High levels of polybrominated diphenyl ethers in vacuum cleaner dust from California fire stations

Off-gassing from firefighter suits (nomex) as an indoor source of BTEXS

The clothes and special equipment of firefighters can be a source of indoor air pollution. Nevertheless, it has not been investigated so far what the scale of the release of various compounds from such materials into the indoor air can be. The following study analysed the results of an experiment involving the passive measurement of concentrations of selected compounds, i.a. benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene, m,p-xylene, o-xylene, styrene, isopropylbenzene and n-propylbenzene (BTEXS) in the air of a room where firefighters' special clothing, which had been previously exposed to emissions from simulated fires, was stored. The study included simulations of fires involving three materials: wood, processed wood (OSB/fibreboard) and a mixture of plastics. After being exposed to the simulated fire environment, special clothing (so-called nomex) was placed in a sealed chamber, where passive collection of BTEXS was carried out using tube-type axial passive samplers and a gas chromatograph. Irrespective of which burned material special clothing was exposed to, the compound emitted into the air most intensively was toluene. Its rate of release from a single nomex ranges from 4.4 to 28.6 μg h-1, while the corresponding rates for the sum of BTEXS are between 9.97 and 44.29 μg h-1.

Air pollution inside fire stations: State-of-the-art and future challenges

Firefighters are frequently exposed to products of combustion and pyrolysis. Exposure to these substances occurs not only during fires but also at fire stations, particularly where fire equipment and fire uniforms are stored after firefighting operations. The aims of this study were to review the research on the concentrations of various air pollutants in fire stations, identify the limitations and strengths of such research, identify research gaps and related future challenges, and highlight potential solutions for reducing firefighter exposure to air pollution at fire stations. A total of 32 articles published in international journals during 1987-2023 were selected for analysis. The most frequently studied pollutants in fire stations were polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, particulate matter, and diesel particulate matter. Research was most often conducted on changing rooms and garages. Firefighting equipment, personal protective equipment, fire trucks, and combustion tools were identified as the main sources of pollution at fire stations. Recommendations aimed at reducing the concentration of pollutants in fire stations were mainly concerned with the systematic decontamination of equipment and the introduction of ventilation solutions that would remove exhaust fumes from garages. This in-depth literature review indicates a lack of comprehensive research on the state and quality of air at fire stations. It also highlights the emerging need for more knowledge on the concentrations of air pollutants in fire stations, health exposure related to these substances, and an analysis of the effectiveness of the proposed solutions.

Biomonitoring of firefighting forces: a review on biomarkers of exposure to health-relevant pollutants released from fires

Occupational exposure as a firefighter has recently been classified as a carcinogen to humans by International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC). Biomonitoring has been increasingly used to characterize exposure of firefighting forces to contaminants. However, available data are dispersed and information on the most relevant and promising biomarkers in this context of firefighting is missing. This review presents a comprehensive summary and critical appraisal of existing biomarkers of exposure including volatile organic compounds such as polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, several other persistent other organic pollutants as well as heavy metals and metalloids detected in biological fluids of firefighters attending different fire scenarios. Urine was the most characterized matrix, followed by blood. Firefighters exhaled breath and saliva were poorly evaluated. Overall, biological levels of compounds were predominantly increased in firefighters after participation in firefighting activities. Biomonitoring studies combining different biomarkers of exposure and of effect are currently limited but exploratory findings are of high interest. However, biomonitoring still has some unresolved major limitations since reference or recommended values are not yet established for most biomarkers. In addition, half-lives values for most of the biomarkers have thus far not been defined, which significantly hampers the design of studies. These limitations need to be tackled urgently to improve risk assessment and support implementation of better more effective preventive strategies.

Exposure and Risk Assessment of Korean Firefighters to PBDEs and PAHs via Fire Vehicle Dust and Personal Protective Equipment

In this study, the levels of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) were characterized in firefighters' personal protective equipment (PPE) (i.e., jackets, pants, hoods, and gloves) and vehicle dust wipe samples to assess the exposure and potential risk of firefighters to these combustion-related toxic pollutants. The mean levels of ∑PBDEs in the fire vehicle dust samples (778 and 449 pg/cm² for pump trucks and command cars, respectively) were significantly higher than those in the private vehicles (31.2 pg/cm²) (Kruskal-Wallis test, p < 0.05), which was similar to the ∑PAH levels (521, 185, and 46.8 pg/cm² for pump trucks, command cars, and private vehicles, respectively). In the case of firefighters' PPE, the levels of ∑PBDEs and ∑PAHs in used jackets and pants were found to be, respectively, 70- to 2242-folds and 11- to 265-folds higher than those in their unused counterparts. Biomass/petroleum combustion was found to be the main source of PAH contamination in fire vehicle dust and used PPE in the present study. Both carcinogenic and noncarcinogenic risks via vehicle dust ingestion and dermal absorption from wearing of PPE were within permissible limits, although the relative risk evaluation showed that PAH/PBDE absorption via wearing of PPE could pose a higher likelihood of carcinogenic and noncarcinogenic risks than the ingestion of pollutants via fire vehicle dust, warranting the need for appropriate management of firefighters' personal protective ensembles.

Hierarchy of contamination control in the fire service: Review of exposure control options to reduce cancer risk

The international fire service community is actively engaged in a wide range of activities focused on development, testing, and implementation of effective approaches to reduce exposure to contaminants and the related cancer risk. However, these activities are often viewed independent of each other and in the absence of the larger overall effort of occupational health risk mitigation. This narrative review synthesizes the current research on fire service contamination control in the context of the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) Hierarchy of Controls, a framework that supports decision making around implementing feasible and effective control solutions in occupational settings. Using this approach, we identify evidence-based measures that have been investigated and that can be implemented to protect firefighters during an emergency response, in the fire apparatus and at the fire station, and identify several knowledge gaps that remain. While a great deal of research and development has been focused on improving personal protective equipment for the various risks faced by the fire service, these measures are considered less effective. Administrative and engineering controls that can be used during and after the firefight have also received increased research interest in recent years. However, less research and development have been focused on higher level control measures such as engineering, substitution, and elimination, which may be the most effective, but are challenging to implement. A comprehensive approach that considers each level of control and how it can be implemented, and that is mindful of the need to balance contamination risk reduction against the fire service mission to save lives and protect property, is likely to be the most effective.

Examination of Factors Influencing SCBA Washing Behavior among Firefighters in Metropolitan

Field-washing decontamination of equipment is an effective way for firefighters to reduce their risk of secondary contamination. No study has yet clarified the factors influencing effective field decontamination of equipment such as self-contained breathing apparatuses (SCBAs). This study sought to examine factors that influence the SCBA washing and decontamination behavior of firefighters. We conducted a questionnaire using the web-based Seoul Metropolitan Electronic Questionnaire System. As of May 2021, the survey had been sent to 3626 of 7198 Seoul career firefighters, and 1940 subjects were selected to participate in the study. Binomial logistic regression and χ2-test analyses were performed. We confirmed that previous training in SCBA washing was an important factor in effective field decontamination of SCBAs. Firefighters should be trained to perform field decontamination procedures systematically and regulations to perform field decontamination before leaving the scene of a fire should be introduced.

