioxide and arsenic metalloid, thus suffering from the environmental burdens of producing arsenic products for other economies; (4) the growth of arsenic use in China is driven by simultaneous increases in many applications including glass making, wood preservatives, batteries, semiconductors, and alloys, implying the challenge for regulating arsenic uses in multiple applications/industries at the same time; (5) the dissipative arsenic emissions resulting from intentional applications are at the same order of magnitude as atmospheric emissions from coal combustion, and their threats to human and ecosystem health can spread widely and last years to decades. Our results demonstrate that the characterization of AACs is indispensable for developing a complete arsenic emission inventory.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ya-Lan Shi
- College of Tourism, Huaqiao University , Quanzhou, Fujian 362021, China
- Key Lab of Urban Environment and Health, Institute of Urban Environment, Chinese Academy of Sciences , Xiamen, Fujian 361021, China
| | - Wei-Qiang Chen
- Key Lab of Urban Environment and Health, Institute of Urban Environment, Chinese Academy of Sciences , Xiamen, Fujian 361021, China
| | - Shi-Liang Wu
- Department of Geological and Mining Engineering and Sciences, Michigan Technological University , Houghton, Michigan 49931, United States
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Michigan Technological University , Houghton, Michigan 49931, United States
| | - Yong-Guan Zhu
- Key Lab of Urban Environment and Health, Institute of Urban Environment, Chinese Academy of Sciences , Xiamen, Fujian 361021, China
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Global socioeconomic material stocks rise 23-fold over the 20th century and require half of annual resource use. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2017; 114:1880-1885. [PMID: 28167761 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1613773114] [Citation(s) in RCA: 92] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Human-made material stocks accumulating in buildings, infrastructure, and machinery play a crucial but underappreciated role in shaping the use of material and energy resources. Building, maintaining, and in particular operating in-use stocks of materials require raw materials and energy. Material stocks create long-term path-dependencies because of their longevity. Fostering a transition toward environmentally sustainable patterns of resource use requires a more complete understanding of stock-flow relations. Here we show that about half of all materials extracted globally by humans each year are used to build up or renew in-use stocks of materials. Based on a dynamic stock-flow model, we analyze stocks, inflows, and outflows of all materials and their relation to economic growth, energy use, and CO2 emissions from 1900 to 2010. Over this period, global material stocks increased 23-fold, reaching 792 Pg (±5%) in 2010. Despite efforts to improve recycling rates, continuous stock growth precludes closing material loops; recycling still only contributes 12% of inflows to stocks. Stocks are likely to continue to grow, driven by large infrastructure and building requirements in emerging economies. A convergence of material stocks at the level of industrial countries would lead to a fourfold increase in global stocks, and CO2 emissions exceeding climate change goals. Reducing expected future increases of material and energy demand and greenhouse gas emissions will require decoupling of services from the stocks and flows of materials through, for example, more intensive utilization of existing stocks, longer service lifetimes, and more efficient design.
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Allesch A, Brunner PH. Material Flow Analysis as a Tool to improve Waste Management Systems: The Case of Austria. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2017; 51:540-551. [PMID: 27936630 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.6b04204] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
This paper demonstrates the power of material flow analysis (MFA) for designing waste management (WM) systems and for supporting decisions with regards to given environmental and resource goals. Based on a comprehensive case study of a nationwide WM-system, advantages and drawbacks of a mass balance approach are discussed. Using the software STAN, a material flow system comprising all relevant inputs, stocks and outputs of wastes, products, residues, and emissions is established and quantified. Material balances on the level of goods and selected substances (C, Cd, Cr, Cu, Fe, Hg, N, Ni, P, Pb, Zn) are developed to characterize this WM-system. The MFA results serve well as a base for further assessments. Based on given goals, stakeholders engaged in this study selected the following seven criteria for evaluating their WM-system: (i) waste input into the system, (ii) export of waste (iii) gaseous emissions from waste treatment plants, (iv) long-term gaseous and liquid emissions from landfills, (v) waste being recycled, (vi) waste for energy recovery, (vii) total waste landfilled. By scenario analysis, strengths and weaknesses of different measures were identified. The results reveal the benefits of a mass balance approach due to redundancy, data consistency, and transparency for optimization, design, and decision making in WM.
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Affiliation(s)
- Astrid Allesch
- Vienna University of Technology , Institute for Water Quality, Resource and Waste Management, Karlsplatz 13/226, A-1040 Vienna, Austria
| | - Paul H Brunner
- Vienna University of Technology , Institute for Water Quality, Resource and Waste Management, Karlsplatz 13/226, A-1040 Vienna, Austria
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Pivnenko K, Laner D, Astrup TF. Material Cycles and Chemicals: Dynamic Material Flow Analysis of Contaminants in Paper Recycling. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2016; 50:12302-12311. [PMID: 27572286 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.6b01791] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
This study provides a systematic approach for assessment of contaminants in materials for recycling. Paper recycling is used as an illustrative example. Three selected chemicals, bisphenol A (BPA), diethylhexyl phthalate (DEHP) and mineral oil hydrocarbons (MOHs), are evaluated within the paper cycle. The approach combines static material flow analysis (MFA) with dynamic material and substance flow modeling. The results indicate that phasing out of chemicals is the most effective measure for reducing chemical contamination. However, this scenario was also associated with a considerable lag phase (between approximately one and three decades) before the presence of chemicals in paper products could be considered insignificant. While improved decontamination may appear to be an effective way of minimizing chemicals in products, this may also result in lower production yields. Optimized waste material source-segregation and collection was the least effective strategy for reducing chemical contamination, if the overall recycling rates should be maintained at the current level (approximately 70% for Europe). The study provides a consistent approach for evaluating contaminant levels in material cycles. The results clearly indicate that mass-based recycling targets are not sufficient to ensure high quality material recycling.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kostyantyn Pivnenko
