Photothermally triggered cytosolic drug delivery via endosome disruption using a functionalized reduced graphene oxide

Graphene-based hybrid composites for cancer diagnostic and therapy

The application of graphene-based nanocomposites for therapeutic and diagnostic reasons has advanced considerably in recent years due to advancements in the synthesis and design of graphene-based nanocomposites, giving rise to a new field of nano-cancer diagnosis and treatment. Nano-graphene is being utilized more often in the field of cancer therapy, where it is employed in conjunction with diagnostics and treatment to address the complex clinical obstacles and problems associated with this life-threatening illness. When compared to other nanomaterials, graphene derivatives stand out due to their remarkable structural, mechanical, electrical, optical, and thermal capabilities. The high specific surface area of these materials makes them useful as carriers in controlled release systems that respond to external stimuli; these compounds include drugs and biomolecules like nucleic acid sequences (DNA and RNA). Furthermore, the presence of distinctive sheet-like nanostructures and the capacity for photothermal conversion have rendered graphene-based nanocomposites highly favorable for optical therapeutic applications, including photothermal treatment (PTT), photodynamic therapy (PDT), and theranostics. This review highlights the current state and benefits of using graphene-based nanocomposites in cancer diagnosis and therapy and discusses the obstacles and prospects of their future development. Then we focus on graphene-based nanocomposites applications in cancer treatment, including smart drug delivery systems, PTT, and PDT. Lastly, the biocompatibility of graphene-based nanocomposites is also discussed to provide a unique overview of the topic.

Photocrosslinked Co-Assembled Amino Acid Nanoparticles for Controlled Chemo/Photothermal Combined Anticancer Therapy

Nanostructures formed from the self-assembly of amino acids are promising materials in many fields, especially for biomedical applications. However, their low stability resulting from the weak noncovalent interactions between the amino acid building blocks limits their use. In this work, nanoparticles co-assembled by fluorenylmethoxycarbonyl (Fmoc)-protected tyrosine (Fmoc-Tyr-OH) and tryptophan (Fmoc-Trp-OH) are crosslinked by ultraviolet (UV) light irradiation. Two methods are investigated to induce the dimerization of tyrosine, irradiating at 254 nm or at 365 nm in the presence of riboflavin as a photo-initiator. For the crosslinking performed at 254 nm, both Fmoc-Tyr-OH and Fmoc-Trp-OH generate dimers. In contrast, only Fmoc-Tyr-OH participates in the riboflavin-mediated dimerization under irradiation at 365 nm. The participation of both amino acids in forming the dimers leads to more stable crosslinked nanoparticles, allowing also to perform further chemical modifications for cancer applications. The anticancer drug doxorubicin (Dox) is adsorbed onto the crosslinked nanoparticles, subsequently coated by a tannic acid-iron complex, endowing the nanoparticles with glutathione-responsiveness and photothermal properties, allowing to control the release of Dox. A remarkable anticancer efficiency is obtained in vitro and in vivo in tumor-bearing mice thanks to the combined chemo- and photothermal treatment.

Tumor hyperthermia research progress and application prospect in tumoroids (Review)

Tumor hyperthermia is the fifth tumor treatment method after surgery, chemotherapy, radiotherapy and biological therapy, and is also one of the important adjuvant treatment methods for tumors. Hyperthermia can not only directly eliminate tumor cells, but also stimulate the antitumor immune response of the body, and improve the sensitivity of tumor tissues to radiotherapy and chemotherapy. An organoid is a tissue-specific cell cluster formed by 3D culture of various types of cells derived from target organ stem cells, which can reproduce the functions of target organs in vivo. At present, the research models of hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) in vitro are mainly 2D culture cell line models, and there is no clinical report on tumor hyperthermia using HCC tumoroids. It was hypothesized that this will be a promising research direction.

Enhancing Photothermal/Photodynamic Therapy for Glioblastoma by Tumor Hypoxia Alleviation and Heat Shock Protein Inhibition Using IR820-Conjugated Reduced Graphene Oxide Quantum Dots

We use low-molecular-weight branched polyethylenimine (PEI) to produce cytocompatible reduced graphene oxide quantum dots (rGOQD) as a photothermal agent and covalently bind it with the photosensitizer IR-820. The rGOQD/IR820 shows high photothermal conversion efficiency and produces reactive oxygen species (ROS) after irradiation with near-infrared (NIR) light for photothermal/photodynamic therapy (PTT/PDT). To improve suspension stability, rGOQD/IR820 was PEGylated by anchoring with the DSPE hydrophobic tails in DSPE-PEG-Mal, leaving the maleimide (Mal) end group for covalent binding with manganese dioxide/bovine serum albumin (MnO2/BSA) and targeting ligand cell-penetrating peptide (CPP) to synthesize rGOQD/IR820/MnO2/CPP. As MnO2 can react with intracellular hydrogen peroxide to produce oxygen for alleviating the hypoxia condition in the acidic tumor microenvironment, the efficacy of PDT could be enhanced by generating more cytotoxic ROS with NIR light. Furthermore, quercetin (Q) was loaded to rGOQD through π-π interaction, which can be released in the endosomes and act as an inhibitor of heat shock protein 70 (HSP70). This sensitizes tumor cells to thermal stress and increases the efficacy of mild-temperature PTT with NIR irradiation. By simultaneously incorporating the HSP70 inhibitor (Q) and the in situ hypoxia alleviating agent (MnO2), the rGOQD/IR820/MnO2/Q/CPP can overcome the limitation of PTT/PDT and enhance the efficacy of targeted phototherapy in vitro. From in vivo study with an orthotopic brain tumor model, rGOQD/IR820/MnO2/Q/CPP administered through tail vein injection can cross the blood-brain barrier and accumulate in the intracranial tumor, after which NIR laser light irradiation can shrink the tumor and prolong the survival times of animals by simultaneously enhancing the efficacy of PTT/PDT to treat glioblastoma.

Two-dimensional nanomaterials induced nano-bio interfacial effects and biomedical applications in cancer treatment

Two-dimensional nanomaterials (2D NMs), characterized by a large number of atoms or molecules arranged in one dimension (typically thickness) while having tiny dimensions in the other two dimensions, have emerged as a pivotal class of materials with unique properties. Their flat and sheet-like structure imparts distinctive physical, chemical, and electronic attributes, which offers several advantages in biomedical applications, including enhanced surface area for efficient drug loading, surface-exposed atoms allowing precise chemical modifications, and the ability to form hierarchical multilayer structures for synergistic functionality. Exploring their nano-bio interfacial interactions with biological components holds significant importance in comprehensively and systematically guiding safe applications. However, the current lack of in-depth analysis and comprehensive understanding of interfacial effects on cancer treatment motivates our ongoing efforts in this field. This study provides a comprehensive survey of recent advances in utilizing 2D NMs for cancer treatment. It offers insights into the structural characteristics, synthesis methods, and surface modifications of diverse 2D NMs. The investigation further delves into the formation of nano-bio interfaces during their in vivo utilization. Notably, the study discusses a wide array of biomedical applications in cancer treatment. With their potential to revolutionize therapeutic strategies and outcomes, 2D NMs are poised at the forefront of cancer treatment, holding the promise of transformative advancements.

