The association between parent-child conflict and adolescent conduct problems over time: results from a longitudinal adoption study

An 'embedded brain' approach to understanding antisocial behaviour

Antisocial behaviour (ASB) incurs substantial costs to the individual and society. Cognitive neuroscience has the potential to shed light on developmental risk for ASB, but it cannot achieve this potential in an 'essentialist' framework that focuses on the brain and cognition isolated from the environment. Here, we present the case for studying the social transactional and iterative unfolding of brain and cognitive development in a relational context. This approach, which we call the study of the 'embedded brain', is needed to fully understand how risk for ASB arises during development. Concentrated efforts are required to develop and unify methods to achieve this approach and reap the benefits for improved prevention and intervention of ASB.

Are Discrepancies Between Father and Adolescent Perceptions of Harsh Parenting and Conflict Associated with Adolescent Mental Health Symptoms?

Though differences in informant perceptions of family processes are associated with poorer health, few studies have examined discrepancies between father- and adolescent-report of family phenomena and their impact on adolescent mental health. This study examined how father and adolescent-reported parenting and the differences in their perceptions is related to adolescent mental health. Participants were 326 father-adolescent dyads (Fathers: Mage = 41.2; Adolescents: 7th grade students, Mage = 12.0, 48.5% female). Overall, analyses revealed significant main effects of father and/or adolescent report of father-adolescent conflict and harsh parenting on adolescent internalizing and externalizing symptoms. Analyses revealed two instances in which discrepancies between father- and adolescent-report of family phenomena was related to adolescent mental health. Given the mixed nature of the findings based on the outcome reporter, the current study discusses implications for discrepancy research and future directions to better understand discrepant perceptions as useful information on their own. The parent clinical trial is registered at ClinicalTrials.gov (Identifier: NCT03125291, Registration date: 4/13/2017).

Mothering versus fathering? Positive parenting versus negative parenting? Their relative importance in predicting adolescent aggressive behavior: A longitudinal comparison

To understand whose parenting (mothers vs. fathers) and which type of parenting (warmth vs. hostility) is more important in predicting adolescent aggression, this study applied dominance analysis to evaluate the relative importance of four different parenting dimensions (maternal hostility, paternal hostility, maternal warmth, and paternal warmth). Four waves of adolescent-reported longitudinal data from the PROSPER project (N = 626, 52% adolescent girls, 89% White rural, age 12 to 15) were used to investigate longitudinal change in the relative importance of these dimensions over time. Findings reveal that at most ages, maternal hostility was relatively more important than both paternal hostility and maternal warmth in predicting adolescent aggression among adolescent girls and boys. However, paternal parenting was more important for boys at specific ages. Findings are discussed in terms of implications for interventions and further research on parenting. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2023 APA, all rights reserved).

Parent-child relationships and psychological distress: survey of parents from low-income families after the COVID-19 pandemic

Introduction

This study aims to shed light on parent-child relationships and the psychological health of parents from low-income families after the easing of the COVID-19 pandemic restrictions.

Methods

This cross-sectional study recruited 553 parents of children aged 13-24 years in low-income community settings. The Parent-Child Conflict scale of the Parental Environment Questionnaire (PEQ) was used to measure parent-child conflict. Psychological distress was assessed using the Depression, Anxiety, and Stress Scale short form (DASS-21).

Results

The study revealed a low level of parent-child conflict in the overall study population, with a median PEQ of 48.0 (interquartile range [IQR] 36 to 48). Concerning demographics, married parents reported a likelihood of having a higher level of parent-child conflict over 3 times higher than single parents (OR = 3.18 95%, CI 1.30-7.75). More parent-child conflicts were also found in parents aged 60-72 years old who were unemployed, retired, or housewives and from lower-income groups. In regard to lifestyle factors, a higher level of physical activity and having enough sleep were associated with lower levels of parent-child conflict. Only approximately 1% of the participants reported symptoms of depression, anxiety, or stress.

Discussion

Low risk exists for parent-child conflict and psychological sequelae following the easing of the COVID-19 pandemic restrictions, which could be due to various support measures implemented by the government. Vulnerable parents identified as being at risk of parent-child conflict warrant attention in future advocacy efforts.