Organophosphate and Organohalogen Flame-Retardant Exposure and Thyroid Hormone Disruption in a Cross-Sectional Study of Female Firefighters and Office Workers from San Francisco

Occupational exposures to flame retardants (FRs), a class of suspected endocrine-disrupting compounds, are of health concern for firefighters. We sought to characterize exposure to FR compounds and evaluate their association with thyroid hormone levels, a biomarker of early effect, in female firefighters and office workers in San Francisco. In a cross-sectional study, we measured replacement organophosphate and organohalogen FRs in spot urine samples from firefighters (N = 86) and office workers (N = 84), as well as total thyroxine (T4) and thyroid-stimulating hormone in plasma for 84 firefighters and 81 office workers. Median bis(1,3-dichloro-2-propyl)phosphate (BDCPP) levels were 5 times higher in firefighters than office workers. Among firefighters, a doubling of BDCPP was associated with a 2.88% decrease (95% confidence interval -5.28, -0.42) in T4. We did not observe significant associations between FRs and T4 among office workers. In the full group, intermediate body mass index and a college education were associated with higher FR levels. The inverse association observed between FRs and T4 coupled with the lack of studies on women workers and evidence of adverse health effects from FR exposure─including endocrine disruption and breast cancer risk─warrant further research on occupational exposures and identification of opportunities for exposure reduction.

Assessment of Exposure of Korean Firefighters to Polybrominated Diphenyl Ethers and Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons via Their Measurement in Serum and Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbon Metabolites in Urine

This study investigated the occupational exposure of Korean firefighters to a suite of combustion-related pollutants. Exposure to polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) was assessed by measurement of their levels in serum and metabolites in urine (i.e., monohydroxylated PAHs, OH-PAHs). The mean level of ∑PBDEs in the serum of firefighters (17.1 ng/g lipid weight (lw)) was significantly higher than that of the general population (1.39 ng/g lw) (Mann-Whitney U Test, p < 0.05), which is similar to the ∑PAH levels (1286 ng/g lw for firefighters and 1016 ng/g lw for the general population). Individual OH-PAH levels showed 2.1- to 4.2-fold increases in postfire urine samples compared to the control urine samples, with the mean ∑OH-PAHs being significantly higher in postfire urine samples (22,658 ng/g creatinine) than in the control urine samples (10,253 ng/g creatinine) (Mann-Whitney U test, p < 0.05). It was found that ∑PBDEs correlated with firefighters' length of service and years dedicated to on-site dispatch, while ∑OH-PAHs was strongly associated with firefighters' exposure duration, age, length of service, and years dedicated to on-site dispatch. Indeed, the results of the present study indicate that Korean firefighters are prone to elevated risk of exposure to toxic combustion-related pollutants compared with the general population.

A meta-analysis of factors influencing concentrations of brominated flame retardants and organophosphate esters in indoor dust

Current assessments of human exposure to flame retardants (FRs) via dust ingestion rely on measurements of FR concentrations in dust samples collected at specific points in time and space. Such exposure assessments are rendered further uncertain by the possibility of within-room and within-building spatial and temporal variability, differences in dust particle size fraction analysed, as well as differences in dust sampling approach. A meta-analysis of peer-reviewed data was undertaken to evaluate the impact of these factors on reported concentrations of brominated flame retardants (BFRs) and organophosphate esters (OPEs) in dust and subsequent human exposure estimates. Except for a few cases, concentrations of FRs in elevated surface dust (ESD) exceeded significantly those in floor dust (FD). The implications of this for exposure assessment are not entirely clear. However, they imply that analysing FD only will underestimate exposure for adults who likely rarely ingest floor dust, while analysing ESD only would overestimate exposure for toddlers who likely rarely ingest elevated surface dust. Considerable within-building spatial variability was observed with no specific trend between concentrations of either BFRs or OPEs in living rooms and bedrooms in the same homes, implying that exposure assessments based solely on sampling one room are uncertain. Substantial differences in FR concentrations were observed in different particle size fractions of dust. This is likely partly attributable to the presence of abraded polymer particles/fibres with high FR concentrations in larger particle size fractions. This has implications for exposure assessment as adherence to skin and subsequent FR uptake via ingestion and dermal sorption varies with particle size. Analysing dust samples obtained from a householder vacuum cleaner (HHVC) compared with researcher collected dust (RCD) will underestimate human exposure to the most of studied contaminants. This is likely due to the losses of volatile FRs from HHVC dust over the extended period such dust spends in the dust bag. Temporal variability in FR concentrations is apparent during month-to-month or seasonal monitoring, with such variability likely due more to changes in room contents rather than seasonal temperature variation.

Associations between polyfluoroalkyl substance and organophosphate flame retardant exposures and telomere length in a cohort of women firefighters and office workers in San Francisco

BACKGROUND

Environmental chemical exposures can affect telomere length, which in turn has been associated with adverse health outcomes including cancer. Firefighters are occupationally exposed to many hazardous chemicals and have higher rates of certain cancers. As a potential biomarker of effect, we assessed associations between chemical exposures and telomere length in women firefighters and office workers from San Francisco, CA.

METHODS

We measured serum concentrations of polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS), urinary metabolites of flame retardants, including organophosphate flame retardants (OPFRs), and telomere length in peripheral blood leukocytes in women firefighters (N = 84) and office workers (N = 79) who participated in the 2014-15 Women Workers Biomonitoring Collaborative. Multiple linear regression models were used to assess associations between chemical exposures and telomere length.

RESULTS

Regression results revealed significant positive associations between perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) and telomere length and perfluorooctanesulfonic acid (PFOS) and telomere length among the whole cohort. Models stratified by occupation showed stronger and more significant associations among firefighters as compared to office workers. Among firefighters in models adjusted for age, we found positive associations between telomere length and log-transformed PFOA (β (95%CI) = 0.57(0.12, 1.02)), PFOS (0.44 (0.05, 0.83)), and perfluorodecanoic acid (PFDA) (0.43 (0.02, 0.84)). Modeling PFAS as categories of exposure showed significant associations between perfluorononanoic acid (PFNA) and telomere length among firefighters. Significant associations between OPFR metabolites and telomere length were seen for bis (1,3-dichloro-2-propyl) phosphate (BDCPP) and telomere length among office workers (0.21(0.03, 0.40)) and bis (2-chloroethyl) phosphate (BCEP) and telomere length among firefighters (- 0.14(- 0.28, - 0.01)). For OPFRs, the difference in the direction of effect by occupational group may be due to the disparate detection frequencies and concentrations of exposure between the two groups and/or potential unmeasured confounding.