- Department of Environmental Engineering, Technical University of Denmark , DK-2800 Kgs. Lyngby, Denmark
| | - David Laner
- Institute for Water Quality, Resources and Waste Management, Vienna University of Technology , Karlsplatz 13, 1040 Wien, Austria
| | - Thomas F Astrup
- Department of Environmental Engineering, Technical University of Denmark , DK-2800 Kgs. Lyngby, Denmark
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Zhang J, Everson MP, Wallington TJ, Field FR, Roth R, Kirchain RE. Assessing Economic Modulation of Future Critical Materials Use: The Case of Automotive-Related Platinum Group Metals. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2016; 50:7687-7695. [PMID: 27285880 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.5b04654] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
Platinum-group metals (PGMs) are technological and economic enablers of many industrial processes. This important role, coupled with their limited geographic availability, has led to PGMs being labeled as "critical materials". Studies of future PGM flows have focused on trends within material flows or macroeconomic indicators. We complement the previous work by introducing a novel technoeconomic model of substitution among PGMs within the automotive sector (the largest user of PGMs) reflecting the rational response of firms to changing prices. The results from the model support previous conclusions that PGM use is likely to grow, in some cases strongly, by 2030 (approximately 45% for Pd and 5% for Pt), driven by the increasing sales of automobiles. The model also indicates that PGM-demand growth will be significantly influenced by the future Pt-to-Pd price ratio, with swings of Pt and Pd demand of as much as 25% if the future price ratio shifts higher or lower even if it stays within the historic range. Fortunately, automotive catalysts are one of the more effectively recycled metals. As such, with proper policy support, recycling can serve to meet some of this growing demand.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jingshu Zhang
- Materials Systems Laboratory, Massachusetts Institute of Technology , Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, United States
| | - Mark P Everson
- Ford Motor Company Research and Innovation Center , Dearborn, Michigan 48121-2053, United States
| | - Timothy J Wallington
- Ford Motor Company Research and Innovation Center , Dearborn, Michigan 48121-2053, United States
| | - Frank R Field
- Materials Systems Laboratory, Massachusetts Institute of Technology , Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, United States
| | - Richard Roth
- Materials Systems Laboratory, Massachusetts Institute of Technology , Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, United States
| | - Randolph E Kirchain
- Materials Systems Laboratory, Massachusetts Institute of Technology , Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, United States
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27
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Chen WQ, Graedel TE, Nuss P, Ohno H. Building the Material Flow Networks of Aluminum in the 2007 U.S. Economy. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2016; 50:3905-3912. [PMID: 26926828 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.5b05095] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
Based on the combination of the U.S. economic input-output table and the stocks and flows framework for characterizing anthropogenic metal cycles, this study presents a methodology for building material flow networks of bulk metals in the U.S. economy and applies it to aluminum. The results, which we term the Input-Output Material Flow Networks (IO-MFNs), achieve a complete picture of aluminum flow in the entire U.S. economy and for any chosen industrial sector (illustrated for the Automobile Manufacturing sector). The results are compared with information from our former study on U.S. aluminum stocks and flows to demonstrate the robustness and value of this new methodology. We find that the IO-MFN approach has the following advantages: (1) it helps to uncover the network of material flows in the manufacturing stage in the life cycle of metals; (2) it provides a method that may be less time-consuming but more complete and accurate in estimating new scrap generation, process loss, domestic final demand, and trade of final products of metals, than existing material flow analysis approaches; and, most importantly, (3) it enables the analysis of the material flows of metals in the U.S. economy from a network perspective, rather than merely that of a life cycle chain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wei-Qiang Chen
- Center for Industrial Ecology, School of Forestry and Environmental Studies, Yale University , New Haven, Connecticut 06511, United States
- Institute of Urban Environment, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 1799 Jimei Road, Xiamen, Fujian 361021, P.R. China
| | - T E Graedel
- Center for Industrial Ecology, School of Forestry and Environmental Studies, Yale University , New Haven, Connecticut 06511, United States
| | - Philip Nuss
- Center for Industrial Ecology, School of Forestry and Environmental Studies, Yale University , New Haven, Connecticut 06511, United States
| | - Hajime Ohno
- Center for Industrial Ecology, School of Forestry and Environmental Studies, Yale University , New Haven, Connecticut 06511, United States
- Graduate School of Engineering, Tohoku University , 6-6-04, Aramaki Aza Aoba Aoba-ku, Sendai, Miyagi 980-8579, Japan
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28
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Pileidis FD, Titirici MM. Levulinic Acid Biorefineries: New Challenges for Efficient Utilization of Biomass. CHEMSUSCHEM 2016; 9:562-82. [PMID: 26847212 DOI: 10.1002/cssc.201501405] [Citation(s) in RCA: 255] [Impact Index Per Article: 31.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/18/2015] [Indexed: 05/11/2023]
Abstract
Levulinic acid is a sustainable platform molecule that can be upgraded to valuable chemicals and fuel additives. This article focuses on the catalytic upgrading of levulinic acid into various chemicals such as levulinate esters, δ-aminolevulinic acid, succinic acid, diphenolic acid, γ-valerolactone, and γ-valerolactone derivatives such valeric esters, 5-nonanone, α-methylene-γ valerolactone, and other various molecular-weight alkanes (C9 and C18-C27 olefins).
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Affiliation(s)
- Filoklis D Pileidis
- School of Materials Science and Engineering, Materials Research Institute, Queen Mary University of London, Mile End Road, London, E58 HA, UK
| | - Maria-Magdalena Titirici
- School of Materials Science and Engineering, Materials Research Institute, Queen Mary University of London, Mile End Road, London, E58 HA, UK.
