Testosterone and child and adolescent adjustment: the moderating role of parent-child relationships

Neuroendocrine mechanisms in the links between early life stress, affect, and youth substance use: A conceptual model for the study of sex and gender differences

Early life stress (ELS) is defined as an acute or chronic stressor that negatively impacts a child's development. ELS is associated with substance use and mental health problems. This narrative literature review focuses on sex and gender differences in the effects of ELS on 1) adolescent neuroendocrine development; 2) pubertal brain maturation; and 3) development of internalizing symptoms and subsequent substance use. We posit that ELS may generate larger hormonal dysregulation in females than males during puberty, increasing internalizing symptoms and substance use. Future research should consider sex and gender differences in neuroendocrine developmental processes when studying the link between ELS and negative health outcomes.

Role of muscle mass in the association between handgrip strength and blood pressure in children and adolescents

Studies have reported conflicting results on the association between handgrip strength (HGS) and blood pressure during childhood and adolescence. High multicollinearity involving somatic components that influence both HGS and blood pressure might be an important source of bias. This study sought to investigate the independent effects of HGS and muscle mass on blood pressure levels in children and adolescents. Muscle mass and fat mass (Multifrequency Electrical Bioimpedance) and systolic (SBP) and diastolic (DBP) blood pressure (Automatic oscillometric device) were assessed in 833 volunteers aged 6-18 years, of both sexes. Handgrip strength-for-age quartiles were calculated and participants were assigned to groups by HGS quartiles. Analysis of covariance was conducted to address the linear association between HGS and SBP adjusted for height, muscle mass, and fat mass. To test for linear trend, contrast analysis was conducted. Partial eta-squared was used to confirm or rule out a small significant effect of the independent variables on SBP. The effect size of HGS on SBP was not significant in both sexes. In girls, 1.7% of the between-groups variance in SBP was accounted for by muscle mass (P = 0.016). In boys, 2.3% and 1.8% of the between-groups variance in SBP was accounted for by muscle mass (P = 0.001) and height (P = 0.005), respectively. In conclusion, children with a more advanced physical maturity for their age, that is, who are taller, stronger, and have greater fat-free mass, may be nearly reaching the physiological parameters of adulthood, and consequently have higher systolic blood pressure.

Impact of P-Glycoprotein-Mediated Drug-Endogenous Substrate Interactions on Androgen and Blood-Brain Barrier Permeability

This report focuses on pharmacokinetic drug-endogenous substrate interactions (DEIs). We hypothesized that P-glycoprotein (P-gp)-mediated DEI might affect androgen kinetics, especially its blood-brain barrier (BBB) permeability. The intracellular accumulation of the endogenous substrates of P-gp, testosterone (TES) and androstenedione (ADO) was increased by several tested drugs in uptake studies using P-gp overexpressing cells, indicating that these drugs inhibit P-gp-mediated efflux of TES of ADO from the cells. In a transport study using rat BBB kit, we found that the BBB limited the penetration of TES and ADO into the central nervous system. In addition, tested drugs that cause DEI were found to increase BBB permeability of TES and ADO via P-gp inhibition. In short, this study provides new findings regarding the possibility that DEI may affect the kinetics of endogenous substrates of P-gp.

Differential susceptibility to parenting influences on reactive and proactive aggression: The role of testosterone and cortisol in children

This study explored whether cortisol and testosterone moderate the effect of parenting style on children's aggressive behavior, in accordance with the diathesis-stress or differential susceptibility theory; i.e., whether children are vulnerable to negative parenting styles (diathesis-stress) or, in addition to this vulnerability, also benefit more from positive parenting (differential susceptibility). The sample group comprised 279 eight-year-old children (154 boys and 125 girls) from Spain. Aggressive behavior was assessed using the "Reactive and Proactive Questionnaire" (RPQ) and parenting styles were measured using the "Parenting Styles and Dimensions Questionnaire" (PSDQ). Additionally, three saliva samples were collected to measure testosterone and cortisol levels, which were analyzed using ELISA. The results revealed that girls' high testosterone levels moderated the association between mothers' authoritarian parenting style and reactive aggression. This result can be explained by the differential susceptibility model. None of the interactions were statistically significant in boys' proactive aggression. The study emphasizes the importance of investigating biological and social factors that may influence aggressive behavior.

Associations Between Pubertal Stage and Depression: A Systematic Review of the Literature

The current article systematically reviews the literature and provides results from 36 studies testing the relation between pubertal stage and depression, as well as moderators and mediators of this relation. Results indicate that there is a significant relation between advancing pubertal stage and depression among girls, and this effect is strongest among White girls. Among boys, risk for depression does not increase with pubertal stage. Importantly, gonadal development appears to be driving the pubertal stage effect. Increasing hormone concentrations, shared environmental stressors, and body esteem appear to be mechanisms of this relation; increases in nonshared environmental stressors (negative life events, peer victimization) moderate the relation between pubertal stage and depression. Inconsistencies in findings across studies can be explained by methodological differences. Future work on this topic should control for age, examine differences by sex, and utilize within-person analyses to evaluate the effect of pubertal stage on depression over time.

COVID-19 and the Vasculature: Current Aspects and Long-Term Consequences

Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) was first identified in December 2019 as a novel respiratory pathogen and is the causative agent of Corona Virus disease 2019 (COVID-19). Early on during this pandemic, it became apparent that SARS-CoV-2 was not only restricted to infecting the respiratory tract, but the virus was also found in other tissues, including the vasculature. Individuals with underlying pre-existing co-morbidities like diabetes and hypertension have been more prone to develop severe illness and fatal outcomes during COVID-19. In addition, critical clinical observations made in COVID-19 patients include hypercoagulation, cardiomyopathy, heart arrythmia, and endothelial dysfunction, which are indicative for an involvement of the vasculature in COVID-19 pathology. Hence, this review summarizes the impact of SARS-CoV-2 infection on the vasculature and details how the virus promotes (chronic) vascular inflammation. We provide a general overview of SARS-CoV-2, its entry determinant Angiotensin-Converting Enzyme II (ACE2) and the detection of the SARS-CoV-2 in extrapulmonary tissue. Further, we describe the relation between COVID-19 and cardiovascular diseases (CVD) and their impact on the heart and vasculature. Clinical findings on endothelial changes during COVID-19 are reviewed in detail and recent evidence from in vitro studies on the susceptibility of endothelial cells to SARS-CoV-2 infection is discussed. We conclude with current notions on the contribution of cardiovascular events to long term consequences of COVID-19, also known as “Long-COVID-syndrome”. Altogether, our review provides a detailed overview of the current perspectives of COVID-19 and its influence on the vasculature.