CONCLUSION

Our findings suggest positive associations between PFAS and telomere length in women workers, with larger effects seen among firefighters as compared to office workers. The OPFR metabolites BDCPP and BCEP are also associated with telomere length in firefighters and office workers. Associations between chemical exposures and telomere length reported here and by others suggest mechanisms by which these chemicals may affect carcinogenesis and other adverse health outcomes.

Characterizing exposures to flame retardants, dioxins, and furans among firefighters responding to controlled residential fires

Firefighters may encounter items containing flame retardants (FRs), including organophosphate flame retardants (OPFRs) and polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs), during structure fires. This study utilized biological monitoring to characterize FR exposures in 36 firefighters assigned to interior, exterior, and overhaul job assignments, before and after responding to controlled residential fire scenarios. Firefighters provided four urine samples (pre-fire and 3-h, 6-h, and 12-h post-fire) and two serum samples (pre-fire and approximately 23-h post-fire). Urine samples were analyzed for OPFR metabolites, while serum samples were analyzed for PBDEs, brominated and chlorinated furans, and chlorinated dioxins. Urinary concentrations of diphenyl phosphate (DPhP), a metabolite of triphenyl phosphate (TPhP), bis(1,3-dichloro-2-propyl) phosphate (BDCPP), a metabolite of tris(1,3-dichloro-2-propyl) phosphate (TDCPP), and bis(2-chloroethyl) phosphate (BCEtP), a metabolite of tris(2-chloroethyl) phosphate (TCEP), increased from pre-fire to 3-hr and 6-hr post-fire collection, but only the DPhP increase was statistically significant at a 0.05 level. The 3-hr and 6-hr post-fire concentrations of DPhP and BDCPP, as well as the pre-fire concentration of BDCPP, were statistically significantly higher than general population levels. BDCPP pre-fire concentrations were statistically significantly higher in firefighters who previously participated in a scenario (within the past 12 days) than those who were responding to their first scenario as part of the study. Similarly, firefighters previously assigned to interior job assignments had higher pre-fire concentrations of BDCPP than those previously assigned to exterior job assignments. Pre-fire serum concentrations of 2,3,4,7,8-pentachlorodibenzofuran (23478-PeCDF), a known human carcinogen, were also statistically significantly above the general population levels. Of the PBDEs quantified, only decabromodiphenyl ether (BDE-209) pre- and post-fire serum concentrations were statistically significantly higher than the general population. These results suggest firefighters absorbed certain FRs while responding to fire scenarios.

Off-Gassing of Semi-Volatile Organic Compounds from Fire-Fighters' Uniforms in Private Vehicles-A Pilot Study

Firefighters' uniforms become contaminated with a wide range of chemicals, including polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), organophosphate flame retardants (OPFRs), and polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs). Laundering practices do not completely remove PAHs, OPFRs, and PBDEs from firefighting uniforms. This residual contamination of firefighting ensembles may be an ongoing source of exposure to firefighters. Firefighters are known to occasionally store firefighting ensembles in private vehicles. This study aimed to assess whether a firefighting uniform in a vehicle could act as a source for PAHs, OPFRs, and PBDEs to vehicle users. The shell layers of four laundered firefighting uniforms were sampled non-destructively. Three of these uniforms were heated in a laboratory oven (40, 60, and 80 °C) while the fourth was placed in a private vehicle on a summer day and off-gassing samples were collected from the uniforms. The off-gassing results for PAHs and OPFRs were relatively consistent between laboratory oven and the in-vehicle sample with ∑₁₃ PAHs in off-gas ranging from 7800-23,000 ng uniform^-1 day^-1, while the ∑₆ OPFRs off-gassed was an order of magnitude lower at 620-1600 ng uniform^-1 day^-1. The off-gassing results for PBDEs were much lower and less consistent between the experiments, which may reflect differences in uniform history. Currently, there is limited understanding of how PAHs, OPFRs, and PBDEs off-gassed from firefighting uniforms influence firefighter exposure to these chemicals. These findings suggest that firefighting ensembles off-gassing in private vehicles could be a relevant source of PAHs, OPFRs, and PBDEs that contributes to firefighters' exposure and that this warrants further investigation.

Assessing decontamination and laundering processes for the removal of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and flame retardants from firefighting uniforms

Firefighter uniforms protect firefighters from exposure to potentially harmful chemicals including a range of semi-volatile organic compounds (SVOCs). Contaminated uniforms can become a secondary source of firefighters' exposure to these chemicals. There is inconsistency on the removal efficiency of SVOCs during the cleaning, laundering and field decontamination of firefighting uniforms. Therefore, this study aims to assess how effective decontamination and laundering processes are in reducing firefighter uniforms as a vector for transport and exposure to SVOCs. Firefighters who had attended a controlled house fire and simulated container burns had their uniforms sampled pre- and post-laundering. Clean station wear was laundered with contaminated uniforms and after a load of contaminated uniforms to assess inter and intra load contamination. Surface wipes were collected from uniforms across 12 fire stations, after they had returned from a laundering provider. Concentrations of 13 polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), six organophosphate flame retardants (OPFRs) and seven polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) were measured in the collected samples. The concentrations of ∑₁₃ PAHs in firefighters uniforms ranged between 0.063 and 43 μg g^-1, while concentration of ∑₆ OPFRs were between 0.061 and 90 μg g^-1 with ∑₇ PBDEs concentrations being measured between 0.00054 and 0.97 μg g^-1.The highest concentrations of ∑₁₃ PAHs were measured on the outer layers of gloves at an average of 19 μg g^-1, with the highest ∑₆ OPFRs concentrations being measured in the middle layers of gloves at an average of 31 μg g^-1. The highest ∑₇ PBDEs concentrations were measured on the shell layers of turnout jackets at 0.42 μg g^-1. The significant reduction in ∑₁₃ PAHs after laundering or decontamination was only found in 3 of the 16 sampled areas from firefighting uniforms. No significant differences were found in the between pre- and post-laundering concentrations of ∑₆ OPFRs or ∑₇ PBDEs in firefighting uniforms. The current laundering techniques do not appear to effectively remove PAHs, OPFRs and PBDEs at the measured concentrations from firefighters' uniforms. Further research is required to assess if chemical exposure though firefighting uniforms poses a health risk to firefighters and to develop methods for the removal of SVOCs from firefighting uniforms.

Associations between polyfluoroalkyl substance and organophosphate flame retardant exposures and telomere length in a cohort of women firefighters and office workers in San Francisco

BACKGROUND

Environmental chemical exposures can affect telomere length, which in turn has been associated with adverse health outcomes including cancer. Firefighters are occupationally exposed to many hazardous chemicals and have higher rates of certain cancers. As a potential marker of effect, we assessed associations between chemical exposures and telomere length in women firefighters and office workers from San Francisco, CA.