Attenuation of Chronic Inflammation in Intestinal Organoids with Graphene Oxide-Mediated Tumor Necrosis Factor-α_Small Interfering RNA Delivery

Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) is a chronic inflammatory disease of the gastrointestinal tract with a complex and multifactorial etiology, making it challenging to treat. While recent advances in immunomodulatory biologics, such as antitumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) antibodies, have shown moderate success, systemic administration of antibody therapeutics may lead to several adverse effects, including the risk of autoimmune disorders due to systemic cytokine depletion. Transient RNA interference using exogenous short interfering RNA (siRNA) to regulate target gene expression at the transcript level offers an alternative to systemic immunomodulation. However, siRNAs are susceptible to premature degradation and have poor cellular uptake. Graphene oxide (GO) nanoparticles have been shown to be effective nanocarriers for biologics due to their reduced cytotoxicity and enhanced bioavailability. In this study, we evaluate the therapeutic efficacy of GO mediated TNF-α_siRNA using in vitro models of chronic inflammation generated by treating murine small intestines (enteroids) and large intestines (colonoids) with inflammatory agents IL-1β, TNF-α, and LPS. The organotypic mouse enteroids and colonoids developed an inflammatory phenotype similar to that of IBD, characterized by impaired epithelial homeostasis and an increased production of inflammatory cytokines such as TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-6. We assessed siRNA delivery to these inflamed organoids using three different GO formulations. Out of the three, small-sized GO with polymer and dendrimer modifications (smGO) demonstrated the highest transfection efficiency, which led to the downregulation of inflammatory cytokines, indicating an attenuation of the inflammatory phenotype. Moreover, the transfection efficiency and inflammation-ameliorating effects could be further enhanced by increasing the TNF-α_siRNA/smGO ratio from 1:1 to 3:1. Overall, the results of this study demonstrate that ex vivo organoids with disease-specific phenotypes are invaluable models for assessing the therapeutic potential of nanocarrier-mediated drug and biologic delivery systems.

The fabrication of the chitosan-based bioink for in vitro tissue repair and regeneration: A review

The repair and regeneration of the injured tissues or organs is a major challenge for biomedicine, and the emerging 3D bioprinting technology as a class of promising techniques in biomedical research for the development of tissue engineering and regenerative medicine. Chitosan-based bioinks, as the natural biomaterials, are considered as ideal materials for 3D bioprinting to design and fabricate the various scaffold due to their unique dynamic reversibility and fantastic biological properties. Our review aims to provide an overview of chitosan-based bioinks for in vitro tissue repair and regeneration, starting from modification of chitosan that affect these bioprinting processes. In addition, we summarize the advances in chitosan-based bioinks used in the various 3D printing strategies. Moreover, the biomedical applications of chitosan-based bioinks are discussed, primarily centered on regenerative medicine and tissue modeling engineering. Finally, current challenges and future opportunities in this field are discussed. The combination of chitosan-based bioinks and 3D bioprinting will hold promise for developing novel biomedical scaffolds for tissue or organ repair and regeneration.

Biomimetic theranostic nanoparticles for effective anticancer therapy and MRI imaging

Cancer remains a leading cause of mortality worldwide, necessitating the development of innovative therapeutic approaches. Nanoparticle-based drug delivery systems have garnered significant interest due to their multifunctionality, offering the potential to enhance cancer treatment efficacy and improve patient tolerability. Membrane-coated drug delivery systems hold great potential for enhancing the therapeutic outcome of nanoparticle-based anticancer therapies. In this study, we report the synthesis of multifunctional iron-functionalized mesoporous polydopamine nanoparticles (MPDAFe NPs). These nanoformulations demonstrate substantial potential for combining efficient drug delivery and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and showcase the advantages of biomimetic coating with tumor cell-derived membranes. This coating confers prolonged circulation and improved the targeting capabilities of the nanoparticles. Furthermore, comprehensive biosafety evaluations reveal negligible toxicity to normal cells, while the combined chemo- and phototherapy exhibited significant cytotoxicity towards cancer cells. Additionally, the photothermal effect evaluation highlights the enhanced cytotoxicity achieved through laser irradiation, showcasing the synergistic effects of the nanomaterials and photothermal therapy. Importantly, our chemotherapeutic effect evaluation demonstrates the superior efficacy of doxorubicin-loaded MPDAFe@Mem NPs (cancer cell membrane-coated MPDAFe NPs) in inhibiting cancer cell viability and proliferation, surpassing the potency of free doxorubicin. This study comprehensively investigates theranostic, membrane-coated drug delivery systems, underlining their potential to increase the efficacy of cancer treatment strategies. The multifunctional nature of the iron-functionalized polydopamine nanoparticles allows for efficient drug delivery and imaging capabilities, while the biomimetic coating enhances their biocompatibility and targeting ability. These findings contribute valuable insights towards the development of advanced nanomedicine for improved cancer therapeutics.

2D Nanomaterials and Their Drug Conjugates for Phototherapy and Magnetic Hyperthermia Therapy of Cancer and Infections

Photothermal therapy (PTT) and magnetic hyperthermia therapy (MHT) using 2D nanomaterials (2DnMat) have recently emerged as promising alternative treatments for cancer and bacterial infections, both important global health challenges. The present review intends to provide not only a comprehensive overview, but also an integrative approach of the state-of-the-art knowledge on 2DnMat for PTT and MHT of cancer and infections. High surface area, high extinction coefficient in near-infra-red (NIR) region, responsiveness to external stimuli like magnetic fields, and the endless possibilities of surface functionalization, make 2DnMat ideal platforms for PTT and MHT. Most of these materials are biocompatible with mammalian cells, presenting some cytotoxicity against bacteria. However, each material must be comprehensively characterized physiochemically and biologically, since small variations can have significant biological impact. Highly efficient and selective in vitro and in vivo PTTs for the treatment of cancer and infections are reported, using a wide range of 2DnMat concentrations and incubation times. MHT is described to be more effective against bacterial infections than against cancer therapy. Despite the promising results attained, some challenges remain, such as improving 2DnMat conjugation with drugs, understanding their in vivo biodegradation, and refining the evaluation criteria to measure PTT or MHT effects.

Graphene-Based Material-Mediated Immunomodulation in Tissue Engineering and Regeneration: Mechanism and Significance

Tissue engineering and regenerative medicine hold promise for improving or even restoring the function of damaged organs. Graphene-based materials (GBMs) have become a key player in biomaterials applied to tissue engineering and regenerative medicine. A series of cellular and molecular events, which affect the outcome of tissue regeneration, occur after GBMs are implanted into the body. The immunomodulatory function of GBMs is considered to be a key factor influencing tissue regeneration. This review introduces the applications of GBMs in bone, neural, skin, and cardiovascular tissue engineering, emphasizing that the immunomodulatory functions of GBMs significantly improve tissue regeneration. This review focuses on summarizing and discussing the mechanisms by which GBMs mediate the sequential regulation of the innate immune cell inflammatory response. During the process of tissue healing, multiple immune responses, such as the inflammatory response, foreign body reaction, tissue fibrosis, and biodegradation of GBMs, are interrelated and influential. We discuss the regulation of these immune responses by GBMs, as well as the immune cells and related immunomodulatory mechanisms involved. Finally, we summarize the limitations in the immunomodulatory strategies of GBMs and ideas for optimizing GBM applications in tissue engineering. This review demonstrates the significance and related mechanism of the immunomodulatory function of GBM application in tissue engineering; more importantly, it contributes insights into the design of GBMs to enhance wound healing and tissue regeneration in tissue engineering.