Interactions between genetic, prenatal, cortisol, and parenting influences on adolescent substance use and frequency: A TRAILS study

INTRODUCTION

Dynamic relations between genetic, hormone, and pre- and postnatal environments are theorized as critically important for adolescent substance use but are rarely tested in multifactorial models. This study assessed the impact of interactions of genetic risk and cortisol reactivity with prenatal and parenting influences on both any and frequency of adolescent substance use.

METHODS

Data are from the TRacking Adolescents' Individual Lives Survey (TRAILS), a prospective longitudinal, multi-rater study of 2,230 Dutch adolescents. Genetic risk was assessed via 3 substance-specific polygenic scores. Mothers retrospectively reported prenatal risk when adolescents were 11 years old. Adolescents rated their parents' warmth and hostility at age 11. Salivary cortisol reactivity was measured in response to a social stress task at age 16. Adolescents' self-reported cigarette, alcohol, and cannabis use frequency at age 16.

RESULTS

A multivariate hurdle regression model showed that polygenic risk for smoking, alcohol, and cannabis predicted any use of each substance, respectively, but predicted more frequent use only for smoking. Blunted cortisol reactivity predicted any use and more frequent use for all 3 outcomes. There were 2 interactions: blunted cortisol reactivity exacerbated the association of polygenic risk with any smoking and the association of prenatal risk with any alcohol use.

CONCLUSION

Polygenic risk seems of importance for early use but less so for frequency of use, whereas blunted cortisol reactivity was correlated with both. Blunted cortisol reactivity may also catalyze early risks for substance use, though to a limited degree. Gene-environment interactions play no role in the context of this multifactorial model.

Adolescent Big Five personality and pubertal development: Pubertal hormone concentrations and self-reported pubertal status

In early adolescence, levels of conscientiousness and agreeableness have been found to temporarily decrease, with levels of neuroticism increasing, indicating a dip in personality maturation. It is unknown whether these changes are related to the process of puberty, a major developmental milestone with numerous changes for children. Here, we first replicated the dip in personality maturity in early adolescence (N = 2640, age range 8-18, 51% girls, 65% non-Hispanic white, 21% Hispanic/Latino, 10% African American, 9% other, roughly 33% of families received means-tested public assistance) and tested associations between the Big Five personality dimensions and pubertal development and timing across late childhood and adolescence (n = 1793). Pubertal development was measured using both hormonal assays (DHEA, testosterone, and progesterone) and self-reports of secondary sex characteristics. Of hormonal measures, only higher DHEA concentrations were associated with lower conscientiousness and openness. Nonparametric moderation analyses using LOSEM indicated Complex Age × Sex interactions involving all three hormones. Self-reported pubertal development was associated with lower extraversion, conscientiousness, agreeableness, and openness. More advanced pubertal timing was also related to lower levels of extraversion, conscientiousness, and agreeableness. All associations were small. As some evidence was found for small associations between pubertal development and lower levels of conscientiousness and agreeableness, a dip in personality maturation in these personality traits may be partly due to pubertal development in early adolescence. Overall, results did not indicate that pubertal development was the primary explanation of the maturity dip in adolescent personality. Many small influences likely accumulate to explain the dip in personality maturity in early adolescence. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2020 APA, all rights reserved).

Testosterone and hippocampal trajectories mediate relationship of poverty to emotion dysregulation and depression

There is robust evidence that early poverty is associated with poor developmental outcomes, including impaired emotion regulation and depression. However, the specific mechanisms that mediate this risk are less clear. Here we test the hypothesis that one pathway involves hormone mechanisms (testosterone and DHEA) that contribute to disruption of hippocampal brain development, which in turn contributes to perturbed emotion regulation and subsequent risk for depression. To do so, we used data from 167 children participating in the Preschool Depression Study, a longitudinal study that followed children from preschool (ages 3 to 5 y) to late adolescence, and which includes prospective assessments of poverty in preschool, measures of testosterone, DHEA, and hippocampal volume across school age and adolescence, and measures of emotion regulation and depression in adolescence. Using multilevel modeling and linear regression, we found that early poverty predicted shallower increases of testosterone, but not DHEA, across development, which in turn predicted shallower trajectories of hippocampal development. Further, we found that early poverty predicted both impaired emotion regulation and depression. The relationship between early poverty and self-reported depression in adolescence was explained by serial mediation through testosterone to hippocampus to emotion dysregulation. There were no significant interactions with sex. These results provide evidence about a hormonal pathway by which early poverty may contribute to disrupted brain development and risk for mental health problems later in life. Identification of such pathways provide evidence for potential points of intervention that might help mitigate the impact of early adversity on brain development.

Parent-early adolescent relationship quality and problem behavior in Hungary, the Netherlands, India, and Iceland

Higher parent-child relationship quality has been associated with less internalizing and externalizing problem behavior. However, it remained less clear whether these associations are universal or depend on the country under investigation. Furthermore, fathers are still understudied, even though there is increasing evidence of their important role in early adolescent development. Our study compared the association of mother-child as well as father-child relationship quality with early adolescents' problem behavior in four culturally different countries, namely Hungary (N = 293; M_age  = 11.22; 53% boys), the Netherlands (N = 242; M_age  = 11.20; 48% boys), India (N = 230; M_age  = 10.68; 61% boys), and Iceland (N = 261; M_age  = 10.90; 53% boys). Early adolescents filled out questionnaires in their classroom, assessing warmth and conflict with fathers and mothers and internalizing and externalizing problem behavior. Stepwise multi-group path analysis demonstrated no cross-cultural differences in associations between quality of the parent-child relationship and problem behavior. We did not find any effects of maternal or paternal warmth. However, across samples conflict with mothers was associated with more internalizing and externalizing problem behavior, and conflict with fathers was associated with more externalizing problem behavior. Our findings highlight the need to target conflict with both fathers and mothers in interventions across different countries, especially when addressing externalizing problem behavior.