METHODS

We measured serum levels of polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS), urinary metabolites of flame retardants, including organophosphate flame retardants (OPFRs), and telomere length in peripheral blood leukocytes in women firefighters and office workers who participated in the 2014-15 Women Workers Biomonitoring Collaborative. Multiple linear regression models were used to assess associations between chemical exposures and telomere length.

RESULTS

Regression results revealed significant positive associations between perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) and telomere length and perfluorooctanesulfonic acid (PFOS) and telomere length among the whole cohort. Models stratified by occupation showed stronger and more significant associations among firefighters as compared to office workers. Among firefighters in models adjusted for age, we found positive associations between telomere length and log-transformed PFOA ( β (95%CI) = 0.57(0.12, 1.02)), PFOS (0.44 (0.05, 0.83)), and perfluorodecanoic acid (PFDA) (0.43 (0.02, 0.84)). Modeling PFAS as categories of exposure showed significant associations between perfluorononanoic acid (PFNA) and telomere length among firefighters. Significant associations between OPFR metabolites and telomere length were seen for bis(1,3-dichloro-2-propyl) phosphate (BDCPP) and telomere length among office workers (0.21(0.03, 0.40)) and bis(2-chloroethyl) phosphate (BCEP) and telomere length among firefighters (-0.14(-0.28, -0.01)). For OPFRs, the difference in the direction of effect by occupational group may be due to the disparate detection frequencies and levels of exposure between the two groups and/or potential unmeasured confounding.

CONCLUSION

Our findings suggest positive associations between PFAS and telomere length in women workers, with larger effects seen among firefighters as compared to office workers. The OPFR metabolites BDCPP and BCEP are also associated with telomere length in firefighters and office workers. Associations between chemical exposures and telomere length reported here and by others suggest mechanisms by which these chemicals may affect carcinogenesis and other adverse health outcomes.

Characterising the exposure of Australian firefighters to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons generated in simulated compartment fires

Firefighters are exposed to a wide variety of chemicals including polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) while attending fire scenes. The objective of this study was to understand the exposure of firefighters to PAHs when attending simulated compartment fires that consisted of either a diesel pan or particleboard fire. Firefighters remained in the compartment fires for 15 min while using standard gear including self contained breathing apparatus (SCBA). Firefighters were able to remove firefighting clothing and shower within 10 min of leaving the burn. Air samples were collected from inside the compartment during the fire. Twenty-six (26) firefighters participated in the study providing urine and skin wipe samples collected from the wrist and neck before and after either one of the burn types. The concentrations of PAHs were measured in skin wipes and air samples, while concentrations of monohydroxy metabolites of PAHs (OH-PAHs) were measured in urine. The concentrations of all PAHs were significantly higher (p < 0.05) in the smoke layer of particleboard fires than in diesel pan fires. Correspondingly, the level of PAHs deposited on the wrists and necks of participants attending the particleboard fires was higher than those attending diesel pan fires. Urine samples from participants who attended diesel pan fires showed no significant difference (p > 0.05) in the concentration of all OH-PAHs between pre-burn and post-burn. Samples from participants who attended particleboard fires, showed no significant difference (p > 0.05) between 1-hydroxypyrene (1-OH-PYR) concentrations in urine pre- and post-burn. However, median concentrations of hydroxynaphthalenes (OH-NAPs), hydroxyfluorenes (OH-FLUs) and hydroxyphenanthrenes (OH-PHEs) increased significantly from 5.2, 0.44 and 0.88 μg g^-1 creatinine pre-burn to 12, 1.4 and 1.2 μg g^-1 creatinine post-burn, respectively. This suggests that in compartment burns with high concentrations of PAHs in the smoke layer, such as those created by the particleboard fires, exposure to PAHs can be observed though urinary OH-PAH metabolites. Overall, concentrations of urinary OH-PAHs were relatively low considering the potential exposure in these burns. This suggests protective equipment in combination with rapid removal of firefighting ensembles and showering are relatively effective in controlling exposure.

Discovery of firefighter chemical exposures using military-style silicone dog tags

Occupational chemical hazards in the fire service are hypothesized to play a role in increased cancer risk, and reliable sampling technologies are necessary for conducting firefighter chemical exposure assessments. This study presents the military-style dog tag as a new configuration of silicone passive sampling device to sample individual firefighters' exposures at one high and one low fire call volume department in the Kansas City, Missouri metropolitan area. The recruited firefighters (n = 56) wore separate dog tags to assess on- and off-duty exposures (n_dogtags = 110), for a total of 30 24 h shifts. Using a 63 PAH method (GC-MS/MS), the tags detected 45 unique PAHs, of which 18 have not been previously reported as firefighting exposures. PAH concentrations were higher for on- compared to off-duty tags (0.25 < Cohen's d ≤ 0.80) and for the high compared to the low fire call volume department (0.25 ≤ d < 0.70). Using a 1530 analyte screening method (GC-MS), di-n-butyl phthalate, diisobutyl phthalate, guaiacol, and DEET were commonly detected analytes. The number of fire attacks a firefighter participated in was more strongly correlated with PAH concentrations than firefighter rank or years in the fire service. This suggested that quantitative data should be employed for firefighter exposure assessments, rather than surrogate measures. Because several detected analytes are listed as possible carcinogens, future firefighter exposure studies should consider evaluating complex mixtures to assess individual health risks.

Polybrominated Diphenyl Ether and Organophosphate Flame Retardants in Canadian Fire Station Dust

Fire fighters are at a high risk for exposure to toxic chemicals during and subsequent to fire suppression activities. In the Canadian Fire Station Dust Study (CFSDS) we measured 19 polybrominated diphenyl ether (PBDE) and six organophosphate flame retardant (OPFR) chemicals in dust collected in 2017-18 by vacuuming the living quarters of 24 Canadian fire stations from four provinces. The predominant flame retardant (FR) was BDE-209, with a median concentration of 7060 ng/g, which was a magnitude higher than medians of the major congeners of the pentaBDE formulation measured at 620 ng/g (Σ₅ BDE-47, 99, 100, 153 and 154). OPFR median concentrations exceeded those of pentaBDE and were on the same order of magnitude as BDE-209, with TCIPP, TDCIPP and TPHP as the dominant OPFRs with median concentrations ranging from 2350 to 4780 ng/g. Fire station age and carpeting were significantly correlated with select OPFRs and PBDEs. Furthermore, fire stations that also vacuumed equipment bays and fire truck interiors had median concentrations that were a magnitude higher (BDE-209: 81,700 ng/g) and two to three-fold higher (TCIPP, TDCIPP and TPHP) than fire stations that excluded those areas. FR concentrations in CFSDS dust were higher but on the same order of magnitude as Canadian residential dust and significantly lower than dust collected from Canadian WEEE dismantling. CFSDS FR concentrations were also significantly lower than those we reported in our 2015 U.S. fire station dust. Our data reflect the downward trend of PBDEs following their phase out and a shift toward OPFRs as replacements.

