Race and self-esteem: meta-analyses comparing whites, blacks, Hispanics, Asians, and American Indians and comment on Gray-Little and Hafdahl (2000)

Self-Esteem in Adults With ADHD Using the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale: A Systematic Review

OBJECTIVE

To summarize and analyze recent articles investigating self-esteem in adults with ADHD, focusing on the impact of demographic and clinical characteristics, and methodological issues.

METHOD

Following PRISMA guidelines, a systematic search for literature published between 2010 and 2022 was conducted in the Web of Science, Ovid, Pubmed, and EBSCO databases.

RESULTS

Eleven studies met inclusion criteria. Five of the six studies including healthy controls reported lower self-esteem in participants with ADHD. ADHD symptoms correlated negatively with self-esteem. Gender differences were not observed. Self-esteem mediated several outcomes associated with ADHD. There was a lack of studies that examined potential mechanisms behind the reduced self-esteem, and studies controlling for confounding variables.

CONCLUSION

A robust association between ADHD and low self-esteem in adults emerged, but the lack of control of confounding variables is critical to consider when interpreting the findings. Longitudinal studies addressing the limitations of the current studies are needed.

Disparities in the impact of economic well-being on self-esteem in adulthood: Race and ethnicity

BACKGROUND

Most studies have defined economic well-being as socioeconomic status, with little attention given to whether other indicators influence self-esteem. Little is known about racial/ethnic disparities in the relationship between economic well-being and self-esteem during adulthood.

AIM

To explore the impact of economic well-being on self-esteem in adulthood and differences in the association across race/ethnicity.

METHODS

The current study used data from the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth 1979. The final sample consisted of 2267 African Americans, 1425 Hispanics, and 3678 non-Hispanic Whites. Ordinary linear regression analyses and logistic regression analyses were conducted.

RESULTS

African Americans and Hispanics were more likely to be in poverty in comparison with non-Hispanic Whites. More African Americans were unemployed than Whites. Those who received fringe benefits, were more satisfied with jobs, and were employed were more likely to have higher levels of self-esteem. Poverty was negatively associated with self-esteem. Interaction effects were found between African Americans and job satisfaction predicting self-esteem.

CONCLUSION

The role of employers is important in cultivating employees' self-esteem. Satisfactory outcomes or feelings of happiness from the workplace may be more important to non-Hispanic Whites compared to African Americans and Hispanics.

The Mediating Role of Self-Esteem in the Relationship Between Perceived Ethnic Discrimination and Continuance Commitment of Migrant Workers

This study aims to examine the relationship between perceived ethnic discrimination by migrant workers (applicants for international protection) and continuance commitment, and to analyze whether this relationship is mediated by self-esteem. In addition, it aims to contribute to the literature on the organizational outcomes of perceived ethnic discrimination. This research was conducted through a questionnaire survey of 411 migrants who applied for international protection in Turkey. As a result of the study, perceived ethnic discrimination was found to be a predictor of continuance commitment and self-esteem. In addition, it was observed that self-esteem has a mediating role in the relationship between perceived ethnic discrimination and continuance commitment. The results offer important implications for organizations and organization managers on how migrant workers should be managed and which issues require specific attention. The application of the study on migrant workers and the examination of these variables provide important contributions and practical implications to the literature. In addition, this is a rare study that examines the mediator model with the variables specified in the model using social identity theory, which has not yet been widely covered in existing literature.

Revisiting the Black-White Mental Health Paradox During the Coronavirus Pandemic

Black Americans have lower rates of depression and anxiety than Whites, despite greater exposure to stressors known to negatively impact mental health, characterized as the Black-White mental health paradox. This study revisited the paradox during the coronavirus pandemic. Drawing on stress process theory, minority stress theory, and the rejection-identification model of discrimination, in-group identity, and well-being, we analyzed original survey data from a quota sample of African American and White adults (N = 594). The survey included a range of stressors and coping resources, including those relevant to the pandemic (e.g., COVID-19 illness) and race (e.g., witnessing anti-Black police violence). Results indicate that despite African Americans' greater exposure and vulnerability to racial discrimination, the Black-White mental health paradox holds, owing in part to protective effects of African American's higher self-esteem. Directions for future exploration of the paradox are presented based on this study's findings.

Perceived Discrimination as a Critical Factor Affecting Self-Esteem, Satisfaction with Physical Appearance and Depression of Racial/Ethnic Minority Adolescents in Korea

The effect of perceived discrimination on adolescents' developmental outcome has long been a topic of research, however, little is known about how it affects their depression especially among the racial/ethnic minority adolescents in Asian countries. In Korea, a country with a relatively short history of immigrant influx, discrimination has become an important social issue affecting a rapidly growing population. This study examines the impact of perceived discrimination on racial/ethnic minority adolescents in Korea, specifically focusing on its impact on depression through self-esteem and satisfaction with physical appearance. The Multicultural Adolescents Panel Study data were used for analyses, and the SPSS Process Macro program was used to test the parallel mediating effects of self-esteem and satisfaction with physical appearance. The findings show that perceived discrimination was a strong predictor of their depression. Self-esteem and satisfaction with physical appearance also had significant mediating effect. There were no distinct gender differences among paths though the male adolescents were found to have more discriminatory experiences than the female adolescents. The findings call for the development of healthy coping strategies for these adolescents to prevent the effect of perceived discrimination, not only for their mental health, but also with their self-perception including physical appearance.

Surviving While Black: Systemic Racism and Psychological Resilience

This autobiographical essay traces my personal journey from grandson of a slave to a cultural psychologist examining racism. My journey includes growing up in a small Ohio town, training in social psychology, and an academic career that was launched with the publication of Prejudice and Racism in 1972. I weave my personal experiences with my analytical approach to racism that incorporates individual, institutional, and cultural factors that combine to explain systemic racism. The racism analysis is balanced by a narrative of mechanisms that confer resilience and psychological well-being on Black people as they navigate the obstacles of systemic racism. I also explore diversity as a form of psychological and behavioral competence required to live effectively in a diverse world. I conclude that these aspects of human relations can be better understood and addressed with advancement of diversity science.