Testosterone and Proactive-Reactive Aggression in Youth: the Moderating Role of Harsh Discipline

This study tests a biosocial model of the link between testosterone and proactive-reactive aggression in youth at varying levels of harsh discipline. Given that proactive aggression is used to gain power and status and the importance of social learning in its formation, we hypothesized that testosterone would be associated with proactive aggression at higher levels of harsh discipline, and that this relationship would be more pronounced in boys than girls. Participants (n = 445; 50% male; M age = 11.92 years; 80% African-American) and their caregivers completed questionnaires including demographics, conflict tactics, and proactive-reactive aggression. Youth also provided a saliva sample for testosterone. Analyses revealed an interaction between testosterone and harsh discipline on proactive aggression in both boys and girls, and an interaction between testosterone and harsh discipline on reactive aggression in boys only. For those experiencing high levels of harsh discipline, testosterone was positively associated with proactive aggression, with the magnitude of the association increasing as harsh discipline increased. For below average levels of harsh discipline, there were protective effects of high testosterone for boy's reactive aggression and for girl's proactive aggression. The findings support basic tenets of the biosocial model which suggest that links between testosterone and aggressive behavior are dependent on contextual forces, highlighting the complex relationship between hormones, social context, and aggression. Novel findings include protective effects of high testosterone for those exposed to low levels of harsh discipline. Findings are discussed in light of the context-contingency effect and also within the differential susceptibility framework.

Parental depression moderates the relationships of cortisol and testosterone with children's symptoms

BACKGROUND

Previous research on the hormone-symptom relationship in children suggests that certain hormone patterns may be associated with symptoms, but only under certain circumstances. Having a parent with a history of depression may be one circumstance under which dysregulated hormone patterns are especially associated with emotional and behavioral symptoms in children. The current study sought to explore these relationships in a community sample of 389 9-year-old children.

METHODS

Children's salivary cortisol and testosterone levels were collected at home over three consecutive days; parental psychiatric histories were assessed using semi-structured diagnostic interviews; and children's internalizing and externalizing symptoms were rated by the child's mother.

RESULTS

Having two parents with a history of depression moderated the associations of reduced total daily cortisol output with higher externalizing scores, as well as the association of reduced testosterone with higher internalizing scores. A maternal history of depression, on the other hand, moderated the relationship between higher cortisol awakening response and higher internalizing scores. Furthermore, lower daily cortisol output was associated with higher internalizing scores among girls, but not boys, with two parents with a history depression.

LIMITATIONS

Limitations include the cross-sectional nature of the current analyses, as well as the limited racial, ethnic, and geographical diversity of the sample.

CONCLUSIONS

Taken together, the current results suggest that the relationship between hormones and internalizing and externalizing symptoms in children may vary as a function of parental depression and child sex, knowledge that may inform intervention efforts aimed at preventing psychopathology in children whose parents have a history of depression.

Effects of mother-offspring and father-offspring dynamics on emerging adults' adjustment: The mediating role of emotion regulation

The present study tested a theoretical model of emotion regulation between parent-offspring dynamics and emerging adults' adjustment. The mediating role of emotion regulation strategies, including cognitive reappraisal and expressive suppression, were investigated for the effects of mother-offspring and father-offspring dynamics on emerging adults' adjustment. A sample of 352 Chinese emerging adults in Hong Kong (230 female, 121 male) participated in this study. Participants were asked to complete a set of self-reported questionnaires. Findings based on structural equation modeling indicated that greater mother-offspring intimacy and father-offspring intimacy predicted emerging adults' better cognitive reappraisal and psychological, social, and general health. Greater mother-offspring conflict also predicted more expressive suppression and poorer psychological and social functioning. Distinctive mediation pathways as a function of parents' gender were identified. These findings enrich the literature for parent-offspring dynamics and emotion regulation as explanatory processes of emerging adults' adjustment.

The Gendered Family Process Model: An Integrative Framework of Gender in the Family

This article reviews and integrates research on gender-related biological, cognitive, and social processes that take place in or between family members, resulting in a newly developed gendered family process (GFP) model. The GFP model serves as a guiding framework for research on gender in the family context, calling for the integration of biological, social, and cognitive factors. Biological factors in the model are prenatal, postnatal, and pubertal androgen levels of children and parents, and genetic effects on parent and child gendered behavior. Social factors are family sex composition (i.e., parent sex, sexual orientation, marriage status, sibling sex composition) and parental gender socialization, such as modeling, gender-differentiated parenting, and gender talk. Cognitive factors are implicit and explicit gender-role cognitions of parents and children. Our review and the GFP model confirm that gender is an important organizer of family processes, but also highlight that much is still unclear about the mechanisms underlying gender-related processes within the family context. Therefore, we stress the need for (1) longitudinal studies that take into account the complex bidirectional relationship between parent and child gendered behavior and cognitions, in which within-family comparisons (comparing behavior of parents toward a boy and a girl in the same family) are made instead of between-family comparisons (comparing parenting between all-boy families and all-girl families, or between mixed-gender families and same-gender families), (2) experimental studies on the influence of testosterone on human gender development, (3) studies examining the interplay between biology with gender socialization and gender-role cognitions in humans.

Linking testosterone and antisocial behavior in at-risk transitional aged youth: Contextual effects of parentification

Parentification refers to parents bestowing adult-like roles on children within families, and studies have linked parentification to individual differences in risk and resilience. The depth of our understanding of the pathways that translate parentification into risk for negative developmental outcomes remains shallow. This study examined whether parentification has a contextual effect moderating the expression of links between testosterone and antisocial behavior. Eighty-three participants (M age = 21.37 years, SD = 1.87; 48% Black; 60% female) were interviewed initially and one year later. Audio Computer Assisted Self-Interview methods were used to measure parentification and antisocial behavior. Saliva was sampled on multiple occasions and later assayed for testosterone. Results revealed, for both sexes, testosterone was positively associated with antisocial behavior at baseline and at follow-up when participants scored low on perceived benefits of parentification. This relationship became weaker as levels of perceived benefits of parentification increased. At the highest levels of perceived benefits of parentification, testosterone and antisocial behavior were inversely related. The findings suggest a potentially important role for perceptions of parentification as a moderator for the expression of hormone-behavior relationships and are discussed in terms of implications for the biosocial model of the family.