Racial/ethnic and geographic differences in polybrominated diphenyl ether (PBDE) levels across maternal, placental, and fetal tissues during mid-gestation

Prenatal polybrominated diphenyl ether (PBDE) exposures are a public health concern due to their persistence and potential for reproductive and developmental harm. However, we have little information about the extent of fetal exposures during critical developmental periods and the variation in exposures for groups that may be more highly exposed, such as communities of color and lower socioeconomic status (SES). To characterize maternal-fetal PBDE exposures among potentially vulnerable groups, PBDE levels were examined in the largest sample of matched maternal serum, placenta, and fetal liver tissues during mid-gestation among a geographically, racially/ethnically, and socially diverse population of pregnant women from Northern California and the Central Valley (n = 180; 2014-16). Maternal-fetal PBDE levels were compared to population characteristics using censored Kendall's tau correlation and linear regression. PBDEs were commonly detected in all biomatrices. Before lipid adjustment, wet-weight levels of all four PBDE congeners were highest in the fetal liver (p < 0.001), whereas median PBDE levels were significantly higher in maternal serum than in the fetal liver or placenta after lipid-adjustment (p < 0.001). We also found evidence of racial/ethnic disparities in PBDE exposures (Non-Hispanic Black > Latina/Hispanic > Non-Hispanic White > Asian/Pacific Islander/Other; p < 0.01), with higher levels of BDE-100 and BDE-153 among non-Hispanic Black women compared to the referent group (Latina/Hispanic women). In addition, participants living in Fresno/South Central Valley had 34% (95% CI: - 2.4 to 84%, p = 0.07) higher wet-weight levels of BDE-47 than residents living in the San Francisco Bay Area. PBDEs are widely detected and differentially distributed in maternal-fetal compartments. Non-Hispanic Black pregnant women and women from Southern Central Valley geographical populations may be more highly exposed to PBDEs. Further research is needed to identify sources that may be contributing to differential exposures and associated health risks among these vulnerable populations.

Flame retardants, dioxins, and furans in air and on firefighters' protective ensembles during controlled residential firefighting

INTRODUCTION

Structure fires that involve modern furnishings may emit brominated flame retardants (BFRs) and organophosphate flame retardants (OPFRs), as well as brominated and chlorinated dioxins and furans, into the environment.

OBJECTIVES

The goal of this study was to quantify the airborne and personal protective equipment (PPE) contamination levels of these compounds during controlled residential fires in the U.S., and to evaluate gross-decontamination measures.

METHODS

Bulk-sampling was done to confirm the presence of flame retardants (FRs) in the furnishings used in 12 controlled residential structure fires. Area air samples were collected during the fires and PPE wipe samples were collected from the firefighters' turnout jackets and gloves after firefighting. For each fire, half of the jackets were decontaminated and the other half were not.

RESULTS

Of the BFRs and OPFRs measured in air during the fire period, decabromodiphenyl ether (BDE-209) and triphenyl phosphate (TPP) were the most abundant, with medians of 15.6 and 408 µg/m³, respectively, and were also detected during overhaul. These and several other BFRs and OPFRs were measured on PPE. Some gloves had contaminant levels exceeding 100 ng/cm² and were generally more contaminated than jackets. Air and surface levels of the brominated furans appeared to be higher than the chlorinated dioxins and furans. Routine gross decontamination appeared to reduce many of the BFR contaminants, but results for the OPFRs were mixed.

CONCLUSIONS

Structure fires are likely to result in a variety of FRs, dioxins, and furans into the environment, leading to PPE contamination for those working on the fireground. Firefighters should wear self-contained breathing apparatus during all phases of the response and launder or decontaminate their PPE (including gloves) after fire events.

BTEXS Concentrations and Exposure Assessment in a Fire Station

The aim of this study was to evaluate benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene, xylene, and styrene (BTEXS) concentrations in the changing room and garage in a fire station located in the Upper Silesian agglomeration (Poland), to compare them with the concentrations of the same compounds in the atmospheric air (outdoor background) and to assess the health exposure to BTEXS among firefighters and office workers in this unit. BTEXS samples were collected during the winter of 2018 in parallel in the garage, in the changing room, and outside, using sorption tubes filled with activated carbon. The average total BTEXS concentrations in the changing room and garage were over six times higher than those in the atmospheric air in the vicinity of the fire station. At each sampling site, toluene and benzene had the highest concentrations. According to the diagnostic indicators, the combustion of various materials and fuels was the source of BTEXS inside, while outside, the sources were the combustion of fuels and industrial activity. The carcinogenic risk related to benzene inhalation by the firefighters and office employees in the monitored unit exceeded the acceptable risk level value of 7.8 × 10−6 per 1 μg/m3 by more than 20 times.

Exposure to Perfluoroalkyl Substances in a Cohort of Women Firefighters and Office Workers in San Francisco

Studies of firefighters have shown increased exposures to carcinogenic compounds and elevated rates of certain cancers compared to the general population, yet this research has focused almost exclusively on men. To address this gap, the Women Firefighters Biomonitoring Collaborative created a biological sample archive and analyzed levels of perfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) among women firefighters (N = 86) and office workers (N = 84) in San Francisco. Serum samples were collected and analyzed using liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) to measure and compare PFAS levels between firefighters and office workers. 7 of 12 PFAS congeners were detected in the least 70% of the study population, and 4 congeners were detected in 100% of participants. In regression models comparing PFAS levels by occupation and adjusting for potential confounders, firefighters had higher geometric mean concentrations of PFAS compared to office workers PFHxS (2.22 (95% CI = 1.55, 3.18)), PFUnDA (1.83 (95% CI = 0.97, 3.45)), and PFNA (1.26 (95% CI = 1.01, 1.58)). Among firefighters, occupational position predicted exposure-firefighters and officers had higher PFNA, PFOA, PFDA, and PFUnDA levels compared to drivers. Women firefighters are exposed to higher levels of some PFAS compared to office workers, suggesting that some of these exposures may be occupationally related.