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29
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Tran HP, Wang F, Dewulf J, Huynh TH, Schaubroeck T. Estimation of the Unregistered Inflow of Electrical and Electronic Equipment to a Domestic Market: A Case Study on Televisions in Vietnam. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2016; 50:2424-2433. [PMID: 26820611 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.5b01388] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
Waste electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE) constitutes one of the most problematic waste streams worldwide, and accurately estimating the scale of WEEE can assist in tackling its associated issues. However, obtaining an accurate estimation of WEEE remains a challenge because a share of the waste is difficult to calculate. This share stems from the administratively unregistered (so-called "invisible") inflow of electrical and electronic equipment (EEE) into the domestic market. As a first attempt to qualitatively and quantitatively investigate this invisible inflow, this study discusses the nature of this flow in detail and proposes a calculation pathway for quantifying its magnitude. The size of the invisible inflow to a domestic market (assumed equal to invisible sales) is calculated by subtracting the registered, also called "visible", sales from the total sales. The total sales are modeled, whereas the visible sales are derived from statistical data. The method is illustrated by a case study on televisions (TVs) in Vietnam. The results show that from 2002 to 2013, the invisible TV inflow contributed, on average, 15% to the total TV sales (coefficient of variation: 0.21). This average share would increase by approximately 1.0% when the maximum number of TVs used per household increased by 1.0%. However, it would decrease by 1.7% when the visible sales increased by 1.0%. Additionally, the average share of the invisible TV inflow would change from 15% to 27% when an unadjusted constant instead of an adjusted time-varying lifespan is employed. This first estimation of the invisible EEE inflow to the domestic market can be improved with additional knowledge and data in the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ha Phuong Tran
- Research Group Environmental Organic Chemistry and Technology (ENVOC), Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University , Coupure Links 653, B-9000 Ghent, Belgium
- School of Environmental Science and Technology, Hanoi University of Technology , 1 Dai Co Viet Road, Hanoi, Vietnam
| | - Feng Wang
- Design for Sustainability Lab, Faculty of Industrial Design Engineering, Delft University of Technology , Landbergstraat 15, 2628CE Delft, The Netherlands
- Institute for the Advanced Study of Sustainability, United Nations University , Platz der Vereinten Nationen 1, 53113 Bonn, Germany
| | - Jo Dewulf
- Research Group Environmental Organic Chemistry and Technology (ENVOC), Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University , Coupure Links 653, B-9000 Ghent, Belgium
| | - Trung-Hai Huynh
- School of Environmental Science and Technology, Hanoi University of Technology , 1 Dai Co Viet Road, Hanoi, Vietnam
| | - Thomas Schaubroeck
- Research Group Environmental Organic Chemistry and Technology (ENVOC), Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University , Coupure Links 653, B-9000 Ghent, Belgium
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30
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Zeng X, Gong R, Chen WQ, Li J. Uncovering the Recycling Potential of "New" WEEE in China. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2016; 50:1347-58. [PMID: 26709550 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.5b05446] [Citation(s) in RCA: 106] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/17/2023]
Abstract
Newly defined categories of WEEE have increased the types of China's regulated WEEE from 5 to 14. Identification of the amounts and valuable-resource components of the "new" WEEE generated is critical to solving the e-waste problem, for both governmental policy decisions and recycling enterprise expansions. This study first estimates and predicts China's new WEEE generation for the period of 2010-2030 using material flow analysis and the lifespan model of the Weibull distribution, then determines the amounts of valuable resources (e.g., base materials, precious metals, and rare-earth minerals) encased annually in WEEE, and their dynamic transfer from in-use stock to waste. Main findings include the following: (i) China will generate 15.5 and 28.4 million tons WEEE in 2020 and 2030, respectively, and has already overtaken the U.S. to become the world's leading producer of e-waste; (ii) among all the types of WEEE, air conditioners, desktop personal computers, refrigerators, and washing machines contribute over 70% of total WEEE by weight. The two categories of EEE-electronic devices and electrical appliances-each contribute about half of total WEEE by weight; (iii) more and more valuable resources have been transferred from in-use products to WEEE, significantly enhancing the recycling potential of WEEE from an economic perspective; and (iv) WEEE recycling potential has been evolving from ∼16 (10-22) billion US$ in 2010, to an anticipated ∼42 (26-58) billion US$ in 2020 and ∼73.4 (44.5-103.4) billion US$ by 2030. All the obtained results can improve the knowledge base for closing the loop of WEEE recycling, and contribute to governmental policy making and the recycling industry's business development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xianlai Zeng
- State Key Joint Laboratory of Environment Simulation and Pollution Control, School of Environment, Tsinghua University , Beijing 100084, China
| | - Ruying Gong
- Department of Ecology, Environmental Management College of China , Qinhuangdao, Hebei 066102, China
| | - Wei-Qiang Chen
- Center for Industrial Ecology, School of Forestry and Environmental Studies, Yale University , New Haven, Connecticut 06511, United States
| | - Jinhui Li
- State Key Joint Laboratory of Environment Simulation and Pollution Control, School of Environment, Tsinghua University , Beijing 100084, China
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31
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Fernandez-Mena H, Nesme T, Pellerin S. Towards an Agro-Industrial Ecology: A review of nutrient flow modelling and assessment tools in agro-food systems at the local scale. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2016; 543:467-479. [PMID: 26599147 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2015.11.032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/02/2015] [Revised: 11/05/2015] [Accepted: 11/06/2015] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
Improvement in nutrient recycling in agriculture is essential to maintain food production while minimising nutrient pollution of the environment. For this purpose, understanding and modelling nutrient cycles in food and related agro-industrial systems is a crucial task. Although nutrient management has been addressed at the plot and farm scales for many years now in the agricultural sciences, there is a need to upscale these approaches to capture the additional drivers of nutrient cycles that may occur at the local, i.e. district, scale. Industrial ecology principles provide sound bases to analyse nutrient cycling in complex systems. However, since agro-food social-ecological systems have specific ecological and social dimensions, we argue that a new field, referred to as "Agro-Industrial Ecology", is needed to study these systems. In this paper, we review the literature on nutrient cycling in complex social-ecological systems that can provide a basis for Agro-Industrial Ecology. We identify and describe three major approaches: Environmental Assessment tools, Stock and Flow Analysis methods and Agent-based models. We then discuss their advantages and drawbacks for assessing and modelling nutrient cycles in agro-food systems in terms of their purpose and scope, object representation and time-spatial dynamics. We finally argue that combining stock-flow methods with both agent-based models and environmental impact assessment tools is a promising way to analyse the role of economic agents on nutrient flows and losses and to explore scenarios that better close the nutrient cycles at the local scale.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hugo Fernandez-Mena
- Bordeaux Sciences Agro, Univ. Bordeaux, UMR 1391 ISPA, F-33175 Gradignan, France; INRA, UMR 1391 ISPA, F-33883 Villenave d'Ornon, France.