Association between maternal psychological factors and offspring executive function: analysis of African-American mother-child dyads

BACKGROUND

Executive function (EF) develops throughout childhood and adolescence; however, little is known about whether and how early life factors are associated with EF during these two stages. This secondary analysis examined the associations between maternal psychological characteristics at 2 years after childbirth and offspring EF at 6 and 18 years.

METHODS

Data were from the 18-year New Mothers' Study in Memphis, TN. Women who self-identified as African-American were included (mother-child dyads: N = 414). Maternal psychological characteristics (e.g., depressive symptoms, self-esteem) were assessed using standardized questionnaires; offspring EF at 6 (i.e., working memory, response inhibition) and 18 years (e.g., working memory, sustained attention) were assessed using age-appropriate cognitive tasks. Statistical analyses included principal component analysis (PCA) and regression models.

RESULTS

PCA reduced the correlated psychological characteristics to two factors: emotionality (depressive symptoms, emotional instability) and psychological resources (self-esteem, mastery, active coping). After controlling for maternal IQ, maternal emotionality was associated with worse working memory and response inhibition (marginally significant) at 6 years. Maternal psychological resources were marginally associated with better working memory at 6 years.

CONCLUSIONS

Maternal psychological characteristics may be associated with later EF in offspring. Future studies are needed to replicate these findings and to explore potential mediators.

IMPACT

African-American mothers' depressive symptoms and emotional instability at 2 years after childbirth were associated with offspring executive function at 6 and 18 years. African-American mothers' psychological resources at 2 years after childbirth were marginally associated with offspring working memory at 6 years. Maternal IQ attenuated all of the associations observed between maternal psychological status and offspring executive function.

Challenging oppression: A social identity model of stigma resistance in higher-weight individuals

Many higher-weight individuals have internalised societal weight stigma, devaluing themselves because of their weight. Rejecting and challenging societal devaluation is generally associated with superior outcomes compared with stigma internalisation or inaction; however, stigma resistance has not been studied in higher-weight individuals, despite ubiquitous weight stigma in daily life. Applying a social identity framework, we utilised decision tree analysis to explore predictors of responses to weight stigma in 931 self-classified higher-weight individuals. While ingroup identification with the group 'Fat' was the major predictor of stigma resistance (versus internalisation), perceived illegitimacy of societal weight stigma defined a subgroup of resisters even in the absence of group identity. Interventions focusing on the illegitimacy of unequal social status and treatment may be effective at reducing internalisation and fostering resistance in a population with characteristically low ingroup identity.

Do Positive Psychological Factors Equally Predict Resistance to Upper Respiratory Infections in African and European Americans?

Research has consistently shown that positive psychological constructs are linked to better physical health, but few studies have examined the role that race plays in this connection. We explored whether positive self-evaluations were equally protective against upper respiratory infection for 271 African American adults and 700 European American adults in a series of virus-exposure studies. Participants were assessed at baseline for psychological functioning and physical health, quarantined and exposed experimentally to a respiratory virus, and then monitored for infection and symptoms. Regression analyses revealed significant interactions between race and multiple positive psychological factors; several factors that were helpful to European Americans were unhelpful or even harmful to African Americans. Building on past work showing cross-cultural variation in the health correlates of affect, this study provides evidence that the health benefits of positive psychological constructs may not be universal and points to the need to explore factors that underpin these observed differential patterns.

The Clinical Relevance of a Socioecological Conceptualization of Self-Worth

Low self-worth pervades discussions of psychopathology, is a central feature of many psychiatric disorders, and appears in conceptions of psychological distress in a range of cultural contexts . Explication of this aspect of self-evaluation offers clinical utility especially when adequate attention is paid to social and cultural aspects of the self. In this paper, we propose that refining the conceptualization of self-worth as felt perceptions of one’s mattering and deservingness of equity and psychological, social, and material resources offers a unique clinical utility. We present an argument for this definition of self-worth, building on existing literature, as a relativistic construct informed and reinforced by dynamic feedback from intrapersonal, interpersonal, sociocultural, and structural socioecological levels. To highlight that self-worth has been an implied but under-examined concept, we follow with a selective review of psychological and sociological perspectives of self-esteem and related constructs. We conclude with a discussion of our conceptualization’s implications for measurement and treatment, including the potential transdiagnostic utility of self-worth.

Immediate and delayed psychological effects of province-wide lockdown and personal quarantine during the COVID-19 outbreak in China

BACKGROUND

The COVID-19 pandemic has greatly affected public health and wellbeing. In response to the pandemic threat of the coronavirus epidemic, several countries, including China, adopted lockdown and quarantine policies, which may cause psychological distress. This study aimed to explore the psychological impact of province-wide lockdown and personal quarantine during the COVID-19 outbreak in China as well as the corresponding risk factors and protective factors.

METHODS

We examined the immediate (2-week) and delayed (2-month) impact of province-wide lockdown and personal quarantine on psychological distress in a national sample of 1390 Chinese residents.

RESULTS

No immediate impact of province-wide lockdown on psychological distress was observed, whereas personal quarantine increased individuals' anxiety, fear, and anger. Despite the lack of initial association, psychological distress increased among those in province-wide lockdown. Self-stigma and personal control both significantly moderated the association between lockdown and psychological distress, but in different directions. Those with higher self-stigma and lower personal control were more impacted by the lockdown. Government support moderated the impact of quarantine on psychological distress, but not that of lockdown.

CONCLUSIONS

The delayed effects of lockdown and quarantine on psychological distress were observed, and self-stigma, social support, and perceived control moderate the relationships. This study is the first to demonstrate the psychological costs of province-wide lockdowns on individuals' mental health, providing evidence of the need for mitigation strategies and timely public mental health preparedness in countries with recent outbreaks of COVID-19.

Prevalence and predictors of symptoms of Perinatal Mood and anxiety Disorders among a sample of Urban Black Women in the South

OBJECTIVES

Data are scarce regarding the prevalence and predictors of perinatal mood and anxiety disorders (PMADs) among Black women. The purpose of this study was to examine the prevalence and predictors of symptoms of PMADS among Black women.

METHODS

Black women completed a paper survey between August 2019 and October 2019. Binomial logistic regression was employed to examine predictors of PMAD symptoms.