The occurrence of PAHs and flame-retardants in air and dust from Australian fire stations

Firefighters are exposed to a wide range of chemicals whilst on duty, including polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), organophosphate flame-retardants (OPFRs), and polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs). These groups of chemicals are related to combustion emissions. PAHs are formed during combustion. OPFRs and PBDEs are flame-retardants and are inadvertently released during combustion. Exposure to these chemicals occurs when attending fire scenes, and firefighters can track these chemicals back into fire stations leading to further exposure. The objective of this study was to understand the concentrations of PAHs, OPFRs, and PBDEs in fire stations, to evaluate factors that affect chemical concentration, and to assess how air and dust could contribute to firefighters' relevant exposure risk. Concentrations of 13 PAHs, 9 OPFRs, and 8 PBDEs were quantified in fire station dust (n = 49) and air (n = 15) samples collected between November 2017 and February 2018. The median ∑₁₃PAH concentration was 15 ng m^-3 and 3.1 µg g^-1 in air and dust, respectively, while the median ∑₉ OPFR concentration was 56 ng m^-3 in air and 84 µg g^-1 in dust, and ∑₈ PBDE had a median concentration of 0.78 ng m^-3 in air and 26 µg g^-1 in dust. The estimated daily intakes through dust and air for ∑₁₃ PAHs, ∑₉ OPFRs, and ∑₈ PBDEs in firefighters were 3.6, 17, and 1.6 ng (kg body weight)^-1day^-1, respectively. The worst-case estimated daily intakes were only 2% of the reference dose for individual chemicals. Pearson's correlations with chemical concentration for several PAHs, OPFRs, and PBDEs were found between the number of years since fire stations were last renovated, as well as the storage locations of firefighting ensembles. These results suggest chemicals are brought back to fire stations from fire scenes and that they are accumulating in fire stations. They also suggest soiled firefighting ensembles are a source of these chemicals in fire stations and that their proximity to the rest of the station determines the extent to which they contribute to chemical concentrations in fire stations.

Measured concentrations of consumer product chemicals in California house dust: Implications for sources, exposure, and toxicity potential

Household dust is a reservoir of various consumer product chemicals. Thus, characterizing comprehensive chemical profiles of house dust may help improve our understanding of residential chemical exposure. We have previously developed a method for detecting a broad spectrum of chemicals in dust by applying a combination of target, suspect screening, and non-target methods with mass spectrometry preceded by liquid chromatography and gas chromatography. Building upon a previous study that detected 271 compounds in 38 dust samples, we presented concentrations of 144 compounds that were confirmed and quantified by standards in the same set of samples. Ten compounds were measured with median concentrations greater than 10 000 ng/g of dust: cis-hexadec-6-enoic acid, squalene, cholesterol, vitamin E, bis(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate, dioctyl terephthalate, linoleic acid, tricaprylin, tris(1-chloroisopropyl) phosphate, and oxybenzone. We also reviewed in vitro toxicity screening data to identify compounds that were not previously detected in indoor dust but have potential for adverse health effects. Among 119 newly detected compounds, 13 had endocrine-disrupting potential and 7 had neurotoxic potential. Toxicity screening data were not available for eight biocides, which may adversely affect health. Our results strive to provide more comprehensive chemical profiles of house dust and identified information gaps for future health studies.

Firefighter hood contamination: Efficiency of laundering to remove PAHs and FRs

Firefighters are occupationally exposed to products of combustion containing polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and flame retardants (FRs), potentially contributing to their increased risk for certain cancers. Personal protective equipment (PPE), including firefighter hoods, helps to reduce firefighters' exposure to toxic substances during fire responses by providing a layer of material on which contaminants deposit prior to reaching the firefighters skin. However, over time hoods that retain some contamination may actually contribute to firefighters' systemic dose. We investigated the effectiveness of laundering to reduce or remove contamination on the hoods, specifically PAHs and three classes of FRs: polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs), non-PBDE flame retardants (NPBFRs), and organophosphate flame retardants (OPFRs). Participants in the study were grouped into crews of 12 firefighters who worked in pairs by job assignment while responding to controlled fires in a single-family residential structure. For each pair of firefighters, one hood was laundered after every scenario and one was not. Bulk samples of the routinely laundered and unlaundered hoods from five pairs of firefighters were collected and analyzed. Residual levels of OPFRs, NPBFRs, and PAHs were lower in the routinely laundered hoods, with total levels of each class of chemicals being 56-81% lower, on average, than the unlaundered hoods. PBDEs, on average, were 43% higher in the laundered hoods, most likely from cross contamination. After this initial testing, four of the five unlaundered exposed hoods were subsequently laundered with other heavily exposed (unlaundered) and unexposed (new) hoods. Post-laundering evaluation of these hoods revealed increased levels of PBDEs, NPBFRs, and OPFRs in both previously exposed and unexposed hoods, indicating cross contamination. For PAHs, there was little evidence of cross contamination and the exposed hoods were significantly less contaminated after laundering (76% reduction; p = 0.011). Further research is needed to understand how residual contamination on hoods could contribute to firefighters' systemic exposures.

Organophosphate flame retardants in dust collected from United States fire stations

Firefighters are exposed to chemicals during fire events and we previously demonstrated that fire station dust has high levels of polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs). In conducting the Fire Station Dust Study, we sought to further characterize the chemicals to which firefighters could be exposed - measuring the emerging class of phosphorous-containing flame retardants (PFRs) in fire stations, for the first time, as well as PBDEs. Dust samples from 26 fire stations in five states were collected from vacuum-cleaner bags and analyzed for PFRs and PBDEs. PFR concentrations were found to be on the same order of magnitude as PBDE concentrations (maximum PFR: 218,000ng/g; maximum PBDE: 351,000ng/g). Median concentrations of tri-n-butyl phosphate (TNBP), tris (2-chloroisopropyl) phosphate (TCIPP), and tris(1,3-dichloroisopropyl)phosphate (TDCIPP) in dust from fire stations were higher than those previously reported in homes and other occupational settings around the world. Total PFR levels did not vary significantly among states. Levels of TDCIPP were higher in stations where vacuum cleaners were used to clean surfaces other than the floor. PBDE levels were comparable to those found in our previous study of 20 California fire stations and much higher than levels in California residences. PFR and PBDE levels in fire station dust are higher than in other occupational and residential settings, underscoring the need to identify and control sources of this contamination.

Assessment of Ambient Exposures Firefighters Encounter While at the Fire Station: An Exploratory Study

OBJECTIVE

Firefighters are at an increased risk for many types of cancer. Although most studies on this topic focus on exposures encountered while fighting fires, exposures at the fire station are also cause for concern. This pilot study aimed to describe air quality within a few fire stations in and around Boston, Massachusetts, and to investigate physical and organizational factors that may influence levels of contaminants in stations.

METHODS

Air sampling of particulate matter less than 2.5 μm in diameter (PM2.5) and particle-bound polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) was completed at four fire stations in Spring, 2016. Sampling occurred in the kitchen, truck bay, and just outside the station. Data were analyzed to assess differences between and within stations. Interviews (n =7) were conducted with officers at each station to explore health and safety-related organizational policies and practices. Interviews were transcribed and analyzed for thematic content.