Language Brokering and Depressive Symptoms in Mexican-American Adolescents: Parent-Child Alienation and Resilience as Moderators

This study aimed to untangle the mixed effects of language brokering by examining a contextual factor (i.e., parent-child alienation) and a personal attribute (i.e., resilience) that may relate to adolescents' feelings during translating (i.e., sense of burden and efficacy) and that may moderate the association between such feelings and adolescent depressive symptoms. Participants included 557 adolescent language brokers (M_age  = 12.96) in Mexican-American families. Results showed that adolescents with a strong sense of alienation from parents or low resilience (a) experienced more burden or less efficacy in translating and (b) were more susceptible to the detrimental effects of feeling a sense of burden and the beneficial effects of experiencing a sense of efficacy, as measured by depressive symptoms.

Adolescent Personality as Risk and Resiliency in the Testosterone-Externalizing Association

Previous investigations of testosterone and externalizing behavior have provided mixed findings. We tested the hypothesis that self-regulatory personality moderates the testosterone-externalizing behavior association in adolescence. Parents reported on their 13- to 18-year-old (N = 106, M_age = 16.01, SD = 1.29) children's personalities and psychopathology. Testosterone was measured via drool samples. As hypothesized, personality moderated the testosterone-externalizing behavior association. High testosterone predicted higher levels of externalizing behaviors, but only for adolescents low in Agreeableness and Conscientiousness. Also, personality acted as a resiliency factor: high levels of Conscientiousness, in the presence of high testosterone, predicted lower levels of rule breaking. Results highlight how endogenous factors, such as personality, may interact with testosterone, and emphasize the relevance of including personality moderators in future research.

Latent trait testosterone among 18-24 year olds: Methodological considerations and risk associations

The study investigated the relationship between latent trait testosterone (LTT) and risk-taking among 126 youth (M age=21.34years; 56% female; 52% African American). Latent state-trait (LST) modeling isolates observed variance of samples via their correlations into (1) a latent trait testosterone (LTT) factor capturing individual differences, and (2) a component of state testosterone factor (LST) capturing state-specific situational or environmental influences and random error variances. Participants provided four laboratory (20min apart) and four home (waking, 20-min post-waking, noon, evening) salivary samples (later assayed for testosterone). Participants reported risk-taking tendencies and behaviors via an Audio Computer Assisted Self-Interview. Behavioral risk was measured using the Balloon Analog Risk Task. Results revealed: (1) LTT model invariance (operated similarly) for females and males; (2) LTT accounted for 18-89% (home samples) and 61-95% (lab samples) of the variance in testosterone levels, and (3) LTT was associated with risk-seeking behaviors and the strength of this association was similar across males and females. LST Modeling has potential to advance our understanding of testosterone-behavior associations to new limits by estimating stable trait-like components of the variance in testosterone levels.

Diurnal testosterone variability is differentially associated with parenting quality in mothers and fathers

Previous studies on the relation between testosterone (T) levels and parenting have found ample evidence for the challenge hypothesis, demonstrating that high T levels inhibit parental involvement and that becoming a parent is related to a decrease in T levels in both mothers and fathers. However, less is known about the relation between T levels and more qualitative aspects of parenting. In the current study we examined basal T levels and diurnal variability in T levels in relation to mothers' and fathers' parenting quality. Participants included 217 fathers and 124 mothers with two children (3 and 5years of age). Evening and morning salivary T samples were analyzed with radio-immunoassays to determine circulating T levels. Parental sensitivity (i.e., child-centered responsiveness) and respect for children's autonomy were observed during free play in the family home. The results showed that higher evening T levels in mothers were associated with more sensitivity to the oldest and youngest child. Diurnal T variability was more consistently associated with parenting behavior towards their children than basal T levels. For fathers, more diurnal variability in T was associated with more sensitivity and more respect for autonomy with their youngest children. For mothers, more diurnal variability in T was associated with less sensitivity to both children and less respect for the youngest child's autonomy. These findings suggest that the T system might act differently in relation to parenting behavior in males and females.

General Theory versus ENA Theory: Comparing Their Predictive Accuracy and Scope

General theory attributes criminal behavior primarily to low self-control, whereas evolutionary neuroandrogenic (ENA) theory envisions criminality as being a crude form of status-striving promoted by high brain exposure to androgens. General theory predicts that self-control will be negatively correlated with risk-taking, while ENA theory implies that these two variables should actually be positively correlated. According to ENA theory, traits such as pain tolerance and muscularity will be positively associated with risk-taking and criminality while general theory makes no predictions concerning these relationships. Data from Malaysia and the United States are used to test 10 hypotheses derived from one or both of these theories. As predicted by both theories, risk-taking was positively correlated with criminality in both countries. However, contrary to general theory and consistent with ENA theory, the correlation between self-control and risk-taking was positive in both countries. General theory's prediction of an inverse correlation between low self-control and criminality was largely supported by the U.S. data but only weakly supported by the Malaysian data. ENA theory's predictions of positive correlations between pain tolerance, muscularity, and offending were largely confirmed. For the 10 hypotheses tested, ENA theory surpassed general theory in predictive scope and accuracy.

Digit ratio (2D:4D) moderates the relationship between cortisol reactivity and self-reported externalizing behavior in young adolescent males

Although reduced cortisol reactivity to stress and increased circulating testosterone level are hypothesized to be associated with higher levels of externalizing behavior, empirical findings are inconsistent. One factor that may account for the heterogeneity in these relationships is prenatal testosterone exposure. This study examined whether the second-to-fourth digit ratio (2D:4D), a putative marker of prenatal testosterone exposure, moderates the relationships of testosterone and cortisol reactivity with externalizing behavior. Left and right hand 2D:4D and self-reported externalizing behavior were measured in a sample of 353 young adolescents (M age=11.92 years; 178 females; 79.7% African American). Saliva samples were collected before and after a stress task and later assayed for cortisol. Testosterone levels were determined from an AM saliva sample. 2D:4D interacted with cortisol reactivity to predict externalizing behavior in males, but not females. In males, low cortisol reactivity was associated with higher levels of aggression and rule-breaking behavior, but only among subjects with low 2D:4D (i.e., high prenatal testosterone). Findings suggest the importance of a multi-systems approach in which interactions between multiple hormones are taken into account. Furthermore, results demonstrate the importance of considering the organizational influence of prenatal testosterone in order to understand the activational influence of circulating hormones during adolescence.