RESULTS

The prevalence of symptoms of PMADs was 56%. A higher proportion of women with PMADs had experienced depression (16% vs. 32%, p = 0.006); physical (18% vs. 31%, p = 0.030), emotional (35% vs. 61%, p = 0.000), or sexual abuse (12% vs. 29%, p = 0.002); and symptoms of depression or anxiety before pregnancy (18% vs. 46%, p = 0.000). After adjusting for socio-demographics in multivariate analysis, experiencing symptoms of depression or anxiety before pregnancy (adjusted odds ratio [aOR] = 3.445, p = 0.001) was positively associated with experiencing symptoms of PMADs, whereas higher levels of self-esteem (aOR = 0.837, p = 0.000) were negatively associated with experiencing symptoms of perinatal mood and anxiety disorders.

CONCLUSIONS FOR PRACTICE

The prevalence of PMAD symptoms among this sample of Black women was alarmingly high. Women who experienced PMADs were more likely to report adverse childhood experiences (e.g., physical, emotional, and/or sexual abuse). By understanding the prevalence of PMADs and the factors associated with these disorders, healthcare professionals can improve diagnosis and treatment rates among this understudied and underserved population.

Do Racial Differences in Coping Resources Explain the Black-White Paradox in Mental Health? A Test of Multiple Mechanisms

A central paradox in the mental health literature is the tendency for black Americans to report similar or better mental health than white Americans despite experiencing greater stress exposure. However, black Americans' higher levels of certain coping resources may explain this finding. Using data from the Nashville Stress and Health Study (n = 1,186), we examine whether black Americans have higher levels of self-esteem, social support, religious attendance, and divine control than white Americans and whether these resources, in turn, explain the black-white paradox in mental health. In adjusted models, the black-white paradox holds for depressive symptoms and any DSM-IV disorder. Findings indicate that black Americans have higher levels of self-esteem, family social support, and religiosity than white Americans. Causal mediation techniques reveal that self-esteem has the largest effect in explaining black-white differences in depressive symptoms, whereas divine control has the largest effect in explaining differences in disorder.

Role of discrimination and resilience on birth weight: A systematic examination in a sample of Black, Latina, and White women

Introduction:

Health inequities begin before birth with Black women being more likely to have low birth weight babies than White and Latina women. Although both Latina and Black women experience discrimination, only Black women appear to be affected.

Methods:

In this study using medical records and face-to-face interviews, we systematically examined the role of discrimination (daily, environmental, vicarious) on continuous birth weight (controlling for gestational age and baby’s gender) in a sample of 329 Black, Latina, and White pregnant women, as well as whether familism, prayer, and/or discrimination attribution buffered this association.

Results:

Linear regression analyses revealed that only prayer acted as a resilience factor, with Latina women appearing to benefit from prayer in the link between vicarious and daily discrimination on birth weight conditional on gestational age, whereas Black women showed no moderation and White women showed an exacerbation in the link.

Discussion:

The results of this study suggest that sociocultural norms may play a role in explaining the Latina epidemiological paradox, but more research is needed to understand the significance.

Associations between weight status, body satisfaction, ethnic identity and self-esteem in Oceanian adolescents

BACKGROUND

Self-esteem has consistently been observed to be relatively low in adolescents with obesity. In the Pacific region, the prevalence of obesity in adolescence is high, but few studies have considered issues of self-esteem in this population.

OBJECTIVE

To examine associations between weight status, body dissatisfaction and self-esteem in a sample of New Caledonian adolescents and to test for moderation effects of ethnicity on predictors of self-esteem.

METHODS

Objective anthropometric measures (height, weight, waist circumference and thickness of skinfolds) were obtained in a multi-ethnic sample of New Caledonian adolescents. Body mass index (BMI), waist-to-height ratio and the sum of four skinfolds thickness were used as proxies of weight status. Indices of ethnic identity, self-esteem, socio-demographic data (socioeconomic status, ethnicity, gender, urbanicity of residence) and body dissatisfaction were obtained using survey methods.

RESULTS

Between-group analyses indicated that adolescents of European/white origin had significantly higher self-esteem than adolescents with Oceanian Non-European Non-Asian ancestry (ONENA). However, low self-esteem was significantly associated with weight status and body dissatisfactions in European/white adolescents but not ONENA adolescents. Ethnicity moderated the relationships of predictors (BMI z-score, body dissatisfaction, age, urbanicity and ethnic identity) on self-esteem, and the strongest predictors of self-esteem were ethnicity and ethnic identity.

CONCLUSIONS

While self-esteem has important consequences for adolescent well-being and health outcomes, these results highlight the importance of applying different steps to develop and maintain healthy self-esteem in the Pacific region.

Mass quarantine and mental health during COVID-19: A meta-analysis

To reveal the complex relationships between quarantine and mental health during COVID-19, a meta-analysis was conducted involving 34 articles and a total sample size of 134,061. As the relationship between quarantine and mental health was found to be affected by the sampling objects and national factors, a random-effects model was applied for the meta-analysis. First, a heterogeneity test and sensitivity analysis were conducted to determine whether there was heterogeneity in the samples, after which a funnel chart, Rosenthal's Classic Fail-safe N test and Egger's test were applied to further determine whether there was publication bias in the included samples. Finally, a sub-group test was used to explore whether the sampling group and the country of origin had a moderating effect on the relationship between quarantine and mental health, which revealed that the relationship between quarantine and mental health was regulated and influenced by the sampled objects but was not affected by the country categories. The results indicated that: COVID-19 quarantine had varying impacts on individual anxiety, depression, and psychological stress; different groups had different regulatory effects on the relationship between quarantine and mental health; and country of origin had no moderating effect on quarantine and psychology.

BACKGROUND

COVID-19 is the most important topic in 2020, and mass quarantine is the measures for pandemic prevention and control around the world since 2020. To explore the relationships between mass quarantine and mental health during COVID-19, a meta-analysis was conducted involving 28 articles and a total sample size of 134,061.