| | - Thomas Nesme
- Bordeaux Sciences Agro, Univ. Bordeaux, UMR 1391 ISPA, F-33175 Gradignan, France
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32
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Ongondo FO, Williams ID, Whitlock G. Distinct Urban Mines: Exploiting secondary resources in unique anthropogenic spaces. WASTE MANAGEMENT (NEW YORK, N.Y.) 2015; 45:4-9. [PMID: 26066575 DOI: 10.1016/j.wasman.2015.05.026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/02/2015] [Revised: 04/28/2015] [Accepted: 05/24/2015] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
Fear of scarcity of resources highlight the need to exploit secondary materials from urban mines in the anthroposphere. Analogous to primary mines rich in one type of material (e.g. copper, gold, etc.), some urban mines are unique/distinct. We introduce, illustrate and discuss the concept of Distinct Urban Mines (DUM). Using the example of a university DUM in the UK, analogous to a primary mine, we illustrate potential product/material yields in respect of size, concentration and spatial location of the mine. Product ownership and replacement cycles for 17 high-value electrical and electronic equipment (EEE) among students showed that 20 tonnes of valuable e-waste were in stockpile in this DUM and a further 87 tonnes would 'soon' be available for exploitation. We address the opportunities and challenges of exploiting DUMs and conclude that they are readily available reservoirs for resource recovery. Two original contributions arise from this work: (i) a novel approach to urban mining with a potential for maximising resource recovery within the anthroposphere is conceptualised; and (ii) previously unavailable data for high-value products for a typical university DUM are presented and analysed.
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Affiliation(s)
- F O Ongondo
- Centre for Environmental Sciences, Faculty of Engineering and the Environment, Lanchester Building, University of Southampton, University Rd, Highfield, Southampton, Hampshire SO17 1BJ, UK.
| | - I D Williams
- Centre for Environmental Sciences, Faculty of Engineering and the Environment, Lanchester Building, University of Southampton, University Rd, Highfield, Southampton, Hampshire SO17 1BJ, UK
| | - G Whitlock
- Centre for Environmental Sciences, Faculty of Engineering and the Environment, Lanchester Building, University of Southampton, University Rd, Highfield, Southampton, Hampshire SO17 1BJ, UK
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33
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Westerhoff P, Lee S, Yang Y, Gordon GW, Hristovski K, Halden RU, Herckes P. Characterization, Recovery Opportunities, and Valuation of Metals in Municipal Sludges from U.S. Wastewater Treatment Plants Nationwide. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2015; 49:9479-88. [PMID: 25581264 DOI: 10.1021/es505329q] [Citation(s) in RCA: 112] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/04/2023]
Abstract
U.S. sewage sludges were analyzed for 58 regulated and nonregulated elements by ICP-MS and electron microscopy to explore opportunities for removal and recovery. Sludge/water distribution coefficients (KD, L/kg dry weight) spanned 5 orders of magnitude, indicating significant metal accumulation in biosolids. Rare-earth elements and minor metals (Y, La, Ce, Pr, Nd, Sm, Eu, Gd, Tb, Dy, Ho, Er, Tm, Yb, Lu) detected in sludges showed enrichment factors (EFs) near unity, suggesting dust or soils as likely dominant sources. In contrast, most platinum group elements (i.e., Ru, Rh, Pd, Pt) showed high EF and KD values, indicating anthropogenic sources. Numerous metallic and metal oxide colloids (<100-500 nm diameter) were detected; the morphology of abundant aggregates of primary particles measuring <100 nm provided clues to their origin. For a community of 1 million people, metals in biosolids were valued at up to US$13 million annually. A model incorporating a parameter (KD × EF × $Value) to capture the relative potential for economic value from biosolids revealed the identity of the 13 most lucrative elements (Ag, Cu, Au, P, Fe, Pd, Mn, Zn, Ir, Al, Cd, Ti, Ga, and Cr) with a combined value of US $280/ton of sludge.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paul Westerhoff
- †School of Sustainable Engineering and the Built Environment, Arizona State University, Tempe, Arizona 85287-3005, United States
| | - Sungyun Lee
- †School of Sustainable Engineering and the Built Environment, Arizona State University, Tempe, Arizona 85287-3005, United States
| | - Yu Yang
- †School of Sustainable Engineering and the Built Environment, Arizona State University, Tempe, Arizona 85287-3005, United States
| | - Gwyneth W Gordon
- ‡School of Earth and Space Exploration, Arizona State University, Tempe, Arizona 85287-1404, United States
| | - Kiril Hristovski
- §The Polytechnic School, Ira A. Fulton Schools of Engineering, Arizona State University, Peralta Hall 330A, 7171 E. Sonoran Arroyo Mall, Mesa, Arizona 85212-2180, United States
| | - Rolf U Halden
- †School of Sustainable Engineering and the Built Environment, Arizona State University, Tempe, Arizona 85287-3005, United States
- ∥Center for Environmental Security, The Biodesign Institute at Arizona State University, Security and Defense Systems Initiative, 781 E. Terrace Mall, Tempe, Arizona 85287-5904, United States
| | - Pierre Herckes
- ⊥Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Arizona State University, Tempe, Arizona 85287-1604, United States
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34
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Kostal J, Voutchkova-Kostal A, Anastas PT, Zimmerman JB. Identifying and designing chemicals with minimal acute aquatic toxicity. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2015; 112:6289-94. [PMID: 24639521 PMCID: PMC4443366 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1314991111] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Industrial ecology has revolutionized our understanding of material stocks and flows in our economy and society. For this important discipline to have even deeper impact, we must understand the inherent nature of these materials in terms of human health and the environment. This paper focuses on methods to design synthetic chemicals to reduce their intrinsic ability to cause adverse consequence to the biosphere. Advances in the fields of computational chemistry and molecular toxicology in recent decades allow the development of predictive models that inform the design of molecules with reduced potential to be toxic to humans or the environment. The approach presented herein builds on the important work in quantitative structure-activity relationships by linking toxicological and chemical mechanistic insights to the identification of critical physical-chemical properties needed to be modified. This in silico approach yields design guidelines using boundary values for physiochemical properties. Acute aquatic toxicity serves as a model endpoint in this study. Defining value ranges for properties related to bioavailability and reactivity eliminates 99% of the chemicals in the highest concern for acute aquatic toxicity category. This approach and its future implementations are expected to yield very powerful tools for life cycle assessment practitioners and molecular designers that allow rapid assessment of multiple environmental and human health endpoints and inform modifications to minimize hazard.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jakub Kostal
- Sustainability A to Z, LLC, Guilford, CT 06437; and
| | | | | | - Julie Beth Zimmerman
- School of Forestry and Environmental Studies and Department of Chemical and Environmental Engineering, Yale University, New Haven, CT 06511
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35
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Buchner H, Laner D, Rechberger H, Fellner J. Dynamic material flow modeling: an effort to calibrate and validate aluminum stocks and flows in Austria. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2015; 49:5546-5554. [PMID: 25851493 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.5b00408] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