Graphene Oxide Nanostructures as Nanoplatforms for Delivering Natural Therapeutic Agents: Applications in Cancer Treatment, Bacterial Infections, and Bone Regeneration Medicine

Graphene, fullerenes, diamond, carbon nanotubes, and carbon dots are just a few of the carbon-based nanomaterials that have gained enormous popularity in a variety of scientific disciplines and industrial uses. As a two-dimensional material in the creation of therapeutic delivery systems for many illnesses, nanosized graphene oxide (NGO) is now garnering a large amount of attention among these materials. In addition to other benefits, NGO functions as a drug nanocarrier with remarkable biocompatibility, high pharmaceutical loading capacity, controlled drug release capability, biological imaging efficiency, multifunctional nanoplatform properties, and the power to increase the therapeutic efficacy of loaded agents. Thus, NGO is a perfect nanoplatform for the development of drug delivery systems (DDSs) to both detect and treat a variety of ailments. This review article's main focus is on investigating surface functionality, drug-loading methods, and drug release patterns designed particularly for smart delivery systems. The paper also examines the relevance of using NGOs to build DDSs and considers prospective uses in the treatment of diseases including cancer, infection by bacteria, and bone regeneration medicine. These factors cover the use of naturally occurring medicinal substances produced from plant-based sources.

GPP-TSAIII nanocomposite hydrogel-based photothermal ablation facilitates melanoma therapy

BACKGROUND

Photothermal therapy (PTT) is a promising cancer treatment, but its application is limited by low photoconversion efficiency. In this study, we aimed to develop a novel graphene oxide (GO)-based nanocomposite hydrogel to improve the bioavailability of timosaponin AIII (TSAIII) while maximizing PTT efficacy and enhancing the antitumor effect.

METHODS

GO was modified via physical cross-linking with polyvinyl alcohol. The pore structure of the gel was adjusted by repeated freeze-thawing and the addition of polyethylene glycol 2000 to obtain a nanocomposite hydrogel (GPP). The GPP loaded with TSAIII constituted a GPP-TSAIII drug delivery system, and its efficacy was evaluated by in vitro cytotoxicity, apoptosis, migration, and uptake analyses, and in vivo antitumor studies.

RESULTS

The encapsulation rate of GPP-TSAIII was 66.36 ± 3.97%, with slower in vitro release and higher tumor cell uptake (6.4-fold) compared to TSAIII. GPP-TSAIII in combination with PTT showed better bioavailability and antitumor effects in vivo than did TSAIII, with a 1.9-fold higher tumor suppression rate than the TSAIII group.

CONCLUSIONS

GPP is a potential vehicle for delivery of TSAIII-like poor water-soluble anticancer drugs. The innovative PTT co-delivery system may serve as a safe and effective melanoma treatment platform for further anticancer translational purposes.

Red Blood Cell Membrane-coated Functionalized Au Nanocage as a Biomimetic Platform for Improved MicroRNA Delivery in Hepatocellular Carcinoma

Dysregulation of microRNAs (miRNAs) expression is closely related to cancers and managing miRNA expression holds great promise for cancer therapy. However, their wide clinical application has been hampered by their poor stability, short half-life and non-specific biodistribution in vivo. Herein, a novel biomimetic platform designated as RHAuNCs-miRNA for improved miRNA delivery was prepared through wrapping miRNA-loaded functionalized Au nanocages (AuNCs) with red blood cell (RBC) membrane. RHAuNCs-miRNA not only successfully loaded miRNAs but also effectively protected them from enzymatic degradation. With good stability, RHAuNCs-miRNA had the characteristics of photothermal conversion and sustained release. Cellular uptake of RHAuNCs-miRNA by SMMC-7721 cells was in a time-dependent manner via clathrin- and caveolin-mediated endocytosis. The uptake of RHAuNCs-miRNAs was affected by cell types and improved by mild near infrared (NIR) laser irradiation. More importantly, RHAuNCs-miRNA exhibited a prolonged circulation time without the occurrence of accelerated blood clearance (ABC) in vivo, resulting in efficient delivery to tumor tissues. This study may demonstrate the great potential of RHAuNCs-miRNA for improved miRNAs delivery.

Synthesis and Functionalization of Graphene Materials for Biomedical Applications: Recent Advances, Challenges, and Perspectives

Since its discovery in 2004, graphene is increasingly applied in various fields owing to its unique properties. Graphene application in the biomedical domain is promising and intriguing as an emerging 2D material with a high surface area, good mechanical properties, and unrivalled electronic and physical properties. This review summarizes six typical synthesis methods to fabricate pristine graphene (p-G), graphene oxide (GO), and reduced graphene oxide (rGO), followed by characterization techniques to examine the obtained graphene materials. As bare graphene is generally undesirable in vivo and in vitro, functionalization methods to reduce toxicity, increase biocompatibility, and provide more functionalities are demonstrated. Subsequently, in vivo and in vitro behaviors of various bare and functionalized graphene materials are discussed to evaluate the functionalization effects. Reasonable control of dose (<20 mg kg^-1 ), sizes (50-1000 nm), and functionalization methods for in vivo application are advantageous. Then, the key biomedical applications based on graphene materials are discussed, coupled with the current challenges and outlooks of this growing field. In a broader sense, this review provides a comprehensive discussion on the synthesis, characterization, functionalization, evaluation, and application of p-G, GO, and rGO in the biomedical field, highlighting their recent advances and potential.

Graphene-based nanomaterials for stimuli-sensitive controlled delivery of therapeutic molecules

Stimuli-responsive drug delivery has attracted tremendous attention in the past decades. It provides a spatial- and temporal-controlled release in response to different triggers, thus enabling highly efficient drug delivery and minimizing drug side effects. Graphene-based nanomaterials have been broadly explored, and they show great potential in smart drug delivery due to their stimuli-responsive behavior and high loading capacity for an extended range of drug molecules. These characteristics are a result of high surface area, mechanical stability and chemical stability, and excellent optical, electrical, and thermal properties. Their great and infinite functionalization potential also allows them to be integrated into several types of polymers, macromolecules, or other nanoparticles, leading to the fabrication of novel nanocarriers with enhanced biocompatibility and trigger-sensitive properties. Thus, numerous studies have been dedicated to graphene modification and functionalization. In the current review, we introduce graphene derivatives and different graphene-based nanomaterials utilized in drug delivery and discuss the most important advances in their functionalization and modification. Also, their potential and progress in an intelligent drug release in response to different types of stimuli either endogenous (pH, redox conditions, and reactive oxygen species (ROS)) or exogenous (temperature, near-infrared (NIR) radiation, and electric field) will be debated.