Parental Knowledge is a Contextual Amplifier of Associations of Pubertal Maturation and Substance Use

Earlier pubertal development and less parental knowledge have been linked to more substance use during adolescence. The present study examines interactions between pubertal timing and tempo and parental knowledge (children's disclosure, parental control, and parental solicitation) for adolescent substance initiation. Data are from a northeastern US-based cohort-sequential study examining 1023 youth (52 % female) semiannually for up to 6 assessments (ages 10.5-19 years). The findings supported the hypothesis that lower knowledge is a contextual amplifier of early timing-substance use associations in girls and later timing/slower tempo-substance use associations in boys, though results varied based on source of knowledge. The findings suggest that prevention efforts may have the greatest impact when targeting families of early developing girls, and later developing boys, and that incorporating a focus on specific sources of knowledge depending on the pubertal maturation profile of the adolescent may prove valuable in prevention/intervention efforts.

Context influences the interplay of endocrine axes across the day

The current investigation examined stressors upon the coupling of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) and hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal (HPG) axes. Emphasis is placed on the moderating role of context and time. One hundred and eighteen adolescent males and females provided up to 32 diurnal saliva samples across a visit to a research lab. This visit constituted a day-long stress through which the impact on HPA-HPG axis coupling could be assessed. We tested four models of HPA-HPG axis coupling across the lab day. Sex and stress hormones operated synchronously (β = .404, p < .001), and the coupling of sex and stress hormones was moderated by the stress of the lab day (β = .010, p = .05). This pattern of co-elevation did not appear to be moderated by the distal experience of early life adversity. Findings suggest that the notion of "stress" must disentangle proximal and distal challenges, each of which appears to impact neurobiological processes.

Genetic and Environmental Contributions to Covariation Between DHEA and Testosterone in Adolescent Twins

Although several studies have shown that pubertal tempo and timing are shaped by genetic and environmental factors, few studies consider to what extent endocrine triggers of puberty are shaped by genetic and environmental factors. Doing so moves the field from examining correlated developmentally-sensitive biomarkers toward understanding what drives those associations. Two puberty related hormones, dehydroepiandrosterone and testosterone, were assayed from salivary samples in 118 MZ (62 % female), 111 same sex DZ (46 % female) and 103 opposite-sex DZ twin pairs, aged 12-16 years (M = 13.1, SD = 1.3). Pubertal status was assessed with a composite of mother- and self-reports. We used biometric models to estimate the genetic and environmental influences on the variance and covariance in testosterone and DHEA, with and without controlling for their association with puberty, and to test for sex differences. In males, the variance in testosterone and pubertal status was due to shared and non-shared environmental factors; variation in DHEA was due to genetic and non-shared environmental factors. In females, variance in testosterone was due to genetic and non-shared environmental factors; genetic, shared, and non-shared environmental factors contributed equally to variation in DHEA. In males, the testosterone-DHEA covariance was primarily due to shared environmental factors that overlapped with puberty as well as shared and non-shared environmental covariation specific to testosterone and DHEA. In females, the testosterone-DHEA covariance was due to genetic factors overlapping with pubertal status, and shared and non-shared environmental covariation specific to testosterone and DHEA.

The importance of puberty for adolescent development: conceptualization and measurement

How and why are teenagers different from children and adults? A key question concerns the ways in which pubertal development shapes psychological changes in adolescence directly through changes to the brain and indirectly through the social environment. Empirical work linking pubertal development to adolescent psychological function draws from several different perspectives, often with varying approaches and a focus on different outcomes and mechanisms. The main themes concern effects of atypical pubertal timing on behavior problems during adolescence, effects of pubertal status (and associated hormones) on normative changes in behaviors that can facilitate or hinder development (especially risk-taking, social reorientation, and stress responsivity), and the role of puberty in triggering psychopathology in vulnerable individuals. There is also interest in understanding the ways in which changes in the brain reflect pubertal processes and underlie psychological development in adolescence. In this chapter, we consider the ways that puberty might affect adolescent psychological development, and why this is of importance to developmentalists. We describe the processes of pubertal development; summarize what is known about pubertal influences on adolescent development; consider the assumptions that underlie most work and the methodological issues that affect the interpretation of results; and propose research directions to help understand paths from puberty to behavior. Throughout, we emphasize the importance of pubertal change in all aspects of psychological development, and the ways in which puberty represents an opportunity to study the interplay of biological and social influences.

Parenting styles and hormone levels as predictors of physical and indirect aggression in boys and girls

This study examines the relationship between parenting style, androgen levels, and measures of physical and indirect aggression. Peer ratings of aggression were obtained from 159 eight-year-old children (89 boys and 70 girls). Parenting styles (authoritative, authoritarian or permissive) were assessed using the Parenting Styles and Dimensions Questionnaire (PSDQ).Saliva samples were obtained from children and assayed for testosterone and androstenedione concentrations. A regression analysis revealed that high testosterone levels were associated with a higher level of physical aggression in boys with authoritarian mothers. Testosterone was also found to moderate the relationship between father's authoritarian parenting and physical aggression in girls, with both moderate and high levels being significant. In relation to indirect aggression, moderate and high levels of testosterone were associated with higher levels of this type of aggression in girls with permissive mothers. Our results highlight the importance of taking into account the interaction of biological and psychosocial variables when investigating aggressive behavior.

Testosterone and its effects on human male adolescent mood and behavior: a systematic review

PURPOSE

During human puberty, there is an approximate 30-fold increase in testosterone production in boys. This increase is often linked to changes in mood and behavior in adolescence such as aggression, an increase in risk taking, and depression. The aim of this systematic review was to determine what evidence exists on the effects of endogenous testosterone on behavior and mood in males during adolescence.