METHOD

As the relationship between mass quarantine and mental health was found to be affected by the sampling objects and national factors, a random-effects model was applied for the meta-analysis. First, a heterogeneity test and sensitivity analysis were conducted to determine whether there was heterogeneity in the samples, after which a funnel chart, Rosenthal's Classic Fail-safe N test and Egger's test were applied to further determine whether there was publication bias in the included samples. Finally, a sub-group test was used to explore whether the sampling group and the country of origin had a moderating effect on the relationship between mass quarantine and mental health.

RESULTS

COVID-19 quarantine had varying impacts on individual anxiety, depression, and psychological stress; different groups had different regulatory effects on the relationship between quarantine and mental health; and country of origin had no moderating effect on quarantine and mental health.

CONCLUSIONS

This study employed a meta-analysis to examine the relationships between the COVID-19 pandemic mass quarantine measures and mental health factors such as anxiety, depression and stress, from which it was found that influence of quarantine on anxiety was stronger, the relationship between quarantine and mental health was affected by the sampled object, and there was no significant relationship between quarantine and country of origin in the sample population.

Identity Selection and the Social Construction of Birthdays

We argue that rather than being a wholly random event, birthdays are sometimes selected by parents. We further argue that such effects have changed over time and are the result of important psychological processes. Long ago, U.S. American parents greatly overclaimed holidays as their children's birthdays. These effects were larger for more important holidays, and they grew smaller as births moved to hospitals and became officially documented. These effects were exaggerated for ethnic groups that deeply valued specific holidays. Parents also overclaimed well-liked calendar days and avoided disliked calendar days as their children's birthdays. However, after birthday selection effects virtually disappeared in the 1950s and 1960s, they reappeared after the emergence of labor induction and planned cesarean birth. For example, there are many fewer modern U.S. births than would be expected on Christmas Day. In addition, modern parents appear to use birth medicalization to avoid undesirable birthdays (Friday the 13th). We argue that basking in reflect glory, ethnic identity processes, and superstitions such as magical thinking all play a role in birthday selection effects. Discussion focuses on the power of social identity in day-to-day judgment and decision-making.

Financial Hardship and Psychological Resilience during COVID-19: Differences by Race/Ethnicity

OBJECTIVES

Research on the impact of COVID-19 among older adults has primarily focused on relatively acute virus outcomes, but it is likely financial hardships during this time have eroded the adaptive capacity of older adults. It is also possible these impacts vary by race and ethnicity. We examine changes in psychological resilience (PR) among older adults before and during the pandemic to determine whether financial hardships and other stressors have altered this resource for White, Black, and Hispanic older adults.

METHOD

Using the COVID module released by the HRS (n=735), we examined changes in PR between 2016 and 2020 related to financial hardships during COVID. We tested interactions to determine whether the effects were patterned by race and ethnicity.

RESULTS

Consistent with previous literature, resilience was relatively stable during this time on average. Financial hardship during COVID-19 diminished resilience, but this effect was concentrated primarily among White Americans.

DISCUSSION

The results suggest that PR is a relatively stable resource in later life, even during the pandemic. However, this resource may be impacted in the face of specific challenges in later life. Policies related to financial hardship during the pandemic should be seen as supporting the capacity for older adults to adapt to current as well as future challenges.

Evaluating hypothesized explanations for the Black-white depression paradox: A critical review of the extant evidence

The Black-white Depression paradox, the lower prevalence of major depression among non-Hispanic Black (relative to non-Hispanic white) individuals despite their greater exposure to major life stressors, is a phenomenon that remains unexplained. Despite a decade plus of research, there is little clarity as to whether the paradoxical observations are an invalid finding, spuriously produced by selection bias, information bias, or confounding, or are a valid finding, representative of a true racial patterning of depression in the population. Though both artefactual and etiologic mechanisms have been tested, a lack of synthesis of the extant evidence has contributed towards an unclear picture of the validity of the paradox and produced challenges for researchers in determining which proposed mechanisms show promise, which have been debunked, and which require further study. The objective of this critical review is to assess the state of the literature regarding explanations for the Black-white depression paradox by examining some of the more prominent hypothesized explanatory mechanisms that have been proposed and assessing the state of the evidence in support of them. Included mechanisms were selected for their perceived dominance in the literature and the existence of at least one, direct empirical test using DSM major depression as the outcome. This review highlights the very limited evidence in support of any of the extant putative mechanisms, suggesting that investigators should redirect efforts towards identifying novel mechanisms, and/or empirically testing those which show promise but to date have been relatively understudied. We conclude with a discussion of the broader implications of the evidence for well-accepted social theories and raise questions regarding the use of DSM major depression to assess mental health burden in Black communities.

Resilience resources in low-income Black, Latino, and White fathers

BACKGROUND AND AIM

Resilience resources are associated with positive mental and physical health outcomes. However, we know little about protective factors in low-income or racially or ethnically diverse populations of men. This study examined socioeconomic status and racial/ethnic differences in resilience resources among low-income Black, Latino, and White fathers of infants.

METHODS

The Community Child Health Network conducted a cohort study of mothers and fathers in five sites across the U.S. A sample of fathers who identified as Black, Latino/Hispanic, or non-Hispanic White were recruited and interviewed at home on three occasions during the first year of parenting (n = 597). Several resilience resources were assessed: mastery, self-esteem, dispositional optimism, approach-oriented coping style, positive affect, social support, and spirituality. The first five resources were interrelated and scored as a composite.

RESULTS

Multivariate analyses adjusted for covariates indicated that Black fathers had higher scores on the resilience resources composite compared to White and Latino fathers. Black fathers were also highest in spirituality, followed by Latino fathers who were higher than White fathers. There were significant interactions between race/ethnicity with income and education in predicting optimism, spirituality, and self-esteem. Higher education was associated with higher scores on the resilience resources composite and spirituality in Black fathers, and higher education was associated with higher self-esteem in Black and Latino fathers. Higher income was associated with higher optimism in White fathers.

CONCLUSION

These results indicate that levels of individual resilience factors are patterned by income, education, and race/ethnicity in low-income fathers, with many possible implications for research and policy.