3D self-assembled nanocarriers for drug delivery

There are many benefits to drug delivery from drug-carrier nanostructure systems. It might be developed to carefully control drug release rates or to deliver a precise amount of a therapeutic substance to particular body areas. Self-assembling is the process by which molecules and nanoparticles spontaneously organize into organized clusters. For instance, proteins and peptides can interact with one another to create highly organized supramolecular structures with various properties, such as helical ribbons and fibrous scaffolds. Another advantage of self-assembly is that it may be effective with a variety of materials, including metals, oxides, inorganic salts, polymers, semiconductors, and even organic semiconductors. Fullerene, graphene, and carbon nanotubes (CNTs), three of the most fundamental classes of three-dimensionally self-assembling nanostructured carbon-based materials, are essential for the development of modern nanotechnologies. Self-assembled nanomaterials are used in a variety of fields, including nanotechnology, imaging, and biosensors. This review study begins with a summary of various major 3D nanomaterials, including graphene oxide, CNTs, and nanodiamond, as well as 3D self-assembled polyfunctionalized nanostructures and adaptable nanocarriers for drug delivery.

Codelivery of adavosertib and olaparib by tumor-targeting nanoparticles for augmented efficacy and reduced toxicity

Ovarian cancer (OC) ranks first among gynecologic malignancies in terms of mortality. The benefits of poly (ADP-ribose) polymerase (PARP) inhibitors appear to be limited to OC with BRCA mutations. Concurrent administration of WEE1 inhibitors (eg, adavosertib (Ada)) and PARP inhibitors (eg, olaparib (Ola)) effectively suppress ovarian tumor growth regardless of BRCA mutation status, but is poorly tolerated. Henceforth, we aimed to seek a strategy to reduce the toxic effects of this combination by taking advantage of the mesoporous polydopamine (MPDA) nanoparticles with good biocompatibility and high drug loading capacity. In this work, we designed a tumor-targeting peptide TMTP1 modified MPDA-based nano-drug delivery system (TPNPs) for targeted co-delivery of Ada and Ola to treat OC. Ada and Ola could be effectively loaded into MPDA nanoplatform and showed tumor microenvironment triggered release behavior. The nanoparticles induced more apoptosis in OC cells, and significantly enhanced the synergy of combination therapy with Ada plus Ola in murine OC models. Moreover, the precise drug delivery of TPNPs towards tumor cells significantly diminished the toxic side effects caused by concurrent administration of Ada and Ola. Co-delivery of WEE1 inhibitors and PARP inhibitors via TPNPs represents a promising approach for the treatment of OC. STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE: Combination therapy of WEE1 inhibitors (eg, Ada) with PARP inhibitors (eg, Ola) effectively suppress ovarian tumor growth regardless of BRCA mutation status. However, poor tolerability limits its clinical application. To address this issue, we construct a tumor-targeting nano-drug delivery system (TPNP) for co-delivery of Ada and Ola. The nanoparticles specifically target ovarian cancer and effectively enhance the antitumor effect while minimizing undesired toxic side effects. As the first nanomedicine co-loaded with a WEE1 inhibitor and a PARP inhibitor, TPNP-Ada-Ola may provide a promising and generally applicable therapeutic strategy for ovarian cancer patients.

Potential Biomedical Limitations of Graphene Nanomaterials

Graphene-family nanomaterials (GFNs) possess mechanical stiffness, optical properties, and biocompatibility making them promising materials for biomedical applications. However, to realize the potential of graphene in biomedicine, it must overcome several challenges that arise when it enters the body's circulatory system. Current research focuses on the development of tumor-targeting devices using graphene, but GFNs accumulated in different tissues and cells through different pathways, which can cause toxic reactions leading to cell apoptosis and body dysfunction when the accumulated amount exceeds a certain limit. In addition, as a foreign substance, graphene can induce complex inflammatory reactions with immune cells and inflammatory factors, potentially enhancing or impairing the body's immune function. This review discusses the biomedical applications of graphene, the effects of graphene materials on human immune function, and the biotoxicity of graphene materials.

Graphene Oxide Nanoscale Platform Enhances the Anti-Cancer Properties of Bortezomib in Glioblastoma Models

Graphene-based 2D nanomaterials possess unique physicochemical characteristics which can be utilized in various biomedical applications, including the transport and presentation of chemotherapeutic agents. In glioblastoma multiforme (GBM), intratumorally administered thin graphene oxide (GO) nanosheets demonstrate a widespread distribution throughout the tumor volume without impact on tumor growth, nor spread into normal brain tissue. Such intratumoral localization and distribution can offer multiple opportunities for treatment and modulation of the GBM microenvironment. Here, the kinetics of GO nanosheet distribution in orthotopic GBM mouse models is described and a novel nano-chemotherapeutic approach utilizing thin GO sheets as platforms to non-covalently complex a proteasome inhibitor, bortezomib (BTZ), is rationally designed. Through the characterization of the GO:BTZ complexes, a high loading capacity of the small molecule on the GO surface with sustained BTZ biological activity in vitro is demonstrated. In vivo, a single low-volume intratumoral administration of GO:BTZ complex shows an enhanced cytotoxic effect compared to free drug in two orthotopic GBM mouse models. This study provides evidence of the potential that thin and small GO sheets hold as flat nanoscale platforms for GBM treatment by increasing the bioavailable drug concentration locally, leading to an enhanced therapeutic effect.

Progress and challenges of graphene and its congeners for biomedical applications

Nanomaterials by virtue of their small size and enhanced surface area, present unique physicochemical properties that enjoy widespread applications in bioengineering, biomedicine, biotechnology, disease diagnosis, and therapy. In recent years, graphene and its derivatives have attracted a great deal of attention in various applications, including photovoltaics, electronics, energy storage, catalysis, sensing, and biotechnology owing to their exceptional structural, optical, thermal, mechanical, and electrical. Graphene is a two-dimensional sheet of sp2 hybridized carbon atoms of atomic thickness, which are arranged in a honeycomb crystal lattice structure. Graphene derivatives are graphene oxide (GO) and reduced graphene oxide (rGO), which are highly oxidized and less oxidized forms of graphene, respectively. Another form of graphene is graphene quantum dots (GQDs), having a size of less than 20 nm. Contemporary graphene research focuses on using graphene nanomaterials for biomedical purposes as they have a large surface area for loading biomolecules and medicine and offer the potential for the conjugation of fluorescent dyes or quantum dots for bioimaging. The present review begins with the synthesis, purification, structure, and properties of graphene nanomaterials. Then, we focussed on the biomedical application of graphene nanomaterials with special emphasis on drug delivery, bioimaging, biosensing, tissue engineering, gene delivery, and chemotherapy. The implications of graphene nanomaterials on human health and the environment have also been summarized due to their exposure to their biomedical applications. This review is anticipated to offer useful existing understanding and inspire new concepts to advance secure and effective graphene nanomaterials-based biomedical devices.