A calibrated and validated dynamic material flow model of Austrian aluminum (Al) stocks and flows between 1964 and 2012 was developed. Calibration and extensive plausibility testing was performed to illustrate how the quality of dynamic material flow analysis can be improved on the basis of the consideration of independent bottom-up estimates. According to the model, total Austrian in-use Al stocks reached a level of 360 kg/capita in 2012, with buildings (45%) and transport applications (32%) being the major in-use stocks. Old scrap generation (including export of end-of-life vehicles) amounted to 12.5 kg/capita in 2012, still being on the increase, while Al final demand has remained rather constant at around 25 kg/capita in the past few years. The application of global sensitivity analysis showed that only small parts of the total variance of old scrap generation could be explained by the variation of single parameters, emphasizing the need for comprehensive sensitivity analysis tools accounting for interaction between parameters and time-delay effects in dynamic material flow models. Overall, it was possible to generate a detailed understanding of the evolution of Al stocks and flows in Austria, including plausibility evaluations of the results. Such models constitute a reliable basis for evaluating future recycling potentials, in particular with respect to application-specific qualities of current and future national Al scrap generation and utilization.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hanno Buchner
- †Christian Doppler Laboratory for Anthropogenic Resources, Vienna University of Technology, Karlsplatz 13, A-1040 Vienna, Austria
| | - David Laner
- †Christian Doppler Laboratory for Anthropogenic Resources, Vienna University of Technology, Karlsplatz 13, A-1040 Vienna, Austria
| | - Helmut Rechberger
- ‡Institute for Water Quality, Resource and Waste Management, Vienna University of Technology, Karlsplatz 13, A-1040 Vienna, Austria
| | - Johann Fellner
- †Christian Doppler Laboratory for Anthropogenic Resources, Vienna University of Technology, Karlsplatz 13, A-1040 Vienna, Austria
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36
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Løvik AN, Restrepo E, Müller DB. The global anthropogenic gallium system: determinants of demand, supply and efficiency improvements. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2015; 49:5704-5712. [PMID: 25884251 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.5b00320] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
Gallium has been labeled as a critical metal due to rapidly growing consumption, importance for low-carbon technologies such as solid state lighting and photovoltaics, and being produced only as a byproduct of other metals (mainly aluminum). The global system of primary production, manufacturing, use and recycling has not yet been described or quantified in the literature. This prevents predictions of future demand, supply and possibilities for efficiency improvements on a system level. We present a description of the global anthropogenic gallium system and quantify the system using a combination of statistical data and technical parameters. We estimated that gallium was produced from 8 to 21% of alumina plants in 2011. The most important applications of gallium are NdFeB permanent magnets, integrated circuits and GaAs/GaP-based light-emitting diodes, demanding 22-37%, 16-27%, and 11-21% of primary metal production, respectively. GaN-based light-emitting diodes and photovoltaics are less important, both with 2-6%. We estimated that 120-170 tons, corresponding to 40-60% of primary production, ended up in production wastes that were either disposed of or stored. While demand for gallium is expected to rise in the future, our results indicated that it is possible to increase primary production substantially with conventional technology, as well as improve the system-wide material efficiency.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amund N Løvik
- †Industrial Ecology Programme and Department of Energy and Process Engineering, Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU), NO-7491, Trondheim, Norway
| | - Eliette Restrepo
- †Industrial Ecology Programme and Department of Energy and Process Engineering, Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU), NO-7491, Trondheim, Norway
- ‡Empa, Swiss Federal Laboratories for Materials Science and Technology, CH-9014, St. Gallen, Switzerland
| | - Daniel B Müller
- †Industrial Ecology Programme and Department of Energy and Process Engineering, Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU), NO-7491, Trondheim, Norway
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37
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Liang J, Mao J. Source analysis of global anthropogenic lead emissions: their quantities and species. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2015; 22:7129-7138. [PMID: 25501639 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-014-3878-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/08/2014] [Accepted: 11/11/2014] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
Lead emissions originate primarily from the anthropogenic lead cycle, and research into their characteristics, such as species type, provides essential information for pollution control. A dynamic model for global lead emissions has been established, and their emissions and temporal accumulations were estimated in this study based on the evolution of the lead cycle over 70 years. An inventory of the emissions species was obtained after identifying their physiochemical transformations. The 2010 emissions were 3.56 Mt, with 65 % coming from waste management and recycling. The main species were PbSO4 (42.5 %), PbO2 (16.2 %), and PbS (8.3 %). Between 1930 and 2010, the total lead emissions were 173.8 Mt, mainly from waste management and recycling (48 %), production (26 %), and use (20 %). The main species were PbSO4, PbO, Pb, and PbS, and together, they accounted for 61.2 % of the total emissions. Over time, species, such as tetraethyl lead and Pb, declined, but PbO2 and PbSO4 increased.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jing Liang
- State Key Joint Laboratory of Environment Simulation and Pollution Control, School of Environment, Beijing Normal University, Beijing, 100875, People's Republic of China
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38
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Abstract
In-use stock of a product is the amount of the product in active use. In-use product stocks provide various functions or services on which we rely in our daily work and lives, and the concept of in-use product stock for industrial ecologists is similar to the concept of net manufactured capital stock for economists. This study estimates historical physical in-use stocks of 91 products and 9 product groups and uses monetary data on net capital stocks of 56 products to either approximate or compare with in-use stocks of the corresponding products in the United States. Findings include the following: (i) The development of new products and the buildup of their in-use stocks result in the increase in variety of in-use product stocks and of manufactured capital; (ii) substitution among products providing similar or identical functions reflects the improvement in quality of in-use product stocks and of manufactured capital; and (iii) the historical evolution of stocks of the 156 products or product groups in absolute, per capita, or per-household terms shows that stocks of most products have reached or are approaching an upper limit. Because the buildup, renewal, renovation, maintenance, and operation of in-use product stocks drive the anthropogenic cycles of materials that are used to produce products and that originate from natural capital, the determination of in-use product stocks together with modeling of anthropogenic material cycles provides an analytic perspective on the material linkage between manufactured capital and natural capital.