RESULTS

At each station, levels of contaminants were higher in the truck bays than either the outdoors or kitchen, and varied the most throughout the day. The station with the highest exposures in the truck bay had the lowest levels in the kitchen, which was possibly explained by new building materials and effective separation between building zones. The age and layout of the stations appeared to determine the extent to which policies favoring exhaust capture were implemented.

CONCLUSION

Levels of PM2.5 and PAH inside fire stations may contribute to firefighter cancer risk. Through understanding contaminant variability, we can begin to design and test interventions that improve cancer prevention.

Contamination of firefighter personal protective equipment and skin and the effectiveness of decontamination procedures

Firefighters' skin may be exposed to chemicals via permeation/penetration of combustion byproducts through or around personal protective equipment (PPE) or from the cross-transfer of contaminants on PPE to the skin. Additionally, volatile contaminants can evaporate from PPE following a response and be inhaled by firefighters. Using polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and volatile organic compounds (VOCs) as respective markers for non-volatile and volatile substances, we investigated the contamination of firefighters' turnout gear and skin following controlled residential fire responses. Participants were grouped into three crews of twelve firefighters. Each crew was deployed to a fire scenario (one per day, four total) and then paired up to complete six fireground job assignments. Wipe sampling of the exterior of the turnout gear was conducted pre- and post-fire. Wipe samples were also collected from a subset of the gear after field decontamination. VOCs off-gassing from gear were also measured pre-fire, post-fire, and post-decon. Wipe sampling of the firefighters' hands and neck was conducted pre- and post-fire. Additional wipes were collected after cleaning neck skin. PAH levels on turnout gear increased after each response and were greatest for gear worn by firefighters assigned to fire attack and to search and rescue activities. Field decontamination using dish soap, water, and scrubbing was able to reduce PAH contamination on turnout jackets by a median of 85%. Off-gassing VOC levels increased post-fire and then decreased 17-36 min later regardless of whether field decontamination was performed. Median post-fire PAH levels on the neck were near or below the limit of detection (< 24 micrograms per square meter [µg/m²]) for all positions. For firefighters assigned to attack, search, and outside ventilation, the 75^th percentile values on the neck were 152, 71.7, and 39.3 µg/m², respectively. Firefighters assigned to attack and search had higher post-fire median hand contamination (135 and 226 µg/m², respectively) than other positions (< 10.5 µg/m²). Cleansing wipes were able to reduce PAH contamination on neck skin by a median of 54%.

Occupational exposure of firefighters to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in non-fire work environments

This work aims to characterize personal exposure of firefighters to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in non-fire work environments (fire stations), and assesses the respective risks. Eighteen PAHs (16 considered by USEPA as priority pollutants, dibenzo[a,l]pyrene and benzo[j]fluoranthene) were monitored in breathing zones of workers at five Portuguese fire stations during a normal shift. The obtained levels of PAHs fulfilled all existent occupational exposure limits as well as air quality guidelines with total concentrations (ΣPAHs) in range of 46.8-155ngm^-3. Light compounds (2-3 rings) were the most predominant congeners (74-96% of ΣPAHs) whereas PAHs with 5-6 rings accounted 3-9% of ΣPAHs. Fuel and biomass combustions, vehicular traffic emissions, and use of lubricant oils were identified as the main sources of PAHs exposure at the studied fire corporations. Incremental lifetime cancer risks were below the recommend USEPA guideline of 10^-6 and thus negligible for all the studied subjects, but WHO health-based guideline level of 10^-5 was exceeded (9-44 times) at all fire corporations. These results thus show that even during non-fire situations firefighters are exposed to PAHs at levels that may promote some adverse health outcomes; therefore the respective occupational exposures to these compounds should be carefully controlled.

Polychlorinated biphenyl and polybrominated diphenyl ether profiles in serum from cattle, sheep, and goats across California

It has been previously been shown by our lab and others that persistent organic pollutants, such as polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs), are contaminants in milk produced for human consumption. To further this research we determined the concentration of 21 PCB and 14 PBDE congeners in livestock serum, mainly bovine, across California. Congeners were extracted from serum using solid phase extraction (SPE), cleaned up by silica cartridge and quantified using gas chromatography-triple quadruple mass spectrometry. We detected significant differences among species and the production class of cattle (beef or dairy). The sum of all 21 PCB congeners (ΣPCBs) in caprine and ovine sera had a mean value of 9.26 and 9.13 ng/mL, respectively, compared to 3.98 ng/mL in bovine sera. The mean value for the sum of all 14 PBDE congeners (ΣPBDEs) in caprine and ovine sera was 2.82 and 2.39 ng/mL, respectively, compared to 0.91 ng/mL in bovine sera. Mean ΣPCBs in dairy cattle was 5.92 ng/mL compared to 2.70 ng/mL in beef cattle. Mean ΣPBDEs in dairy cattle was 1.33 ng/mL compared to 0.70 ng/mL in beef cattle. There were no regional differences in the ΣPCBs or ΣPBDEs in cattle distributed across California. These results highlight the fact that livestock are still being exposed to these pollutants yet little is known about where this exposure may be coming from.

Influence of sampling approach on concentrations of legacy and "novel" brominated flame retardants in indoor dust

The study investigates the impact of sampling method on the concentrations of PBDEs (BDE-28, BDE-47, BDE-99, BDE-100, BDE-153, BDE-154, BDE-183, and BDE-209) and NBFRs (PBEB, EH-TBB, BEH-TEBP, BTBPE and DBDPE) in indoor dust. A total of 36 dust samples were collected from 12 homes in Birmingham, UK (3 samples per home comprising researcher collected dust - both RCD from the living room (RCDL) and bedroom (RCDB), with an additional householder vacuum dust sample - HHVD). BDE-209 was the predominant compound, with average concentrations of 2642, 2336 and 2634 ng/g in RCDL, RCDB and HHVD respectively. The next most abundant BFR was BEH-TEBP, followed by DBDPE, with average concentrations of 306, 339 and 233 ng/g for BEH-TEBP and 155, 91 and 152 ng/g for DBDPE in RCDL, RCDB and HHVD respectively. Average concentrations of Σ₆tri-hexa-BDEs were 47, 41, and 24 ng/g in RCDL, RCDB and HHVD respectively. With the exception of Σ₆tri-hexa-BDEs, BDE-153, BDE-99 and to some extent BEH-TEBP, no significant differences were found between BFR concentrations in RCD and HHVD. Statistically significant correlations were observed between concentrations of Σ₆tri-hexa-BDEs, BEH-TEBP and DBDPE in HHVD and in both RCDL and RCDB. However, comparison of estimates of exposure via dust ingestion based on these two sampling methods revealed that using householder vacuum dust underestimates exposure, particularly for Σ₆tri-hexa-BDEs, and to some extent for BEH-TEBP. In contrast, HHVD could be a viable alternative to RCD as a metric of exposure for higher brominated BFRs.