Intelligent Micro-/Nanorobots for Cancer Theragnostic

Cancer is one of the most intractable diseases owing to its high mortality rate and lack of effective diagnostic and treatment tools. Advancements in micro-/nanorobot (MNR)-assisted sensing, imaging, and therapeutics offer unprecedented opportunities to develop MNR-based cancer theragnostic platforms. Unlike ordinary nanoparticles, which exhibit Brownian motion in biofluids, MNRs overcome viscous resistance in an ultralow Reynolds number (Re << 1) environment by effective self-propulsion. This unique locomotion property has motivated the advanced design and functionalization of MNRs as a basis for next-generation cancer-therapy platforms, which offer the potential for precise distribution and improved permeation of therapeutic agents. Enhanced barrier penetration, imaging-guided operation, and biosensing are additionally studied to enable the promising cancer-related applications of MNRs. Herein, the recent advances in MNR-based cancer therapy are comprehensively addresses, including actuation engines, diagnostics, medical imaging, and targeted drug delivery; promising research opportunities that can have a profound impact on cancer therapy over the next decade is highlighted.

ROS-generating, pH-responsive and highly tunable reduced graphene oxide-embedded microbeads showing intrinsic anticancer properties and multi-drug co-delivery capacity for combination cancer therapy

The development of effective carriers enabling combination cancer therapy is of practical importance due to its potential to enhance the effectiveness of cancer treatment. However, most of the reported carriers are monofunctional in nature. The carriers that can be applied to concomitantly mediate multiple treatment modalities are highly deficient. This study fills this gap by reporting the design and fabrication of ROS-generating carbohydrate-based pH-responsive beads with intrinsic anticancer therapy and multidrug co-delivery capacity for combination cancer therapy. Sodium alginate (SA) microspheres and reduced graphene oxide (rGO)-embedded chitosan (CS) beads are developed via emulsion-templated ionic gelation for a combination therapy involving co-delivery of curcumin (CUR) and 5-fluororacil (5-FU). Drug-encapsulated microbeads are characterized by FTIR, DSC, TGA, XRD, and SEM. 5-FU and CUR-encapsulated microbeads are subjected to in vitro drug release studies at pH 6.8 and 1.2 at 37 °C. Various release kinetic parameters are evaluated. The results show that the Korsmeyer-Peppas model and non-Fickian release kinetics are best suited. The microspheres and microbeads are found to effectively act against MCF7 cells and show intrinsic anticancer capacity. These results indicate the promising performance of our beads in mediating combination drug therapy to improve the effectiveness of cancer treatment.

Nanocomposites of Nitrogen-Doped Graphene Oxide and Manganese Oxide for Photodynamic Therapy and Magnetic Resonance Imaging

Cancer is a leading cause of death worldwide. Conventional methods of cancer treatment, including chemotherapy and radiotherapy, are associated with multiple side effects. Recently, photodynamic therapy (PDT) has emerged as an effective therapeutic modality for cancer treatment without adversely affecting normal tissue. In this study, we synthesized nitrogen doped graphene (NDG) and conjugated it with Mn₃O₄ nanoparticles to produce NDG-Mn₃O₄ nanocomposite with the aim of testing its bimodal performance including PDT and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). We did not use any linker or binder for conjugation between NDG and Mn₃O₄, rather they were anchored by a milling process. The results of cell viability analysis showed that NDG-Mn₃O₄ nanocomposites caused significant cell death under laser irradiation, while control and Mn₃O₄ nanoparticles showed negligible cell death. We observed increased generation of singlet oxygen after exposure of NDG-Mn₃O₄ nanocomposites, which was directly proportional to the duration of laser irradiation. The results of MRI showed concentration dependent enhancement of signal intensity with an increasing concentration of NDG-Mn₃O₄ nanocomposites. In conclusion, NDG-Mn₃O₄ nanocomposites did not cause any cytotoxicity under physiological conditions. However, they produced significant and dose-dependent cytotoxicity in cancer cells after laser irradiation. NDG-Mn₃O₄ nanocomposites also exhibited concentration-dependent MRI contrast property, suggesting their possible application for cancer imaging. Further studies are warranted to test the theranostic potential of NDG-Mn₃O₄ nanocomposites using animal models of cancer.

Recent biomedical advancements in graphene oxide- and reduced graphene oxide-based nanocomposite nanocarriers

Recently, nanocarriers, including micelles, polymers, carbon-based materials, liposomes, and other substances, have been developed for efficient delivery of drugs, nucleotides, and biomolecules. This review focuses on graphene oxide (GO) and reduced graphene oxide (rGO) as active components in nanocarriers, because their chemical structures and easy functionalization can be valuable assets for in vitro and in vivo delivery. Herein, we describe the preparation, structure, and functionalization of GO and rGO. Additionally, their important properties to function as nanocarriers are presented, including their molecular interactions with various compounds, near-infrared light adsorption, and biocompatibility. Subsequently, their mechanisms and the most appealing examples of their delivery applications are summarized. Overall, GO- and rGO-based nanocomposites show great promise as multipurpose nanocarriers owing to their various potential applications in drug and gene delivery, phototherapy, bioimaging, biosensing, tissue engineering, and as antibacterial agents.

Is Graphene Shortening the Path toward Spinal Cord Regeneration?

Along with the development of the next generation of biomedical platforms, the inclusion of graphene-based materials (GBMs) into therapeutics for spinal cord injury (SCI) has potential to nourish topmost neuroprotective and neuroregenerative strategies for enhancing neural structural and physiological recovery. In the context of SCI, contemplated as one of the most convoluted challenges of modern medicine, this review first provides an overview of its characteristics and pathophysiological features. Then, the most relevant ongoing clinical trials targeting SCI, including pharmaceutical, robotics/neuromodulation, and scaffolding approaches, are introduced and discussed in sequence with the most important insights brought by GBMs into each particular topic. The current role of these nanomaterials on restoring the spinal cord microenvironment after injury is critically contextualized, while proposing future concepts and desirable outputs for graphene-based technologies aiming to reach clinical significance for SCI.

Biofunctionalized graphene oxide nanosheet for amplifying antitumor therapy: Multimodal high drug encapsulation, prolonged hyperthermal window, and deep-site burst drug release

Biofunctional surface-modification surpassed critical limitation of graphene oxide (GO) in biocompatibility and drug delivery efficiency, contributing to versatile biomedical applications. Here, a protein corona-bridged GO nanoplatform with high drug loading, longstanding hyperthermia, and controllable drug release, was engineered for amplified tumor therapeutic benefits. Structurally, GO surface was installed with phenylboronic acid (PBA) layer, on which iRGD conjugated apolipoprotein A-I (iRGD-apoA-I) was coordinated via boron electron-deficiency, to form the sandwich-like GO nanosheet (iAPG). The GO camouflaging by iRGD-apoA-I corona provided multimodal high doxorubicin (DOX) loading by π-π stacking and coordination, and generated a higher photothermal transformation efficiency simultaneously. In vitro studies demonstrated that iAPG significantly improved drug penetration and internalization, then achieved tumor-targeted DOX release through near-infrared (NIR) controlled endo/lysosome disruption. Moreover, iAPG mediated site-specific drug shuttling to produce a 3.53-fold enhancement of tumor drug-accumulation compared to the free DOX in vivo, and induced deep tumor penetration dramatically. Primary tumor ablation and spontaneous metastasis inhibition were further demonstrated with negligible side effects under optimal NIR. Taken together, our work provided multifunctional protein corona strategy to inorganic nanomaterials toward advantageous biomedical applications.