METHODS

The following databases were searched: MEDLINE, Pre-MEDLINE, Education Resources Information Centre, PsycINFO, EMBASE, Scopus, and Web of Science. Only human studies were included. The study is community based, and the participants were healthy male adolescents within the age range of 9-18 years. Studies were required to have a validated mood and/or behavior assessment contemporaneous with a timed testosterone measurement.

RESULTS

A total of 27 studies met the inclusion criteria of which only one was a longitudinal study. The remaining 26 studies were cross sectional in their analysis. As a variety of measurement tools were used, no meta-analysis was possible. Most studies focused on aggression. The one longitudinal study looking at testosterone and aggression showed little relationship with concurrent changes in aggression. Most of the cross-sectional studies of adolescent males observed relationships between aggression and testosterone levels. With respect to other behaviors and moods and/or affect, no consistent relationships with testosterone were observed in cross-sectional studies.

CONCLUSIONS

This systematic review concludes that there are insufficient longitudinal data of high methodological quality to currently confirm that changing testosterone levels during puberty are significantly associated with mood and behavior in adolescent males. To discount these findings is to risk apportioning blame inappropriately and missing other important diagnoses in adolescent males.

Developmental and contextual considerations for adrenal and gonadal hormone functioning during adolescence: Implications for adolescent mental health

Substantial research has implicated the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) and hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal (HPG) axes independently in adolescent mental health problems, though this literature remains largely inconclusive. Given the cross-talk between the HPA and HPG axes and their increased activation in adolescence, a dual-axis approach that examines both axes simultaneously is proposed to predict the emergence and persistence of adolescent mental health problems. After briefly orienting readers to HPA and HPG axis functioning, we review the literature examining associations between hormone levels and changes with behavior during adolescence. Then, we provide a review of the literature supporting examination of both axes simultaneously and present the limited research that has taken a dual-axis approach. We propose future directions including consideration of between-person and within-person approaches to address questions of correlated changes in HPA and HPG hormones. Potential moderators are considered to increase understanding of the nuanced hormone-behavior associations during key developmental transitions.

The effects of saliva collection, handling and storage on salivary testosterone measurement

Several endocrine parameters commonly measured in plasma, such as steroid hormones, can be measured in the oral fluid. However, there are several technical aspects of saliva sampling and processing that can potentially bias the validity of salivary testosterone measurement. The aim of this study was to evaluate the effects caused by repeated sampling; 5 min centrifugation (at 2000, 6000 or 10,000g); the stimulation of saliva flow by a cotton swab soaked in 2% citric acid touching the tongue; different storage times and conditions as well as the impact of blood contamination on salivary testosterone concentration measured using a commercially available ELISA kit. Fresh, unprocessed, unstimulated saliva samples served as a control. Salivary testosterone concentrations were influenced neither by repeated sampling nor by stimulation of salivary flow. Testosterone levels determined in samples stored in various laboratory conditions for time periods up to 1 month did not differ in comparison with controls. For both genders, salivary testosterone levels were substantially reduced after centrifugation (men F=29.1; women F=56.17, p<0.0001). Blood contamination decreased salivary testosterone levels in a dose-dependent manner (men F=6.54, p<0.01, F=5.01, p<0.05). Salivary testosterone can be considered A robust and stable marker. However, saliva processing and blood leakage can introduce bias into measurements of salivary testosterone using ELISA. Our observations should be considered in studies focusing on salivary testosterone.

Within-person coupling of changes in cortisol, testosterone, and DHEA across the day in adolescents

We comprehensively examined within-person and between-person associations between cortisol and DHEA and cortisol and testosterone across the day. Data are from a sample of 213 adolescents aged 11-16 (M = 13.7, SD = 1.5 years) from the Northeastern US who were oversampled for psychopathology symptoms. Six repeated measures of hormone levels across 3 days were used to test three specific questions of cortisol-DHEA and cortisol-testosterone associations within individuals (coupling) across the day, and one question of cortisol-DHEA and cortisol-testosterone diurnal slopes were associated between adolescents. Results consistently revealed positive cortisol-DHEA and cortisol-testosterone coupling across the day, often more pronounced in girls relative to boys. Cortisol and DHEA slopes were positively associated, whereas cortisol and testosterone were negatively associated between-adolescents. Findings suggest multiple mechanisms and highlight the multifaceted nature of associations of hormone changes during adolescence and importance of considering both axes for between- and within-person aspects of neuroendocrine development.

Effects of perinatal testosterone on infant health, mother-infant interactions, and infant development

OBJECTIVE

Many researchers and health care providers have noticed male vulnerability in infant health, mother-infant interactions, and some infant cognitive development, especially among very low birth weight (VLBW) preterm infants. However, factors beyond gender that could explain these observed differences have not been clear. The purpose of this article is to review the literature on the subject and to introduce a conceptual framework relating these factors.

DISCUSSION

According to gender-difference theories, prenatal exposure to high levels of testosterone may influence infant health and mother-infant interactions by negatively affecting infant cognitive/motor/language development. We constructed a conceptual framework based on the associations among biological (perinatal testosterone), stress-related (perinatal and maternal cortisol), and developmental (infant cognitive/motor/language skills) factors. If research establishes these biological, environmental, and developmental associations in mother-VLBW preterm pairs, the results will highlight the importance of addressing gender differences in nursing research and encourage the development of nursing interventions designed to reduce stress among mothers of VLBW preterm infants, particularly male infants.

CONCLUSION

From a psychobiosocial perspective, combining biophysiological factors such as perinatal testosterone and cortisol with socioenvironmental factors such as the quality of mother-infant interactions and infant temperament may provide a broader view of gender differences in infant health and development.