Natural Hair: a Vital Component to Black Women's Health

Hair is a barrier to physical activity engagement for Black women. Eurocentric and straight hairstyles have shown to compromise Black women's health; yet, the health implications of these hair practices have garnered little attention. This study examines the impact of natural hair on physical activity behaviors and health profiles among Black women. Sixty-nine Black women (ages 18-51) affiliated with a large predominately White institution completed demographic and hair questionnaires, Godin's Leisure-Time Exercise questionnaire, Rosenburg's self-esteem scale, and the Bankhead-Johnson hair-esteem scale. Body composition was assessed using waist circumference and body mass index. Descriptive statistics including mean, standard deviation, and percentages were employed to determine health status in each measure. Correlation analysis determined associations between each variable. Black women with natural hair were physically active, and had positive hair- and self-esteem profiles. Body composition was high; however, BMI metrics used are inappropriate for Black women. The authors conclude that natural hair may be a catalyst for Black women to improve mental and physical health. Afrocentric approaches that include affirmations of natural hairstyles are recommended to increase the effectiveness of health and physical activity promotion efforts that target Black women.

Race and SES Differences in Psychosocial Resources: Implications for Social Stress Theory

Social stress theory predicts that psychosocial resources shape health inequalities but is less clear about the ways in which the availability of resources differs across racial and socioeconomic groups. Using data from the Nashville Stress and Health Study (N = 1,214), the present study assessed racial and socioeconomic status (SES) differences in mastery, self-esteem, and social support; evaluated the extent to which SES accounts for racial differences in resources; and considered the interactive roles of race and SES in shaping resources among Black and White adults. Results show Blacks have greater access to resources, but SES yields greater psychosocial benefits among Whites. Findings demonstrate that SES and race may jointly and independently shape access to resources. This study contributes to the broader literature on status distinctions in psychosocial resources, providing new insights into the ways in which race and SES shape access to these health-protective resources while also raising several questions for future research.

Are self-esteem and academic achievement reciprocally related? Findings from a longitudinal study of Mexican-origin youth

OBJECTIVE

Previous research has shown that self-esteem is associated with academic achievement. However, few studies have used longitudinal data to examine how self-esteem and achievement co-develop over a long time span, and even fewer have focused on ethnic minority youth.

METHOD

We used data from a longitudinal study of Mexican-origin youth (N = 674) to examine the bidirectional associations between self-esteem and academic achievement from 5th to 11th grade. Global and domain-specific self-esteem (academic, honesty, peer relationships, appearance) were assessed at ages 10, 12, 14, and 16 using Marsh et al.'s (2005) Self-Description Questionnaire. Academic achievement was assessed at the same ages using self-reported grades and standardized test scores from school records.

RESULTS

Youth with high global and academic self-esteem showed relative improvements in their grades (but not test scores), and youth who received higher grades and test scores showed relative increases in global and academic self-esteem. Youth with high honesty self-esteem showed relative increases in grades and test scores, and youth with higher grades showed relative increases in peer relationship self-esteem.

CONCLUSION

Students who feel better about themselves tend to show improvements in their grades, and getting better grades and test scores promotes more positive self-views.

Developmental stability of scholastic, social, athletic, and physical appearance self-concepts from preschool to early adulthood

BACKGROUND

Self-concept has meaningful relations with psychological functioning and well-being across the life span. Hence, it is important to understand how and when individual differences in multiple domains of self-concept begin to stabilize and whether individual differences remain stable throughout childhood and adolescence and into early adulthood.

METHODS

We assessed individuals' (N = 372) scholastic, social, athletic, and physical appearance self-concepts at five waves over 20 years from age 4 to age 24.

RESULTS

In general, stability was large, but medium-sized estimates were obtained for some domains over longer (e.g., 6-year) intervals. Indirect effects from preschool to early adulthood were small, but from age 14 to 24 were medium to large. Stabilities maintained significance independent of family socioeconomic status and global self-worth. Stability estimates were similar for boys and girls except over adolescence for scholastic self-concept, which was more stable for girls than boys.

CONCLUSIONS

Multiple domains of self-concept constitute stable individual-difference characteristics, independent of global feelings of self-worth. Individuals who have high or low self-concepts early in development tend to maintain their relative standing into early adulthood suggesting points of intervention.

Associations between self-esteem and smoking and excessive alcohol consumption in the UK: A cross-sectional study using the BBC UK Lab database

Introduction

There is mixed evidence regarding the associations between self-esteem and smoking and excessive alcohol consumption. This study aimed to investigate whether self-esteem is associated with smoking status and alcohol consumption in a large sample of adults in the United Kingdom after adjusting for age, sex, socio-economic status and depressed mood.

Methods

Design: Cross-sectional correlational study conducted under the aegis of the British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC) between 2009 and 2013.Participants: 187,398 respondents (67.9% female) with a mean age of 32.82 years (SD = 12.41) providing complete data.Setting: UK.

Measures

Online self-report questionnaire. The outcomes were smoking status (current smoker, ever smoker) and alcohol consumption (current drinker, excessive drinker); the input variable was self-esteem measured using a Single Item Self-Esteem Scale; covariates were age, sex, SES, and depressed mood measured using a single item question.

Results

The odds of being an ever smoker and a current smoker were greater in people with lower self-esteem (AdjOR 0.97; 95% CI 0.95-0.99, Cohen's d = -0.02; and AdjOR 0.96; 95% CI 0.94-0.99, Cohen's d = -0.02 respectively). The odds of being a current drinker were lower in people with lower self-esteem (AdjOR 1.20, 95% CI 1.17-1.24, Cohen's d = 0.10) while being an excessive drinker was associated with lower self-esteem (β = -0.13, p < 0.001, F(5, 187392) = 997.14, p < 0.001, Cohen's d = 0.3).

Conclusions

Lower self-esteem appears to be positively associated with ever- and current smoking and excessive alcohol consumption and negatively associated with current alcohol consumption.