Cooperation with Teachers as a Mediator of the Relationship between Family Conflict and Children's Psychological Difficulties

Parent-child conflict can have a series of negative consequences concerning youth emotional and behavioral development. The link between family conflict and children's externalizing symptoms is well established, whereas the association with internalizing symptoms is less explored. Within the school context, children are engaged in other meaningful relationships (i.e., with teachers and peers) which contribute to their growth. This cross-sectional study aimed at understanding whether a cooperative behavior with the teachers is able to mediate the association between parent-child conflict and children's psychopathological symptoms. We recruited 319 (150 boys) school-aged children (M = 11.3 years; SD = 1.8 years) and their parents and teachers. Children self-reported on their internalizing symptoms, whereas parents completed a questionnaire concerning their relationship with the child, and teachers rated children's behavior and internalizing/externalizing symptoms. Analyses conducted through Hayes' PROCESS tool showed that cooperation with the teacher partially mediated the association between parent-child conflict and child-reported depressive symptoms. Notably, cooperative behavior fully mediated the link between parent-child conflict and children's internalizing and externalizing symptoms reported by teachers. Difficulties exhibited at school partly derive from a conflictual home environment. Our findings showed that such problems can be reduced thanks to a cooperative relationship with the teacher.

Recurring Parent-Child Conflict: A Mediator between Parental Anger Management and Adolescent Behavior

Guided by social learning theory, this longitudinal study examined whether parent-child recurring conflict mediated the association between parental anger management, an understudied antecedent to parent-child recurring conflict, and adolescent deviant and problem-solving behaviors in 415 rural families. Parental use of anger management in 6th grade was associated with less parent-child recurring conflict in 9th grade, which was associated with more adolescent problem-solving behavior in 11th grade. Family practitioners seeking to promote adolescent problem-solving behaviors may consider teaching families strategies for reducing parent-child recurring conflict and fostering parental anger management.

Interpersonal complementarity as a predictor of parent-child relationship quality

The parent-child relationship is critically important for children's functioning and long-term outcomes. Although typically measured by self-report or global codes in observed interactions, parent-child interactions actually occur on a moment-to-moment basis, with frequent shifts in behavior and affect happening in each member of the dyad. Even so, moment-to-moment interactions in these dyads are rarely studied. We sought to illuminate how complementarity, or the extent to which behavior in one member of the dyad shapes that of the other, impacts the quality of the parent-child relationship. Parent-child dyads in 1,030 families completed a cooperative video-recorded task, after which each member of the dyad was rated on warmth and control twice a second. Results illustrated high levels of warmth and control complementarity in parent-child relationships, with mothers showing more complementarity than fathers and greater control complementarity relative to warmth complementarity. Results showed mother-child and father-child warmth complementarity was associated with increased parent-child reciprocity, whereas mother-child and father-child control complementarity was associated with increased parent-child cooperation. In addition, father-child warmth complementarity was associated with a decrease in observed father-child conflict and an increase in father-child cooperation. Finally, father-child control complementarity was associated with a decrease in observed father-child reciprocity. However, no significant associations were found between complementarity and family reports of parental involvement or conflict with child. Results highlight complementarity as an important part of parent-child interactions but also indicate it is relationship- and domain specific. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).

The Genetic, Environmental, and Cultural Forces Influencing Youth Antisocial Behavior Are Tightly Intertwined

The aggressive and rule-breaking behaviors that constitute youth antisocial behavior (ASB) are shaped by intertwined genetic, developmental, familial, spatial, temporal, cultural, interpersonal, and contextual influences operating across multiple levels of analysis. Genetic influences on ASB, for example, manifest in different ways during different developmental periods, and do so in part as a function of exposure to harsh parenting, delinquent peers, and disadvantaged neighborhoods. There is also clear evidence documenting societal effects, time-period effects, sex-assigned-at-birth effects, and cohort effects, all of which point to prominent (and possibly interconnected) cultural influences on ASB. In short, ASB is shaped by individuals' current and prior environmental experiences, genetic risks, and the time and place in which they live. This review seeks to illuminate already documented instances of interplay among the multilevel etiologic forces impinging on youth ASB, with the goal of facilitating additional research.

The interRAI Child and Youth Suite of Mental Health Assessment Instruments: An Integrated Approach to Mental Health Service Delivery