A review on the relationship between testosterone and life-course persistent antisocial behavior

Life-course persistent antisocial behavior is 10 to 14 times more prevalent in males and it has been suggested that testosterone levels could account for this gender bias. Preliminary studies with measures of fetal testosterone find inconsistent associations with antisocial behavior, especially studies that use the 2D:4D ratio as a proxy for fetal testosterone. However, circulating testosterone consistently shows positive associations with antisocial behaviors throughout childhood, adolescence, and adulthood, particularly in males. It is suggested that high fetal/circulating testosterone interactively influence the maturation and functionality of mesolimbic dopaminergic circuitry, right orbitofrontal cortex, and cortico-subcortical connectivity, resulting in a strong reward motivation, low social sensitivity, and dampened regulation of strong motivational/emotional processes. The link between these testosterone induced endophenotypes and actual display of antisocial behavior is strongly modulated by different social (e.g., social rejection, low SES) and genetic (e.g., MAOA, 5HTT) risk factors that can disturb socio-, psycho-, and biological development and interact with testosterone in shaping behavior. When these additional risk factors are present, the testosterone induced endophenotypes may increase the risk for a chronic antisocial lifestyle. However, behavioral endophenotypes induced by testosterone can also predispose towards socially adaptive traits such as a strong achievement motivation, leadership, fair bargaining behaviors, and social assertiveness. These adaptive traits are more likely to emerge when the high testosterone individual has positive social experiences that promote prosocial behaviors such as strong and secure attachments with his caregivers, affiliation with prosocial peers, and sufficient socioeconomic resources. A theoretical model is presented, various hypotheses are examined, and future venues for research are discussed.

Biosocial processes predicting multisystemic therapy treatment response

This study examined biological (testosterone) and social (deviant peer affiliation) factors early in treatment as predictors of treatment outcome among adolescent boys receiving Multisystemic Therapy (MST) in community settings. Outcome variables included changes in youth aggression and delinquency as reported by the primary caregiver. Testosterone and deviant peer affiliation were assessed at treatment onset; and outcome variables (aggression and delinquency) were assessed at treatment onset, mid-treatment and end-of-treatment. Participants were 112 adolescent boys (M age=15.42, SD=1.31) and their caregivers. Growth curve analyses revealed that the combination of high testosterone and high deviant peer affiliation early in treatment were significantly associated with less of a decline in aggression and delinquency over the course of treatment. Results provide novel evidence for the role of testosterone in the prediction of future externalizing behaviors. Clinical and theoretical implications are discussed.

Association between pubertal development and depressive symptoms in girls from a UK cohort

BACKGROUND

It is unclear whether pubertal status or timing of puberty explains the increase in depressive symptoms in girls during adolescence.

METHOD

This is a longitudinal study based on 2506 girls from the Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children (ALSPAC). Self-reported depressive symptoms at 10.5, 13 and 14 years were assessed using the Short Mood and Feelings Questionnaire (SMFQ). Pubertal status (Tanner breast and pubic hair stage) and timing of menarche were derived from questionnaires administered from age 8 to 14 years. We used multivariable regression models to examine the relative contributions of pubertal status and timing in accounting for increases in level of depressive symptoms at 14 years.

RESULTS

With increasing age, the association between breast development and depressive symptoms strengthened. Pubertal status (breast stage), rather than timing of menarche, was independently associated with depressive symptoms at 14 years. There was strong evidence for a linear relationship between breast stage and depressive symptoms at 14 years [increase in 0.17 S.D. (range 0.10-0.24) of depressive symptoms for advancement of each breast stage].

CONCLUSIONS

Depressive symptoms in mid-adolescence were more strongly influenced by breast stage than timing of menarche. This could imply that the female rise in depression during adolescence is due to increasing estrogen levels, and might explain why the gender difference in rates of depression emerges at this stage. Future research should be aimed at identifying the mechanism of action of pubertal change, including direct effects of pubertal hormones and indirect effects mediated by psychosocial factors.

Incorporating salivary biomarkers into nursing research: an overview and review of best practices

Analytes and biomarkers present in saliva may provide insight into individual differences in environmental chemical exposures, variation in reproductive hormones, therapeutic and illegal substance use, changes in stress-related physiology, and the immunologic footprints of infectious disease. The wealth of information provided by salivary analytes has the potential to enrich biobehavioral nursing research by enabling researchers to measure these individual differences in the clinic as well as in patients' and participants' everyday social worlds. In this article, the authors provide a roadmap for researchers new to this area who would like to learn more about integrating salivary biospecimens into the next generation of health research. In addition, the authors highlight best practices and strategies to avoid common pitfalls for researchers already engaged in this field.

Associations between salivary testosterone and cortisol levels and neonatal health and growth outcomes

OBJECTIVES

Male vulnerability in health and growth outcomes has often been reported in very low birth weight (VLBW) preterm neonates. On the basis of gender-difference theories, possible associations were explored between the levels of postnatal salivary testosterone/cortisol and the outcomes of neonatal health/growth.

METHODS

This study used an exploratory and comparative research design. One-hundred-one mother-VLBW preterm neonate pairs were recruited from the neonatal intensive care unit (NICU) of a tertiary medical center in the Southeastern, US. Demographic information, health and growth variables of neonates, and pregnancy and labor variables of mothers were obtained from the medical record reviews and interviews of mothers. Saliva samples from each pair were collected between 9 and 60 days of age. The levels of testosterone and cortisol were determined by using an enzyme immunoassay methodology.

RESULTS

Linear regression analysis showed that neonatal health problems were positively associated with the levels of postnatal salivary testosterone and cortisol, while growth delays were positively associated with the levels of postnatal salivary testosterone after adjusting for the characteristics of neonates and mothers and day of saliva sampling. The salivary levels of testosterone and cortisol were higher in neonates than in mothers. A positive correlation between the levels of testosterone and cortisol was found in neonates and in mothers.

CONCLUSIONS

The level of postnatal salivary testosterone is a more reliable marker in assessing neonatal health and growth outcomes compared to salivary cortisol. Further research on both testosterone and cortisol measurements at various stages during the neonatal period may elucidate further these associations.

Stress and puberty-related hormone reactivity, negative emotionality, and parent--adolescent relationships

Hormone reactivity to stressors and hormones that rapidly change at puberty are hypothesized to influence moods, which may in turn affect parent-child relationship quality. The present study investigated whether reactivity of testosterone, DHEA, and cortisol in a clinic setting (venipuncture paradigm) predicted negative emotionality and family problems at Time 1 (0 months), Time 2 (6 months), and Time 3 (12 months) in a sample of 56 boys (M = 12.72, SD = 1.32 years) and 52 girls (M = 11.99, SD = 1.55 years). Reactivity of each hormone, negative emotionality, and family problems were measured at each of three laboratory visits. Testosterone reactivity at the first assessment predicted family problems one year later. DHEA stress reactivity was related to concurrent negative emotionality at six and 12 months. Cortisol reactivity did not predict negative emotionality or family problems. Reactivity of different hormones that change at puberty may play an important role in adolescent moods and family processes during puberty.