The Paradox of Positive Self-Concept and Low Achievement Among Black and Latinx Youth: A Test of Psychological Explanations

Previous studies often document that Black and Latino adolescents demonstrate considerable positive self-concept despite their low academic achievement. We critically reviewed two common psychological explanations for this paradoxical phenomenon: selective devaluation hypothesis (lower value placed in schoolwork protects their self-concept) and external attribution hypothesis (external attribution of poor achievement protects their self-concept). For a deeper understanding of Black and Latino youth's development of self-concept as racially or ethnically influenced process, we revisited these hypotheses with consideration of explanatory mediator (i.e., academic value) and moderator (i.e., perceived school fairness), based on nationally representative longitudinal data of Black, Latino, and White 10th graders (n ~= 12,920, 50.5% female). Contrary to the selective devaluation hypothesis, we found that Black and Latino youth placed greater value in schoolwork than White adolescents. Contrary to the external attribution hypothesis, self-concept was similarly related to previous achievement between Black and White adolescents and more closely related among Latino adolescents. Based on the results, we proposed three alternative hypotheses that might better explain the process of developing academic self-concept among Black and Latino youth.

Self-esteem, cultural identification, and substance use among American Indian youth

OBJECTIVES

Determine potential mediating and moderating effects of self-esteem on the relationship between cultural identification and substance use among American Indian (AI) youth.

METHODS

Anonymous surveys were administered to middle and high school AI students assessing levels of last month alcohol and marijuana use, cultural identification, and self-esteem. Structural equation modeling assessed potential mediating and moderating effects of self-esteem on the relationship between AI and white identification on alcohol and marijuana use.

RESULTS

No mediating effects were found for middle school students. Among high school students, no mediating effects were found for alcohol. Among female high school students, a small mediating effect was found between AI identification and marijuana use, with AI identification protecting against use. Across all students, no moderating effects of self-esteem were found.

CONCLUSIONS

The literature on cultural identification and substance use among minority youth is unclear. It was anticipated that consideration of self-esteem as a potential mediator or moderator might help clarify some of the confusion. However, no moderating effects were found and mediating effects were limited to female high school students for marijuana. Consideration should be given to assessing other measures of cultural identification and subscales of self-esteem to confirm that these findings are robust.

Self-Esteem, Weight Status, and Trying to Lose Weight During Young Adulthood: The Roles of Sex and Ethnicity/Race

Objectives

This study sought to examine sex and ethnicity/race differences in the associations between self-esteem, weight status, and trying to lose weight among young adults in the United States.

Methods

Data were drawn from Wave III (2001/2002) of the US National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent to Adult Health (Add Health public-use sample). Body mass index (BMI) was measured during in-home visits. Weight-loss patterns, self-esteem, and sociodemographics were assessed via self-reports. Logistic regression models were fitted among 4,594 young adults who were aged 21.8 (SD=1.8) years.

Results

Obesity was associated with relatively poor self-esteem among both African American (P=.007) and White females (P<.006). In comparison to not trying to lose weight, trying to lose weight was associated with poorer self-esteem among normal-weight (OR=1.23, 95% CI=1.03-1.47) and overweight (OR=1.36, 95% CI=1.07-1.72) White females, but not among White females with obesity (OR=1.19, 95% CI=.92-1.55), African American females (OR=.81, 95% CI=.57-1.17), or males (OR=1.00, 95% CI=.88-1.14).

Conclusion

The decision to lose weight was linked with poor self-esteem solely among normal-weight and overweight White females. African American and White females with obesity presented with relatively poor self-esteem, but their decision to lose weight was not linked with their self-esteem. More studies are needed to understand the psychological mechanism behind the decision to lose weight among White females with obesity, African American females, and males.

The Missing Link in Contemporary Health Disparities Research: A Profile of the Mental and Self-Rated Health of Multiracial Young Adults

This study compared the mental and self-rated health of monoracial and multiracial young adults using data from Wave 3 of the National Longitudinal Adolescent to Adult study. Our analytic sample consisted of 10,535 men and women ages 18-25 that self-identified as monoracial (Asian, Black, Native American, and White) or multiracial (White-Nonwhite and Nonwhite-Nonwhite). We find that when comparing aggregated racial groups, multiracials have poorer mental health than monoracials. However, differences emerge when multiracials are disaggregated into their two primary pairings of White-Nonwhite and Nonwhite-Nonwhite and compared to monoracials collectively and individually. We find that White-Nonwhites have poorer mental and self-rated health relative to monoracials generally and Whites specifically. In contrast, Nonwhite-Nonwhites have greater self-esteem and self-rated health than Whites as well as the aggregated monoracial group. Our findings highlight the complexities of examining multiracial health without researchers using consistent multiracial categories and reference groups. The results are discussed using three new perspectives that are introduced to explain health disparities between monoracial and multiracial persons.

My strong, Black daughter: Racial/ethnic differences in the attributes mothers value for their daughters

OBJECTIVES

The Strong Black Woman (SBW) ideal, which emphasizes self-reliance and strength, is considered an influential cultural image for many Black women. Research on how the SBW ideal may be reflected in maternal socialization is largely theoretical or qualitative.

METHODS

Guided by cultural models of parenting, we tested for racial/ethnic differences in the importance and meaning of SBW-related attributes among 194 low-income, Black (22%), White (20%), and Latina (57%) families. Mothers (M = 41.6 years) and daughters (M = 15.4 years) completed semistructured interviews, q-sort tasks, and self-report measures. Group differences were examined with analysis of covariance, logistic regression, and multigroup path models.

RESULTS

Black adolescents were not described by mothers or adolescents as possessing more SBW-related attributes (e.g., strong-willed, independent, assertive) compared to adolescents of other racial/ethnic groups; however, tests of moderation indicate group differences in how mothers perceived these attributes. Black adolescents with high SBW-related attributes were viewed by their mothers as showing leadership, whereas White and Latina adolescents with these attributes were viewed by mothers as having externalizing problems. Black mothers also rated these attributes as more important for young adult women to possess compared to other mothers. Finally, Black mothers described self-reliance as the critical developmental task for their daughter more than White and Latina mothers.

CONCLUSIONS

Findings suggest attributes consistent with the SBW ideal are valued by Black mothers more than Latina and White mothers from similar communities and provide empirical support about the potential importance of the SBW ideal in how Black mothers raise their daughters. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2019 APA, all rights reserved).