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons at fire stations: firefighters' exposure monitoring and biomonitoring, and assessment of the contribution to total internal dose

This work characterizes levels of eighteen polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in the breathing air zone of firefighters during their regular work shift at eight Portuguese fire stations, and the firefighters' total internal dose by six urinary monohydroxyl metabolites (OH-PAHs). Total PAHs (ΣPAHs) concentrations varied widely (46.4-428ng/m³), mainly due to site specificity (urban/rural) and characteristics (age and layout) of buildings. Airborne PAHs with 2-3 rings were the most abundant (63.9-95.7% ΣPAHs). Similarly, urinary 1-hydroxynaphthalene and 1-hydroxyacenaphthene were the predominant metabolites (66-96% ΣOH-PAHs). Naphthalene contributed the most to carcinogenic ΣPAHs (39.4-78.1%) in majority of firehouses; benzo[a]pyrene, the marker of carcinogenic PAHs, accounted with 1.5-10%. Statistically positive significant correlations (r≥0.733, p≤0.025) were observed between ΣPAHs and urinary ΣOH-PAHs for firefighters of four fire stations suggesting that, at these sites, indoor air was their major exposure source of PAHs. Firefighter's personal exposure to PAHs at Portuguese fire stations were well below the existent occupational exposure limits. Also, the quantified concentrations of post-shift urinary 1-hydroxypyrene in all firefighters were clearly lower than the benchmark level (0.5μmol/mol) recommended by the American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists.

Quantification of Polychlorinated Biphenyls and Polybrominated Diphenyl Ethers in Commercial Cows' Milk from California by Gas Chromatography-Triple Quadruple Mass Spectrometry

We determined 12 polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) and 19 polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) congeners in eight different brands of commercial whole milk (WM) and fat free milk (FFM) produced and distributed in California. Congeners were extracted using a modified quick, easy, cheap, effective, rugged and safe (QuEChERS) method, purified by gel permeation chromatography, and quantified using gas chromatography-triple quadruple mass spectrometry. PBDEs and PCBs were detected in all FFM and WM samples. The most prevalent PBDE congeners in WM were BDE-47 (geometric mean: 18.0 pg/mL, 0.51 ng/g lipid), BDE-99 (geometric mean: 9.9 pg/mL, 0.28 ng/g lipid), and BDE-49 (geometric mean: 6.0 pg/mL, 0.17 ng/g lipid). The dominant PCB congeners in WM were PCB-101(geometric mean: 23.6 pg/mL, 0.67 ng/g lipid), PCB-118 (geometric mean: 25.2 pg/mL, 0.72 ng/g lipid), and PCB-138 (geometric mean: 25.3 pg/mL, 0.72 ng/g lipid). The sum of all 19 PCB congeners in FFM and WM were several orders of magnitude below the U.S. FDA tolerance. The sum of PBDEs in milk samples suggest close proximity to industrial emissions, and confirm previous findings of elevated PBDE levels in California compared to other regions in the United States.

Flame-retardant contamination of firefighter personal protective clothing - A potential health risk for firefighters

There is a high incidence of cardiovascular disease and certain cancers in firefighters that may be related to their occupational exposure to hazardous substances. Exposure may result from contaminated personal protective gear, as well as from direct exposure at fire scenes. This study characterized flame-retardant contamination on firefighter personal protective clothing to assess exposure of firefighters to these chemicals. Samples from used and unused firefighter protective clothing, including gloves, hoods and a coat wristlet, were extracted with methylene chloride and analyzed by EPA method 8270D Specific Ion Method (SIM) for polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs). Until recently PBDEs were some of the most common flame-retardant chemicals used in the US. Fifteen of the seventeen PBDEs for which analysis was performed were found on at least one clothing swatch. Every clothing sample, including an unused hood and all three layers of an unused glove, held a detectable concentration of at least one PBDE. These findings, along with previous research, suggest that firefighters are exposed to PBDE flame retardants at levels much higher than the general public. PBDEs are found widely dispersed in the environment and still persist in existing domestic materials such as clothing and furnishings. Firefighter exposure to flame retardants therefore merits further study.

Rapid methodology to screen flame retardants in upholstered furniture for compliance with new California labeling law (SB 1019)

In response to concerns regarding the widespread use of flame retardants, the California Legislature passed a law (SB1019) requiring labels on furniture products to indicate whether they do or do not contain flame retardants. To support the enforcement of the new law, our laboratory developed a step-wise, screening approach to test for brominated (BFR) and phosphorus-based flame retardants (OPFRs) in several types of furniture components (foam, fabric, batting, plumage, etc.). We used X-Ray Fluorescence (XRF) to screen for the presence of Br (and other elements) and Inductively Coupled Plasma - Optical Emission Spectrometry (ICP-OES) to identify and measure the concentration of P (and other elements). The same samples were also extracted by dichloromethane using sonication and analyzed by a single injection into a Gas Chromatograph - Tandem Mass Spectrometer to obtain concentrations of specific BFRs and OPFRs. Our approach showed excellent screening potential for Br and Sb by XRF and for P by ICP-OES, with both tests having predictive values of a negative equal to 1. To explore and screen for flame retardants in products not included in our current list of target chemicals, we used Liquid Chromatography/Time-of-Flight Mass Spectrometry operated with electrospray ionization, to identify additional flame retardants to be incorporated in quantitative methods. We are making all our methodologies public to facilitate simple and low cost methods that can help manufacturers and suppliers have their products tested and correctly labeled, ultimately benefitting the consumer.

High exposure of California firefighters to polybrominated diphenyl ethers

Concern about persistent organic pollutants (POPs) in Californians prompted the state's biomonitoring program to conduct a study in firefighters, who are occupationally exposed to high levels of POPs. In this work we present serum concentrations of several classes of POPs (polybrominated diphenyl ethers [PBDEs], polychlorinated biphenyls [PCBs], and organochlorine pesticides [OCPs]) in 101 Southern California firefighters. Despite recently reported declining trends of PBDEs in Californians, high levels were measured in firefighters' serum (Σ5PBDEs: median = 59.1 ng/(g of lipid); range = 18.8-714 ng/(g of lipid)) in comparison to other populations in California during the same period. In addition, nearly one-third of subjects had particularly high serum levels of decabromodiphenyl ether (BDE-209), consistent with other recent results in firefighters; this pattern may be a marker of recent firefighting activity. In contrast, serum levels of PCBs and OCPs measured in firefighters' sera were not elevated compared to U.S. levels. Multivariable analysis indicated that lower levels of serum PBDEs were associated with turnout gear cleaning and storage practices after fires. Our study supports the hypothesis that firefighting activities are likely to increase exposure to PBDEs and that good housekeeping and personal hygiene practices may reduce exposure to these compounds.