The dominance behavioral system and psychopathology: evidence from self-report, observational, and biological studies

The dominance behavioral system (DBS) can be conceptualized as a biologically based system that guides dominance motivation, dominant and subordinate behavior, and responsivity to perceptions of power and subordination. A growing body of research suggests that problems with the DBS are evident across a broad range of psychopathologies. We begin by describing psychological, social, and biological correlates of the DBS. Extensive research suggests that externalizing disorders, mania proneness, and narcissistic traits are related to heightened dominance motivation and behaviors. Mania and narcissistic traits also appear related to inflated self-perceptions of power. Anxiety and depression are related to subordination and submissiveness, as well as a desire to avoid subordination. Models of the DBS have received support from research with humans and animals; from self-report, observational, and biological methods; and use of naturalistic and experimental paradigms. Limitations of available research include the relative lack of longitudinal studies using multiple measures of the DBS and the absence of relevant studies using diagnosed samples to study narcissistic personality disorder and bipolar disorder. We provide suggestions for future research on the DBS and psychopathology, including investigations of the potential usefulness of DBS in differentiating specific disorder outcomes, the need for more sophisticated biological research, and the value of longitudinal dynamical research. Implications of using the DBS as a tool in clinical assessment and treatment are discussed.

Parental bonding in males with adjustment disorder and hyperventilation syndrome

BACKGROUND

The purpose of the study was to identify the style of parental bonding and the personality characteristics that might increase the risk of hyperventilation and adjustment disorder.

METHODS

A total of 917 males were recruited, 156 with adjustment disorder and hyperventilation syndrome (AD + HY), 273 with adjustment disorder without hyperventilation syndrome (AD-HY), and 488 healthy controls. All participants completed the Parental Bonding Instrument, Eysenck Personality Questionnaire, and Chinese Health Questionnaire.

RESULTS

Analysis using structural equation models identified a pathway relationship in which parental bonding affected personality characteristics, personality characteristics affected mental health condition, and mental health condition affected the development of hyperventilation or adjustment disorder. Males with AD-HY perceived less paternal care, and those with AD + HY perceived more maternal protection than those with adjustment disorder and those in the control group. Participants with AD-HY were more neurotic and less extroverted than those with AD + HY. Both groups showed poorer mental health than the controls.

CONCLUSIONS

Although some patients with hyperventilation syndrome demonstrated symptoms of adjustment disorder, there were different predisposing factors between the two groups in terms of parental bonding and personality characteristics. This finding is important for the early intervention and prevention of hyperventilation and adjustment disorder.

A review on the relationship between testosterone and the interpersonal/affective facet of psychopathy

Testosterone (T) has received increasing interest in the recent years as a probable biological determinant in the etiology of male-biased clinical conditions such as psychopathy (i.e. psychopathy is more prevalent in men and leads to an earlier onset and more severe expression of antisocial and aggressive behavior in men compared to women). In this review, the authors evaluated the potential relationship between T and different constructs closely related to the core characteristics of psychopathy (affective empathy, fear-reactivity, and instrumental aggression). After a thorough examination of the literature, it is concluded that high T exposure in utero and high circulating T levels throughout important life phases (most notably adolescence) or in response to social challenges (e.g. social stress, competition) could be an important etiological risk factor in the emergence of psychopathic behavior. Nevertheless, studies consistently indicate that high T is not related to a significantly reduced fear-reactivity and is only indirectly associated with the increased levels of instrumental aggression observed in psychopathic individuals. Therefore, psychopathy is likely to arise from an interaction between high T levels and other biological and socio-psychological risk factors, such as a constitutionally based dampened fear-reactivity, insecure/disordered attachment processes in childhood, and social discrimination/rejection in adolescence and/or adulthood.

Behavioral aggressiveness in boys with sexual precocity

BACKGROUND

Some boys with sexual precocity are known to have behavioral problems like increased physical and verbal aggression and school and social maladjustments. It is believed to be due to premature androgen exposure. However, it is not clear why only some develop this problem, difference in etiology could be one explanation.

AIM

The aim of the study is to assess behavioral aggression in boys with sexual precocity due to different disorders.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Seven children, ages three to seven years, were enrolled for this study. Two were diagnosed to have congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH), three had testotoxicosis, while two had central precocious puberty. Parents of children with precocious puberty underwent the (CASP) questionnaire (children's aggression scale-parent version).

RESULTS

Testosterone levels were high in all patients. Parents denied any history of physical or verbal aggression in the two boys with CAH. Their CASP rating was 0. In contrast, the CASP ratings in the two boys with testotoxicosis and the two with precocious puberty for five domains ranged from 3.1 - 24.2, 2.6 - 8.3,1-5.6,0 - 7.1, and 0 - 1, respectively. In the present study, increased aggression was seen among all the patients with testotoxicosis and both with precocious puberty. In contrast, there were no symptoms of either increased verbal or physical aggression in either of the two patients with CAH.

CONCLUSIONS

The hormonal milieu in the boys with CAH versus those with sexual precocity due to other causes differed in terms of cortisol and androgen precursors. The androgen excess in CAH children was a consequence of cortisol deficiency. It is possible that cortisol sufficiency is required for androgen-mediated behavioral effects.

Focus on methodology: salivary bioscience and research on adolescence: an integrated perspective

The characterization of the salivary proteome and advances in biotechnology create an opportunity for developmental scientists to measure multi-level components of biological systems in oral fluids and identify relationships with developmental processes and behavioral and social forces. The implications for developmental science are profound because from a single oral fluid specimen, information can be obtained about a broad array of biological systems and the genetic polymorphisms related to their function. The purpose of this review is to provide a conceptual and tactical roadmap for investigators interested in integrating these measurement tools into research on adolescent health and development.