Doing Diversity: Creating Spaces, Opportunities, and Change

I briefly describe my work on race and racism, and the psychology of diversity. Two key aims have been expanding graduate training for students of color and expanding the focus of scientific theorizing, research, and applications in psychology. I argue that history is important for understanding race-related conflict and progress and that cultural context is both a source of obstacles to inclusion (cultural racism) and an important asset in resisting and coping with these obstacles (resilience). I describe ways in which my career represents "doing diversity." Specifically, I have (a) helped diversify psychological science through a Minority Fellowship Program that provided PhD training opportunities for more than 1,500 students of color, (b) contributed to understanding psychological issues by spearheading psychological science publications on HIV/AIDS, homelessness, and abortion; (c) contributed to national conversations and understanding of race by advising the U.S. Department of Defense on assessments of racial and ethnic discrimination in the military and President Clinton's Race Initiative; and (d) helped conceive and create an institute of world-class scholarship on race (DuBois Institute for African American Research) at Harvard University. I conclude by discussing challenges I faced, what I might have done differently, and how my work was meaningful in my career and life.

The mediating role of self-esteem on the relationship between perceived discrimination and mental health in South American immigrants in Chile

Psychological aspects in South-South migration have been little studied. The following study aimed to describe the effect of individual self-esteem as a mediator in the relationship between perceived discrimination and mental health (understood as the presence of anxious and depressive symptomatology) in South American migrants in Chile. We surveyed 853 people, of Peruvian and Colombian nationality, residing in three cities (Arica, Antofagasta and Santiago). Three ad-hoc scales were applied to evaluate the study variables, analyzing the measurement models for each of them using the Confirmatory Factor Analysis method. Subsequently, the hypothesized mediation model is evaluated through Structural Equations (SEM). The results show that discrimination has a positive and direct relationship with both anxiety and depression, and that the effect of interaction between the variables of discrimination, self-esteem and symptoms associated with depression and anxiety, had a simple partial mediating effect. Discrimination would have a positive and minor effect on anxious and depressive symptoms, as it is mediated by self-esteem.

Stimulating interethnic contact in Kosovo: The role of social identity complexity and distinctiveness threat

The positive effects of intergroup contact on prejudice reduction have been widely validated by now. However, the potential of contact for intergroup relations is only available when there is readiness to have contact with outgroup members to begin with. In two correlational studies with the main ethnic groups in postconflict Kosovo, Albanian majority (Study 1, N = 221) and Serb minority (Study 2, N = 110), we examine how social identity complexity mechanism and distinctiveness threat contribute to predicting more readiness to have contact with outgroup members. As the establishment of a new national identity unfolds, we show that while there are different processes that work for each of the groups, distinctiveness threat is a central concern to both as it mediates the relationship between identity and intergroup outcomes. For the Albanian majority group, having more complex identities (or perceiving less identity overlap between national and ethnic identity) predicts more readiness to have contact and feeling more positively towards members of the outgroup via reduced distinctiveness threat. For the Serb minority, however, threat is predicted only by strength of ethnic identification, which in turn predicts negative feelings towards members of the ethnic outgroup and less readiness to contact them. We conclude by comparing results for the majority and the minority groups and discuss strategies needed to reduce threat and improve intergroup relations in this segregated context struggling for reconciliation.

Racial/ethnic discrimination and well-being during adolescence: A meta-analytic review

This meta-analytic study systematically investigates the relations between perceived racial/ethnic discrimination and socioemotional distress, academics, and risky health behaviors during adolescence, and potential variation in these relations. The study included 214 peer-reviewed articles, theses, and dissertations, with 489 unique effect sizes on 91,338 unique adolescents. Random-effects meta-analyses across 11 separate indicators of well-being identified significant detrimental effects. Greater perceptions of racial/ethnic discrimination were linked to more depressive and internalizing symptoms; greater psychological distress; poorer self-esteem; lower academic achievement and engagement; less academic motivation; greater engagement in externalizing behaviors, risky sexual behaviors, and substance use; and more associations with deviant peers. Metaregression and subgroup analyses indicated differences by race/ethnicity, Gender × Race/Ethnicity interactions, developmental stage, timing of retrospective measurement of discrimination, and country. Overall, this study highlights the pernicious effects of racial/ethnic discrimination for adolescents across developmental domains and suggests who is potentially at greater risk. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2018 APA, all rights reserved).

Imagining Her Future: Diversity in Mothers' Socialization Goals for Their Adolescent Daughters

According to developmental niche theory, members of different cultural and ethnic groups often have distinct ideas about what children need to become well-adapted adults. These beliefs are reflected in parents' long-term socialization goals for their children. In this study, we test whether specific themes that have been deemed important in literature on diverse families in the United States (e.g., Strong Black Woman [SBW], marianismo, familismo) are evident in mothers' long-term socialization goals. Participants included 192 mothers of teenage daughters from a low-income city in the United States (58% Latina, 22% African American, and 20% European American [EA]/White). Socialization goals were assessed through a q-sort task on important traits for a woman to possess and content analysis of open-ended responses about what values mothers hoped they would transmit to their daughters as they become adults. Results from ANCOVAs and logistic regression indicate significant racial/ethnic differences on both tasks consistent with hypotheses. On the q-sort task, African American mothers put more importance on women possessing traits such as independence than mothers from other racial/ethnic groups. Similarly, they were more likely to emphasize self-confidence and strength in what they hoped to transmit to their daughters. Contrary to expectation, Latina mothers did not emphasize social traits on the q-sort; however, in open-ended responses, they were more likely to focus on the importance of motherhood, one aspect of marianismo and familismo. Overall, results suggest that these mothers' long-term socialization goals incorporate culturally relevant values considered important for African American and Latino families.

Demographic, psychosocial, clinical, and neurocognitive baseline characteristics of Black Americans in the RAISE-ETP study

This study compared baseline characteristics of Black Americans and Caucasians with first-episode psychosis in the Recovery After an Initial Schizophrenia Episode Early Treatment Program (RAISE-ETP). Black American (N=152) and Caucasian (N=218) participants were compared on demographic, psychosocial, clinical, and neurocognitive measures. Results indicated several notable racial differences in baseline characteristics: a greater proportion of Black Americans than Caucasians were female, and Black Americans reported less personal and parental education than Caucasians. Black Americans were also less likely to have private insurance, more likely to be homeless or transient, had significantly poorer quality of life, more severe disorganized symptoms, worse neurocognition, and were less likely to abuse alcohol than Caucasians. The implications of these findings are discussed, and suggestions are provided for future avenues of treatment and research on racial disparities in first-episode psychosis.