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Nansai K, Nakajima K, Kagawa S, Kondo Y, Shigetomi Y, Suh S. Global mining risk footprint of critical metals necessary for low-carbon technologies: the case of neodymium, cobalt, and platinum in Japan. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2015; 49:2022-2031. [PMID: 25622132 DOI: 10.1021/es504255r] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
Meeting the 2-degree global warming target requires wide adoption of low-carbon energy technologies. Many such technologies rely on the use of precious metals, however, increasing the dependence of national economies on these resources. Among such metals, those with supply security concerns are referred to as critical metals. Using the Policy Potential Index developed by the Fraser Institute, this study developed a new footprint indicator, the mining risk footprint (MRF), to quantify the mining risk directly and indirectly affecting a national economy through its consumption of critical metals. We formulated the MRF as a product of the material footprint (MF) of the consuming country and the mining risks of the countries where the materials are mined. A case study was conducted for the 2005 Japanese economy to determine the MF and MRF for three critical metals essential for emerging energy technologies: neodymium, cobalt and platinum. The results indicate that in 2005 the MFs generated by Japanese domestic final demand, that is, the consumption-based metal output of Japan, were 1.0 × 10(3) t for neodymium, 9.4 × 10(3) t for cobalt, and 2.1 × 10 t for platinum. Export demand contributes most to the MF, accounting for 3.0 × 10(3) t, 1.3 × 10(5) t, and 3.1 × 10 t, respectively. The MRFs of Japanese total final demand (domestic plus export) were calculated to be 1.7 × 10 points for neodymium, 4.5 × 10(-2) points for cobalt, and 5.6 points for platinum, implying that the Japanese economy is incurring a high mining risk through its use of neodymium. This country's MRFs are all dominated by export demand. The paper concludes by discussing the policy implications and future research directions for measuring the MFs and MRFs of critical metals. For countries poorly endowed with mineral resources, adopting low-carbon energy technologies may imply a shifting of risk from carbon resources to other natural resources, in particular critical metals, and a trade-off between increased mining risk and deployment of such technologies. Our analysis constitutes a first step toward quantifying and managing the risks associated with natural resource mining.
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Affiliation(s)
- Keisuke Nansai
- Center for Material Cycles and Waste Management Research, National Institute for Environmental Studies , 16-2 Onogawa, Tsukuba 305-8506, Japan
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Fitzpatrick C, Olivetti E, Miller R, Roth R, Kirchain R. Conflict minerals in the compute sector: estimating extent of tin, tantalum, tungsten, and gold use in ICT products. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2015; 49:974-981. [PMID: 25453363 DOI: 10.1021/es501193k] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
Recent legislation has focused attention on the supply chains of tin, tungsten, tantalum, and gold (3TG), specifically those originating from the eastern part of the Democratic Republic of Congo. The unique properties of these so-called “conflict minerals” lead to their use in many products, ranging from medical devices to industrial cutting tools. This paper calculates per product use of 3TG in several information, communication, and technology (ICT) products such as desktops, servers, laptops, smart phones, and tablets. By scaling up individual product estimates to global shipment figures, this work estimates the influence of the ICT sector on 3TG mining in covered countries. The model estimates the upper bound of tin, tungsten, tantalum, and gold use within ICT products to be 2%, 0.1%, 15%, and 3% of the 2013 market share, respectively. This result is projected into the future (2018) based on the anticipated increase in ICT device production.
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Kral U, Brunner PH, Chen PC, Chen SR. Sinks as limited resources? A new indicator for evaluating anthropogenic material flows. ECOLOGICAL INDICATORS 2014; 46:596-609. [PMID: 25368543 PMCID: PMC4183748 DOI: 10.1016/j.ecolind.2014.06.027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/19/2014] [Revised: 05/15/2014] [Accepted: 06/18/2014] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
Besides recyclables, the use of materials inevitably yields non-recyclable materials such as emissions and wastes for disposal. These flows must be directed to sinks in a way that no adverse effects arise for humans and the environment. The objective of this paper is to present a new indicator for the assessment of substance flows to sinks on a regional scale. The indicator quantifies the environmentally acceptable mass share of a substance in actual waste and emission flows, ranging from 0% as worst case to 100% as best case. This paper consists of three parts: first, the indicator is defined. Second, a methodology to determine the indicator score is presented, including (i) substance flows analysis and (ii) a distant-to-target approach based on an adaptation of the Ecological Scarcity Method 2006. Third, the metric developed is applied in three case studies including copper (Cu) and lead (Pb) in the city of Vienna, and perfluorooctane sulfonate (PFOS) in Switzerland. The following results were obtained: in Vienna, 99% of Cu flows to geogenic and anthropogenic sinks are acceptable when evaluated by the distant-to-target approach. However, the 0.7% of Cu entering urban soils and the 0.3% entering receiving waters are beyond the acceptable level. In the case of Pb, 92% of all flows into sinks prove to be acceptable, and 8% are disposed of in local landfills with limited capacity. For PFOS, 96% of all flows into sinks are acceptable. 4% cannot be evaluated due to a lack of normative criteria, despite posing a risk for human health and the environment. The examples demonstrate the need (i) for appropriate data of good quality to calculate the sink indicator and (ii) for standards, needed for the assessment of substance flows to urban soils and receiving waters. This study corroborates that the new indicator is well suited as a base for decisions regarding the control of hazardous substances in waste and environmental management.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ulrich Kral
- Vienna University of Technology, Institute for Water Quality, Resource and Waste Management, Karlsplatz 13/226, A-1040 Vienna, Austria1
| | - Paul H. Brunner
- Vienna University of Technology, Institute for Water Quality, Resource and Waste Management, Karlsplatz 13/226, A-1040 Vienna, Austria1
| | - Pi-Cheng Chen
- National Taiwan University, Graduate Institute of Environmental Engineering, 71 Chou-Shan Road, Taipei 106, Taiwan
| | - Sih-Rong Chen
- National Taiwan University, Graduate Institute of Environmental Engineering, 71 Chou-Shan Road, Taipei 106, Taiwan
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Kral U, Lin CY, Kellner K, Ma HW, Brunner PH. The Copper Balance of Cities: Exploratory Insights into a European and an Asian City. JOURNAL OF INDUSTRIAL ECOLOGY 2014; 18:432-444. [PMID: 25866460 PMCID: PMC4386478 DOI: 10.1111/jiec.12088] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/31/2023]
Abstract
Material management faces a dual challenge: on the one hand satisfying large and increasing demands for goods and on the other hand accommodating wastes and emissions in sinks. Hence, the characterization of material flows and stocks is relevant for both improving resource efficiency and environmental protection. This article focuses on the urban scale, a dimension rarely investigated in past metal flow studies. We compare the copper (Cu) metabolism of two cities in different economic states, namely, Vienna (Europe) and Taipei (Asia). Substance flow analysis is used to calculate urban Cu balances in a comprehensive and transparent form. The main difference between Cu in the two cities appears to be the stock: Vienna seems close to saturation with 180 kilograms per capita (kg/cap) and a growth rate of 2% per year. In contrast, the Taipei stock of 30 kg/cap grows rapidly by 26% per year. Even though most Cu is recycled in both cities, bottom ash from municipal solid waste incineration represents an unused Cu potential accounting for 1% to 5% of annual demand. Nonpoint emissions are predominant; up to 50% of the loadings into the sewer system are from nonpoint sources. The results of this research are instrumental for the design of the Cu metabolism in each city. The outcomes serve as a base for identification and recovery of recyclables as well as for directing nonrecyclables to appropriate sinks, avoiding sensitive environmental pathways. The methodology applied is well suited for city benchmarking if sufficient data are available.