Novel Photo- and Thermo-Responsive Nanocomposite Hydrogels Based on Functionalized rGO and Modified SIS/Chitosan Polymers for Localized Treatment of Malignant Cutaneous Melanoma

Melanoma is an aggressive type of skin cancer that accounts for over 75% of skin cancer deaths despite comprising less than 5% of all skin cancers. Despite promising improvements in surgical approaches for melanoma resection, the survival of undetectable microtumor residues has remained a concern. As a result, hyperthermia- and drug-based therapies have grown as attractive techniques to target and treat cancer. In this work, we aim to develop a stimuli-responsive hydrogel based on chitosan methacrylate (ChiMA), porcine small intestine submucosa methacrylate (SISMA), and doxorubicin-functionalized reduced graphene oxide (rGO-DOX) that eliminates microtumor residues from surgically resected melanoma through the coupled effect of NIR light-induced photothermal therapy and heat-induced doxorubicin release. Furthermore, we developed an in silico model to optimize heat and mass transport and evaluate the proposed chemo/photothermal therapy in vitro over melanoma cell cultures.

Biological Impacts of Reduced Graphene Oxide Affected by Protein Corona Formation

Applications of reduced graphene oxide (rGO) in many different areas have been gradually increasing owing to its unique physicochemical characteristics, demanding more understanding of their biological impacts. Herein, we assessed the toxicological effects of rGO in mammary epithelial cells. Because the as-synthesized rGO was dissolved in sodium cholate to maintain a stable aqueous dispersion, we hypothesize that changing the cholate concentration in the dispersion may alter the surface property of rGO and subsequently affect its cellular toxicity. Thus, four types of rGO were prepared and compared: rGO dispersed in 4 and 2 mg/mL sodium cholate, labeled as rGO and concentrated-rGO (c-rGO), respectively, and rGO and c-rGO coated with a protein corona through 1 h incubation in culture media, correspondingly named pro-rGO and pro-c-rGO. Notably, c-rGO and pro-c-rGO exhibited higher toxicity than rGO and pro-rGO and also caused higher reactive oxygen species production, more lipid membrane peroxidation, and more significant disruption of mitochondrial-based ATP synthesis. In all toxicological assessments, pro-c-rGO induced more severe adverse impacts than c-rGO. Further examination of the material surface, protein adsorption, and cellular uptake showed that the surface of c-rGO was coated with a lower content of surfactant and adsorbed more proteins, which may result in the higher cellular uptake observed with pro-c-rGO than pro-rGO. Several proteins involved in cellular redox mediation were also more enriched in pro-c-rGO. These results support the strong correlation between dispersant coating and corona formation and their subsequent cellular impacts. Future studies in this direction could reveal a deeper understanding of the correlation and the specific cellular pathways involved and help gain knowledge on how the toxicity of rGO could be modulated through surface modification, guiding the sustainable applications of rGO.

Understanding interactions between biomolecules and two-dimensional nanomaterials using in silico microscopes

Two-dimensional (2D) nanomaterials such as graphene are increasingly used in research and industry for various biomedical applications. Extensive experimental and theoretical studies have revealed that 2D nanomaterials are promising drug delivery vehicles, yet certain materials exhibit toxicity under biological conditions. So far, it is known that 2D nanomaterials possess strong adsorption propensities for biomolecules. To mitigate potential toxicity and retain favorable physical and chemical properties of 2D nanomaterials, it is necessary to explore the underlying mechanisms of interactions between biomolecules and nanomaterials for the subsequent design of biocompatible 2D nanomaterials for nanomedicine. The purpose of this review is to integrate experimental findings with theoretical observations and facilitate the study of 2D nanomaterial interaction with biomolecules at the molecular level. We discuss the current understanding and progress of 2D nanomaterial interaction with proteins, lipid membranes, and DNA based on molecular dynamics (MD) simulation. In this review, we focus on the 2D graphene nanosheet and briefly discuss other 2D nanomaterials. With the ever-growing computing power, we can image nanoscale processes using MD simulation that are otherwise not observable in experiment. We expect that molecular characterization of the complex behavior between 2D nanomaterials and biomolecules will help fulfill the goal of designing effective 2D nanomaterials as drug delivery platforms.

Engineered 2D materials for optical bioimaging and path toward therapy and tissue engineering

Two-dimensional (2D) layered materials as a new class of nanomaterial are characterized by a list of exotic properties. These layered materials are investigated widely in several biomedical applications. A comprehensive understanding of the state-of-the-art developments of 2D materials designed for multiple nanoplatforms will aid researchers in various fields to broaden the scope of biomedical applications. Here, we review the advances in 2D material-based biomedical applications. First, we introduce the classification and properties of 2D materials. Next, we summarize surface and structural engineering methods of 2D materials where we discuss surface functionalization, defect, and strain engineering, and creating heterostructures based on layered materials for biomedical applications. After that, we discuss different biomedical applications. Then, we briefly introduced the emerging role of machine learning (ML) as a technological advancement to boost biomedical platforms. Finally, the current challenges, opportunities, and prospects on 2D materials in biomedical applications are discussed.

Graphical abstract

Hyaluronic acid-modified, IR780-conjugated and doxorubicin-loaded reduced graphene oxide for targeted cancer chemo/photothermal/photodynamic therapy

We used reduced graphene oxide (rGO), which has two times higher photothermal conversion efficiency than graphene oxide (GO), as a photothermal agent for cancer photothermal therapy (PTT). By conjugating a photosensitizer IR780 to rGO, the IR780-rGO could be endowed with reactive oxygen species (ROSs) generation ability for concurrent photodynamic therapy (PDT). The IR780-rGO was coated with hyaluronic acid (HA) by electrostatic interaction to facilitate its intracellular uptake by U87 glioblastoma cells. The IR780-rGO/HA was loaded with doxorubicin (DOX) for chemotherapy (CT), to develop a pH-responsive drug delivery nano-platform for targeted multimodal cancer CT/PTT/PDT. We fully characterized the properties of all nanocomposites during the synthesis steps. The high loading efficiency of DOX on IR780-rGO-HA provides 3 mg/mg drug loading, while IR780-rGO-HA/DOX shows 3 times higher drug release at endosomal pH value (pH 5) than at pH 7.4. The mechanism for PTT/PDT was confirmed from the ability of IR780-rGO-HA to induce time-dependent temperature rise, synthesis of heat shock protein 70 (HSP70) and generation of intracellular ROSs, after exposure to 808 nm near infrared (NIR) laser light. The nano-vehicle IR780-rGO-HA shows high biocompatibility toward 3T3 fibroblast and U87 cancer cell lines, as well as enhanced intracellular uptake by U87 through active targeting. This translates into increased cytotoxicity of IR780-rGO-HA/DOX, by lowering the drug half-maximal inhibitory concentration (IC₅₀) from 0.7 to 0.46 μg/mL. This IC₅₀ is further decreased to 0.1 μg/mL by irradiation with NIR laser for 3 min at 1.5 W/cm². The elevated cancer cell killing mechanism was supported from flow cytometry analysis, where the highest cell apoptosis/necrosis rate was observed in combination CT/PTT/PDT. Using xenograft tumor model created by subcutaneous implantation of U87 cells in nude mice, IR780-rGO-HA/DOX delivered through intravenous (IV) injection and followed with 808 nm laser treatment for 5 min at 1.5 W/cm² results in the lowest tumor growth rate, with negligible change of tumor volume from its original value at the end 20-day observation period. The therapeutic efficacy was supported from inhibited cell proliferation rate, increased cell apoptosis rate, and increased production of HSP70 from immunohistochemical staining of tumor tissue slices. The safety of the NIR-assisted multimodal cancer treatment could be confirmed from non-significant change of body weight and hematological parameters of blood sample. Taken together, we conclude that IV delivery of IR780-rGO-HA/DOX plus NIR laser treatment is an effective nanomedicine approach for combination cancer therapy.