Gendered race modification of the association between chronic stress and depression among Black and White U.S. adults

Chronic stress stemming from social inequity has long been recognized as a risk factor for poor physical and psychological health, yet challenges remain in uncovering the mechanisms through which such exposures affect health outcomes and lead to racial and gender health disparities. Examination of sociocultural influences on group identity, coping, and the expression of stress may yield relevant insight into potential pathways of inequity's effect on risk for chronic disease. The objective of this study was to examine the relationship between chronic stress as measured by allostatic load (AL) and depression by gendered race group. Using National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 2005-2010 data, we included Black and White U.S. adults aged 18-64 years (n = 6,431). AL was calculated using 9 biomarkers; scores ≥4 indicated high risk. Depression was assessed using the Patient Health Questionnaire-9; scores ≥10 indicated likely clinical depression. Logistic models estimated odds of depression as a function of AL for each gendered race group adjusting for age and family poverty-to-income ratio. Effect modification was assessed by analysis of variance and relative excess risk due to the interaction. We observed modification on the multiplicative scale. High AL was more strongly associated with depression among White women and Black men than among Black women or White men. In conclusion, a potential manifestation of high chronic stress burden, depression, differs across gendered race groups. These disparities may be due to group-specific coping strategies that are shaped by unequal social contexts. (PsycINFO Database Record

American = Independent?

U.S. American cultures and psyches reflect and promote independence. Devos and Banaji (2005) asked, does American equal White? This article asks, does American equal independent? The answer is that when compared to people in East Asian or South Asian contexts, people in American contexts tend to show an independent psychological signature—a sense of self as individual, separate, influencing others and the world, free from influence, and equal to, if not better than, others (Markus & Conner, 2013). Independence is a reasonable description of the selves of people in the White, middle-class American mainstream. Yet it is a less good characterization of the selves of the majority of Americans who are working-class and/or people of color. A cultural psychological approach reveals that much of North American psychology is still grounded in an independent model of the self and, as such, neglects social contexts and the psychologies of a majority of Americans. Given the prominence of independence in American ideas and institutions, the interdependent tendencies that arise from intersections of national culture with social class, race, and ethnicity go unrecognized and are often misunderstood and stigmatized. This unseen clash of independence and interdependence is a significant factor in many challenges, including those of education, employment, health, immigration, criminal justice, and political polarization.

Positive and negative affectivity, stress, and well-being in African-Americans: Initial demonstration of a polynomial regression and response surface methodology approach

OBJECTIVE

The extent to which positive (PA) and negative (NA) affect conjointly impact well-being is not yet well understood. Additionally, research investigating the role of affectivity in maintaining well-being among ethnic and racial minorities is scant. The current research demonstrates how polynomial regression and response surface methodology (PR and RSM) may be used to better understand how PA and NA jointly influence stress and well-being.

DESIGN

In Study 1, 291 African-American undergraduates (M_age = 22.91, SD = 6.91; 67% female) completed measures of affectivity and psychological well-being. In Study 2, a community sample of 117 African-Americans (M_age = 31.87, SD = 13.83; 69% female) completed affectivity measures and a laboratory-based social stressor task to assess links between affectivity and salivary cortisol reactivity.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES

Study 1 included life satisfaction, perceived stress and self-reported depressive symptoms. Study 2 included salivary cortisol reactivity.

RESULTS

Across both studies, PA ascendency (i.e. high PA combined with low NA) was associated with better well-being, while NA ascendancy (i.e. high NA combined with low PA) was associated with poorer outcomes.

CONCLUSION

PR and RSM may provide new insight into the conjoint influence of PA and NA on health and well-being. We discuss potential implications for affectivity research, including race-related explorations.

Acculturation styles and their associations with psychiatric symptoms and quality of life in ethnic minorities with schizophrenia

This study examined whether Berry's model of acculturative stress would predict psychiatric symptom severity and quality of life (QoL) in ethnic minorities with schizophrenia. Tested extensively in non-psychiatric populations, Berry's framework generally suggests that integration, or engagement with both the host and minority culture, is most adaptive. Using the Abbreviated Multidimensional Acculturation Scale (AMAS), we tested the hypothesis that individuals with schizophrenia who employed an integrative acculturation strategy would have the highest QoL and lowest symptom severity, followed by the assimilation and enculturation groups, then the marginalized group. Psychiatric symptoms and QoL were regressed on AMAS assimilation scores, enculturation scores, and the interaction term in a sample of 128 Hispanic and Blacks with schizophrenia (M age = 41.28; 70% male). Acculturation strategy was not found to relate to psychiatric symptoms (measured from the Brief Psychiatric Rating Scale). However, acculturation strategy did predict QoL (measured from the Quality of Life Inventory), and results were in line with Berry's model. Marginalization may exacerbate issues surrounding social identity in schizophrenia, including low self-concept clarity and internalized stigma. Encouraging bicultural individuals with schizophrenia to interact with the host culture while also practicing traditions from their minority culture may help improve their quality of life.

Defining Social Class Across Time and Between Groups

We examined changes over four decades and between ethnic groups in how people define their social class. Changes included the increasing importance of income, decreasing importance of occupational prestige, and the demise of the “Victorian bargain,” in which poor people who subscribed to conservative sexual and religious norms could think of themselves as middle class. The period also saw changes (among Whites) and continuity (among Black Americans) in subjective status perceptions. For Whites (and particularly poor Whites), their perceptions of enhanced social class were greatly reduced. Poor Whites now view their social class as slightly but significantly lower than their poor Black and Latino counterparts. For Black respondents, a caste-like understanding of social class persisted, as they continued to view their class standing as relatively independent of their achieved education, income, and occupation. Such achievement indicators, however, predicted Black respondents’ self-esteem more than they predicted self-esteem for any other group.