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Müller E, Hilty LM, Widmer R, Schluep M, Faulstich M. Modeling metal stocks and flows: a review of dynamic material flow analysis methods. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2014; 48:2102-13. [PMID: 24494583 DOI: 10.1021/es403506a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 90] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/05/2023]
Abstract
Dynamic material flow analysis (MFA) is a frequently used method to assess past, present, and future stocks and flows of metals in the anthroposphere. Over the past fifteen years, dynamic MFA has contributed to increased knowledge about the quantities, qualities, and locations of metal-containing goods. This article presents a literature review of the methodologies applied in 60 dynamic MFAs of metals. The review is based on a standardized model description format, the ODD (overview, design concepts, details) protocol. We focus on giving a comprehensive overview of modeling approaches and structure them according to essential aspects, such as their treatment of material dissipation, spatial dimension of flows, or data uncertainty. The reviewed literature features similar basic modeling principles but very diverse extrapolation methods. Basic principles include the calculation of outflows of the in-use stock based on inflow or stock data and a lifetime distribution function. For extrapolating stocks and flows, authors apply constant, linear, exponential, and logistic models or approaches based on socioeconomic variables, such as regression models or the intensity-of-use hypothesis. The consideration and treatment of further aspects, such as dissipation, spatial distribution, and data uncertainty, vary significantly and highly depends on the objectives of each study.
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Affiliation(s)
- Esther Müller
- EMPA, Swiss Federal Laboratories for Materials Science and Technology , Technology and Society Laboratory, Lerchenfeldstrasse 5, CH-9014 St. Gallen, Switzerland
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Breivik K, Armitage JM, Wania F, Jones KC. Tracking the global generation and exports of e-waste. Do existing estimates add up? ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2014; 48:8735-43. [PMID: 25007134 DOI: 10.1021/es5021313] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/12/2023]
Abstract
The transport of discarded electronic and electrical appliances (e-waste) to developing regions has received considerable attention, but it is difficult to assess the significance of this issue without a quantitative understanding of the amounts involved. The main objective of this study is to track the global transport of e-wastes by compiling and constraining existing estimates of the amount of e-waste generated domestically in each country MGEN, exported from countries belonging to the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) MEXP, and imported in countries outside of the OECD MIMP. Reference year is 2005 and all estimates are given with an uncertainty range. Estimates of MGEN obtained by apportioning a global total of ∼ 35,000 kt (range 20,000-50,000 kt) based on a nation's gross domestic product agree well with independent estimates of MGEN for individual countries. Import estimates MIMP to the countries believed to be the major recipients of e-waste exports from the OECD globally (China, India, and five West African countries) suggests that ∼ 5,000 kt (3,600 kt-7,300 kt) may have been imported annually to these non-OECD countries alone, which represents ∼ 23% (17%-34%) of the amounts of e-waste generated domestically within the OECD. MEXP for each OECD country is then estimated by applying this fraction of 23% to its MGEN. By allocating each country's MGEN, MIMP, MEXP and MNET = MGEN + MIMP - MEXP, we can map the global generation and flows of e-waste from OECD to non-OECD countries. While significant uncertainties remain, we note that estimated import into seven non-OECD countries alone are often at the higher end of estimates of exports from OECD countries.
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Affiliation(s)
- Knut Breivik
- Norwegian Institute for Air Research, Box 100, NO-2027 Kjeller, Norway
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Zhou Y, Zhang B, Wang H, Bi J. Drops of energy: conserving urban water to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2013; 47:10753-10761. [PMID: 23750633 DOI: 10.1021/es304816h] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
Abstract
Water and energy are two essential resources of modern civilization and are inherently linked. Indeed, the optimization of the water supply system would reduce energy demands and greenhouse gas emissions in the municipal water sector. This research measured the climatic cobenefit of water conservation based on a water flow analysis. The results showed that the estimated energy consumption of the total water system in Changzhou, China, reached approximately 10% of the city's total energy consumption, whereas the industrial sector was found to be more energy intensive than other sectors within the entire water system, accounting for nearly 70% of the total energy use of the water system. In addition, four sustainable water management scenarios would bring the cobenefit of reducing the total energy use of the water system by 13.9%, and 77% of the energy savings through water conservation was indirect. To promote sustainable water management and reduce greenhouse gas emissions, China would require its water price system, both for freshwater and recycled water, to be reformed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuanchun Zhou
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control & Resource Reuse, School of Environment, Nanjing University , Nanjing, 210046, P. R. China
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Zimmermann T, Gößling-Reisemann S. Critical materials and dissipative losses: a screening study. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2013; 461-462:774-780. [PMID: 23768419 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2013.05.040] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/10/2012] [Revised: 05/12/2013] [Accepted: 05/14/2013] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
Abstract
This study deals with dissipative losses of critical materials between the life-cycle stages of manufacturing and end-of-life. Following the EU definition for critical materials, a screening of dissipative losses for the respective materials has been performed based on existing data and the most significant data gaps have been identified. Furthermore, a classification scheme for dissipative losses (dissipation into environment, dissipation into other material flows, dissipation to landfills) and for assessing their degree has been developed and a first qualitative assessment applying this classification scheme has been performed. In combination with existing criticality assessments, the results can be used to generate a map of metals indicating future research needs for analyzing metal dissipation in detail. The results include quantitative estimates of dissipative losses (where feasible) along the chosen life-cycle stages, and discuss research needs for analysis and avoidance of dissipative losses for improved resource efficiency.