A Review: Potential Application and Outlook of Photothermal Therapy in Oral Cancer Treatment

As one of the most common malignant tumors, oral cancer threatens people's health worldwide. However, traditional therapies, including surgery, radiotherapy, and chemotherapy can't meet the requirement of cancer cure. Photothermal therapy (PTT) has attracted widespread attentions for its advantages of the noninvasive process, few side effects, and promising tumor ablation. Up to now, three types of photothermal agents (PTAs) have been widely employed in oral cancer therapies, which involve metallic materials, carbon-based materials, and organic materials. Previous research mainly introduced hybrid materials due to benefits from the synergistic effect of multiple functions. In this review, we present the advancement of each type PTAs for oral cancer treatment in recent years. In each part, we introduce the properties and synthesis of each PTA, summarize the current studies, and analyze their potential applications. Furthermore, we discuss the status quo and the deficiencies hindering the clinical application of PTT, based on which gives the perspective of its future developing directions.

The potential of Graphene Oxide and reduced Graphene Oxide in diagnosis and treatment of Cancer

Nanotechnology is a pioneer field of study; for engineering smart nanosystems in targeted diagnosis and treatment in cancer therapy. The potent therapy for different kinds of solid tumors should ideally target individually the cancerous cells and tissue with no impact on healthy cells in the body. Nano-sized graphene oxide (GO) and reduced graphene oxide (rGO) have phenomenal chemical versatility, high surface area ratio, and supernatural physical properties. The synergistic effects caused by the well-defined assembly of GO and rGO surface generate not only essential optical, mechanical, but also electronic behaviors. Developing novel multifunctional hybrid nanoparticles with great potential is highly considered in multimodal cancer treatment. GO, and rGO are engineered as a programmable targeting delivery system and combed with photonic energy they utilize in photothermal therapy. Its remarkable properties indicated its applications as a biosensor, bio-imaging for cancer diagnosis. In this current review, we show a remarkable highlight about GO, rGO, and discuss the notable applications for cancer diagnosis and treatment, and an overview of possible cellular signaling pathways that are affected by GO, rGO in cancer treatment.

Rationally Driven Drug Nonradiative Decay via a Label-free Polyprodrug Strategy to Renew Tumor Cascade Photothermal-Chemotherapy

Drugs are frequently used for only chemotherapy that ignores their photophysical properties that potentially endow them with other therapeutic potency. Additionally, current photothermal-chemotherapy replies on the co-delivery of drugs and photothermal agents, but their spatiotemporal delivery and precise release is unsatisfactory. Herein, we report label-free doxorubicin (DOX) polyprodrug nanoparticles (DPNs) formulated from disulfide bonds-tethered DOX polyprodrug amphiphiles (PDMA-b-PDOXM). Benefiting from boosted nonradiative decay of high-density DOX, significant fluorescence quenching and photothermal effect are observed for DPNs without common photothermal agents. Upon cellular uptake and laser irradiation, the heat can promote lysosomal escape of DPNs into reductive cytosol, whereupon free DOX is released to activate chemotherapy and fluorescence, achieving rational cascade photothermal-chemotherapy. Current label-free polyprodrug strategy can make full use of drug, it provides an alternative insight to extend the therapeutic domain of drugs. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.

Dual-Responsive and ROS-Augmented Nanoplatform for Chemo/Photodynamic/Chemodynamic Combination Therapy of Triple Negative Breast Cancer

Integrating chemodynamic therapy (CDT) and photodynamic therapy (PDT) into one nanoplatform can produce much more reactive oxygen species (ROS) for tumor therapy. Nevertheless, it is still a great challenge to selectively generate sufficient ROS in tumor regions. Meanwhile, CDT and PDT are restricted by insufficient H2O2 content in the tumor as well as by the limited tumor tissue penetration of the light source. In this study, a smart pH/ROS-responsive nanoplatform, Fe2+@UCM-BBD, is rationally designed for tumor combination therapy. The acidic microenvironment can induce the pH-responsive release of doxorubicin (DOX), which can induce tumor apoptosis through DNA damage. Beyond that, DOX can promote the production of H2O2, providing sufficient materials for CDT. Of note, upconversion nanoparticles at the core can convert the 980 nm light to red and green light, which are used to activate Ce6 to produce singlet oxygen (1O2) and achieve upconversion luminescence imaging, respectively. Then, the ROS-responsive linker bis-(alkylthio)alkene is cleaved by 1O2, resulting in the release of Fenton reagent (Fe2+) to realize CDT. Taken together, Fe2+@UCM-BBD exhibits on-demand therapeutic reagent release capability, excellent biocompatibility, and remarkable tumor inhibition ability via synergistic chemo/photodynamic/chemodynamic combination therapy.

Electrorheological Fluids of GO/Graphene-Based Nanoplates

Due to their unique anisotropic morphology and properties, graphene-based materials have received extensive attention in the field of smart materials. Recent studies show that graphene-based materials have potential application as a dispersed phase to develop high-performance electrorheological (ER) fluids, a kind of smart suspension whose viscosity and viscoelastic properties can be adjusted by external electric fields. However, pure graphene is not suitable for use as the dispersed phase of ER fluids due to the electric short circuit caused by its high electrical conductivity under electric fields. However, graphene oxide (GO) and graphene-based composites are suitable for use as the dispersed phase of ER fluids and show significantly enhanced property. In this review, we look critically at the latest developments of ER fluids based on GO and graphene-based composites, including their preparation, electrically tunable ER property, and dispersed stability. The mechanism behind enhanced ER property is discussed according to dielectric spectrum analysis. Finally, we also propose the remaining challenges and possible developments for the future outlook in this field.