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Affiliation(s)
- Till Zimmermann
- University of Bremen, Faculty of Production Engineering, Department for Technology Design and Development and artec | research center for sustainability studies, DE-28359 Bremen, Germany.
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Fuse M, Tsunemi K. Cross-border impacts of the restriction of hazardous substances: a perspective based on Japanese solders. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2013; 47:9028-9034. [PMID: 23875815 DOI: 10.1021/es402581f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
Abstract
Despite the relevance of the global economy, Regulatory Impact Assessments of the restriction of hazardous substances (RoHS) in the European Union (EU) are based only on domestic impacts. This paper explores the cross-border environmental impacts of the RoHS by focusing on the shifts to lead-free solders in Japan, which exports many electronics to the EU. The regulatory impacts are quantified by integrating a material flow analysis for metals constituting a solder with a scenario analysis with and without the RoHS. The results indicate that the EU regulation, the RoHS, has triggered shifts in Japan to lead-free solders, not only for electronics subject to this regulation, but for other products as well. We also find that the RoHS leads to a slow reduction in environmental emissions of the target, lead, but results in a rapid increase in the use of tin and silver in lead-free solders. This indicates the importance of assessing potential alternative substances, the use of which may increase as a result of adhering to the RoHS. The latter constitutes a negative impact because of recent concerns regarding resource criticality.
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Affiliation(s)
- Masaaki Fuse
- Research Institute of Science for Safety and Sustainability, National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology, 16-1 Onogawa Tsukuba Ibaraki 305-8569 Japan.
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Glöser S, Soulier M, Tercero Espinoza LA. Dynamic analysis of global copper flows. Global stocks, postconsumer material flows, recycling indicators, and uncertainty evaluation. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2013; 47:6564-72. [PMID: 23725041 DOI: 10.1021/es400069b] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/26/2023]
Abstract
We present a dynamic model of global copper stocks and flows which allows a detailed analysis of recycling efficiencies, copper stocks in use, and dissipated and landfilled copper. The model is based on historical mining and refined copper production data (1910-2010) enhanced by a unique data set of recent global semifinished goods production and copper end-use sectors provided by the copper industry. To enable the consistency of the simulated copper life cycle in terms of a closed mass balance, particularly the matching of recycled metal flows to reported historical annual production data, a method was developed to estimate the yearly global collection rates of end-of-life (postconsumer) scrap. Based on this method, we provide estimates of 8 different recycling indicators over time. The main indicator for the efficiency of global copper recycling from end-of-life (EoL) scrap--the EoL recycling rate--was estimated to be 45% on average, ± 5% (one standard deviation) due to uncertainty and variability over time in the period 2000-2010. As uncertainties of specific input data--mainly concerning assumptions on end-use lifetimes and their distribution--are high, a sensitivity analysis with regard to the effect of uncertainties in the input data on the calculated recycling indicators was performed. The sensitivity analysis included a stochastic (Monte Carlo) uncertainty evaluation with 10(5) simulation runs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Simon Glöser
- Competence Center Sustainability and Infrastructure Systems, Fraunhofer Institute for Systems and Innovation Research ISI, Karlsruhe, Germany
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Cullen JM, Allwood JM. Mapping the global flow of aluminum: from liquid aluminum to end-use goods. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2013; 47:3057-64. [PMID: 23438734 DOI: 10.1021/es304256s] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/25/2023]
Abstract
Demand for aluminum in final products has increased 30-fold since 1950 to 45 million tonnes per year, with forecasts predicting this exceptional growth to continue so that demand will reach 2-3 times today's levels by 2050. Aluminum production uses 3.5% of global electricity and causes 1% of global CO2 emissions, while meeting a 50% cut in emissions by 2050 against growing demand would require at least a 75% reduction in CO2 emissions per tonne of aluminum produced--a challenging prospect. In this paper we trace the global flows of aluminum from liquid metal to final products, revealing for the first time a complete map of the aluminum system and providing a basis for future study of the emissions abatement potential of material efficiency. The resulting Sankey diagram also draws attention to two key issues. First, around half of all liquid aluminum (~39 Mt) produced each year never reaches a final product, and a detailed discussion of these high yield losses shows significant opportunities for improvement. Second, aluminum recycling, which avoids the high energy costs and emissions of electrolysis, requires signification "dilution" (~ 8 Mt) and "cascade" (~ 6 Mt) flows of higher aluminum grades to make up for the shortfall in scrap supply and to obtain the desired alloy mix, increasing the energy required for recycling.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jonathan M Cullen
- Department of Engineering, University of Cambridge, Trumpington Street, Cambridge CB21PZ, United Kingdom
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Cullen JM, Allwood JM, Bambach MD. Mapping the global flow of steel: from steelmaking to end-use goods. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2012; 46:13048-55. [PMID: 23167601 DOI: 10.1021/es302433p] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/25/2023]
Abstract
Our society is addicted to steel. Global demand for steel has risen to 1.4 billion tonnes a year and is set to at least double by 2050, while the steel industry generates nearly a 10th of the world's energy related CO₂ emissions. Meeting our 2050 climate change targets would require a 75% reduction in CO₂ emissions for every tonne of steel produced and finding credible solutions is proving a challenge. The starting point for understanding the environmental impacts of steel production is to accurately map the global steel supply chain and identify the biggest steel flows where actions can be directed to deliver the largest impact. In this paper we present a map of global steel, which for the first time traces steel flows from steelmaking, through casting, forming, and rolling, to the fabrication of final goods. The diagram reveals the relative scale of steel flows and shows where efforts to improve energy and material efficiency should be focused.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jonathan M Cullen
- Department of Engineering, University of Cambridge , Trumpington Street Cambridge, CB21PZ United Kingdom.
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