High Directional Water Transport Graphene Oxide Biphilic Stack

Understanding the nature of water transport in nanoscale is of high importance. Graphene properties such as mass flow rate, stability, filtration efficiency, and selectivity have been studied in various fields. It is a widely held view that the hydrophilicity of graphene oxide enhances the water transport properties. In this study, it is shown that despite this belief, a combination of graphene and graphene oxide can yield superior transport properties including high mass flow rate and directionality. Firstly, different membrane characteristics such as the smallest pore diameter for water molecules sieving and mass flow rate have been evaluated. Furthermore, a combination of graphene and graphene oxide, a biphilic stack of hydrophobic and hydrophilic layers, are used to evaluate the mass flow rates and results are compared with that of normal graphene oxide laminates. The proposed structure acts like a water diode i.e. conduct water molecules in a desired direction and increases the mass flow rate several times. The effect of interatomic potential, oxidation level and charge, and the spacing between layers on both mass flow rate and directionality are examined. It is found that an optimized structure conducts water in a desired direction and increases the mass flow rate up to 10 times for the small interlayer distance of 7 Å compared to the normal graphene oxide laminates. The given structures can be used in a wide range of filtration applications where selective water sieving with high mass flow rate is desired.

Accurate construction of cell membrane biomimetic graphene nanodecoys via purposeful surface engineering to improve screening efficiency of active components of traditional Chinese medicine

Biomimetic nanoengineering presents great potential in biomedical research by integrating cell membrane (CM) with functional nanoparticles. However, preparation of CM biomimetic nanomaterials for custom applications that can avoid the aggregation of nanocarriers while maintaining the biological activity of CM remains a challenge. Herein, a high-performance CM biomimetic graphene nanodecoy was fabricated via purposeful surface engineering, where polyethylene glycol (PEG) was used to modifying magnetic graphene oxide (MGO) to improve its stability in physiological solution, so as to improve the screening efficiency to active components of traditional Chinese medicine (TCM). With this strategy, the constructed PEGylated MGO (PMGO) could keep stable at least 10 days, thus improving the CM coating efficiency. Meanwhile, by taking advantage of the inherent ability of HeLa cell membrane (HM) to interact with specific ligands, HM-camouflaged PMGO showed satisfied adsorption capacity (116.2 mg/g) and selectivity. Finally, three potential active components, byakangelicol, imperatorin, and isoimperatorin, were screened from Angelica dahurica, whose potential antiproliferative activity were further validated by pharmacological studies. These results demonstrated that the purposeful surface engineering is a promising strategy for the design of efficient CM biomimetic nanomaterials, which will promote the development of active components screening in TCM.

Use of graphene-based materials as carriers of bioactive agents

Graphene possesses a large specific surface area, a high Young's modulus, high fracture strength, high electrical conductivity, and excellent optical performance. It has been widely studied for biomedical use since its first appearance in the literature. This article offers an overview of the latest advances in the design of graphene-based materials for delivery of bioactive agents. To enhance the translation of these carriers into practical use, the toxicity involved is needed to be examined in future research in more detail. In addition, guidelines for standardizing experimental conditions during the evaluation of the performance of graphene-based materials are required to be established so that candidates showing higher practical potential can be more effectively identified for further development. This can streamline the optimization and use of graphene-based materials in delivery applications.

Drug Release Kinetics of DOX-Loaded Graphene-Based Nanocarriers for Ovarian and Breast Cancer Therapeutics

Cancer remains one of the leading causes of death worldwide despite extensive efforts at developing curative treatments. Chemotherapy, one of the most common forms of treatment, lacks specificity and can induce collateral damages to healthy surrounding tissues/cells and elicit off-target toxic side effects. The carbon-based nanomaterial graphene, can load aromatic drugs with high efficiency, has good biocompatibility, and can be easily functionalised with targeting ligands, antibodies, and biomolecules to increase the accuracy of targeting specific areas; graphene has therefore been explored as a nanocarrier for classical chemotherapy drugs. In this work, seventeen publications that report the release of doxorubicin (DOX) from 2D graphene-based nanohybrids (graphene oxide and reduced graphene oxide) for the treatment of breast and ovarian cancers have been identified based on a range of inclusion and exclusion criteria. To aid in the clinical translation of proof-of-concept studies, this work identifies the pre-clinical experimental protocols and analyses the release kinetics of these publications. Fifteen of the papers utilised a change in pH as the stimulus for drug release, and two utilised either near infrared (NIR) or ultrasound as the stimulus. The extracted drug release data from these publications were fit to four known kinetic models. It was found that the majority of these data best fit the Weibull kinetic model. The agreement between the kinetic data in previously published literature provides a predictable estimation of DOX release from graphene-based nanocarriers. This study demonstrates the potential conjugation of graphene and DOX in drug delivery applications, and this knowledge can help improve to the design and formulation of future graphene-based nanocarriers. In addition, the use of further experimental testing and the standardisation of experimental protocols will be beneficial for future work. The incorporation of computational modelling prior to pre-clinical testing will also aid in the development of controlled and sustained DOX release systems that offer efficient and efficacious results.

Applications of Pristine and Functionalized Carbon Nanotubes, Graphene, and Graphene Nanoribbons in Biomedicine

This review is dedicated to a comprehensive description of the latest achievements in the chemical functionalization routes and applications of carbon nanomaterials (CNMs), such as carbon nanotubes, graphene, and graphene nanoribbons. The review starts from the description of noncovalent and covalent exohedral modification approaches, as well as an endohedral functionalization method. After that, the methods to improve the functionalities of CNMs are highlighted. These methods include the functionalization for improving the hydrophilicity, biocompatibility, blood circulation time and tumor accumulation, and the cellular uptake and selectivity. The main part of this review includes the description of the applications of functionalized CNMs in bioimaging, drug delivery, and biosensors. Then, the toxicity studies of CNMs are highlighted. Finally, the further directions of the development of the field are presented.

A Four-Step Cascade Drug-Release Management Strategy for Transcatheter Arterial Chemoembolization (TACE) Therapeutic Applications

The purpose of this study was to develop a four-step cascade drug-release system for transcatheter arterial chemoembolization (TACE) therapeutic applications according to disease-driven and patient-focused design theories. The four steps underlying these strategies involve the blockage of nutrient supply, nanoparticles, codelivery and the cell cytotoxic effect. Calibrated spherical gellan gum (GG) and nanoparticle-containing gellan gum microspheres were prepared using a water-in-oil emulsification method. Self-assembled nanoparticles featuring amine-functionalized graphene oxide (AFGO) as the doxorubicin (Dox) carrier were prepared. The results confirm that, as a drug carrier, AFGO–Dox nanoparticles can facilitate the transport of doxorubicin into HepG2 liver cancer cells. Subsequently, AFGO–Dox was introduced into gellan gum (GG) microspheres, thus forming GG/AFGO–Dox microspheres with a mean size of 200–700 μm. After a drug release experiment lasting 28 days, the amount of doxorubicin released from 674 and 226 μm GG/AFGO–Dox microspheres was 2.31 and 1.18 μg/mg, respectively. GG/AFGO–Dox microspheres were applied in a rabbit ear embolization model, where ischemic necrosis was visible on the ear after 12 days. Our aim for the future is to provide better embolization agents for transcatheter arterial chemoembolization (TACE) using this device.