Various biological, social, psychological, and environmental factors impact children and youth living with mental health problems across their lifespan. To meet the wide-ranging challenges of mental illness, service system integration is needed to improve efficiencies and reduce fragmentation. Unfortunately, the mental health system has been plagued by the lack of coordination across services. There is a general consensus that mental health service delivery must ensure a child or youth's needs are addressed in a collaborative, coordinated, and seamless manner. A key element to successful integration is the development of a comprehensive standardized screening and assessment system. Numerous assessments have been developed to assess child mental health and functioning, but they typically have a very narrow focus with limited use and utility. Not only does this reduce the ability to take a life course perspective to mental health, but this uncoordinated approach also results in redundancies in information collected, additional resources, and increased assessor burden for children, youth, and their families. The interRAI child and youth mental health assessment suite was developed in response to the need for an integrated mental health system for young persons. This suite includes screening and assessment instruments for in-patient and community settings, emergency departments, educational settings, and youth justice custodial facilities. The instruments form a mental health information system intentionally designed to work in an integrated fashion beginning in infancy, and incorporate key applications such as care planning, outcome measurement, resource allocation, and quality improvement. The design of these assessment tools and their psychometric properties are reviewed. Data is then presented using examples related to interpersonal trauma, illustrating the use and utility of the integrated suite, along with the various applications of these assessment systems.

Family Economic Strain and Adolescent Aggression during the COVID-19 Pandemic: Roles of Interparental Conflict and Parent-Child Conflict

Although the link from family economic strain to adolescent aggression has frequently been hypothesized, the results are mixed. Both interparental conflict and parent-child conflict are considered to be potential mediators of this link. However, the empirical evidence supporting this proposition is lacking. The present study investigated the direct effect of family economic strain on adolescent aggression as well as indirect effects through interparental conflict and parent-child conflict. Based on multi-informant data from 971 families with a child in middle and high schools in Y City, in Shanxi Province, structural equation modeling is conducted to examine the proposed theoretical model. Findings show that family economic strain has no significant direct impact on adolescent aggression. Interparental conflict and parent-child conflict mediate the link between family economic strain and adolescent aggression simultaneously and sequentially. This study expands current literature and deepens our understanding of the mechanisms underlying the relationship between family economic strain and adolescent aggression. Implications for policies and interventions to reduce the risk of adolescent aggression are discussed.

Unfolding Relations among Mindful Parenting, Recurrent Conflict, and Adolescents' Externalizing and Internalizing Problems

The current study examined unfolding relations among mothers' mindful parenting, parent-adolescent recurrent conflict, and adolescents' externalizing and internalizing problems. In a community sample of 117 families (31% black, Asian, American Indian, or Latino), parents and adolescents (52% female; average age = 12.13 years) were followed over 15 months. Parents answered questions about mindful parenting and recurrent conflict, and adolescents reported on their own externalizing and internalizing problems. Path analyses indicated that higher levels of mindful parenting were significantly related to lower levels of recurrent conflict 2-3 months later, controlling for previous levels of recurrent conflict. Moreover, lower levels of recurrent conflict were significantly related to lower levels of externalizing problems and internalizing problems 1 year later, controlling for previous levels of those problems. Subgroup analyses indicated that relations were comparable across subgroups defined by adolescent gender, race, parent marital status, and family financial strain. The effects of mindful parenting were robust even after accounting for other indicators of positive and supportive parenting, namely inductive reasoning and warmth in the parent-adolescent relationship. These findings highlight the potential of mindful parenting to improve family interactions and adolescent adjustment.

A Latent Profile Analysis of the Parent-Adolescent Relationship: Assessing Both Parent and Adolescent Outcomes

Using family systems and attachment theory frameworks, this study identified specific dimensions of the parent-adolescent relationship and examined the association between those dimensions and adolescent depression and delinquency, and parental depression 2 years later in a racially and ethnically diverse sample. Parent-adolescent relationships were identified using a person-centered approach, latent profile analysis, using closeness, communication, conflict, and autonomy as dimensions of the relationship. The latent profile analysis produced a four-profile solution, which was labeled secure, avoidant, anxious, and detached. Next, parent and adolescent outcomes were examined. Results indicated that adolescents in the detached profile exhibited the highest amount of delinquency, whereas the parents exhibited the lowest amount of depression. Adolescents in the avoidant profile also exhibited high levels of delinquency, and parents in this profile also exhibited the highest amount of depression symptoms. No profile differences were found for adolescent depression symptoms. Implications for family interventions are discussed.

Fractionation of impulsive and compulsive trans-diagnostic phenotypes and their longitudinal associations

OBJECTIVE

Young adulthood is a crucial neurodevelopmental period during which impulsive and compulsive problem behaviours commonly emerge. While traditionally considered diametrically opposed, impulsive and compulsive symptoms tend to co-occur. The objectives of this study were as follows: (a) to identify the optimal trans-diagnostic structural framework for measuring impulsive and compulsive problem behaviours, and (b) to use this optimal framework to identify common/distinct antecedents of these latent phenotypes.

METHOD

In total, 654 young adults were recruited as part of the Neuroscience in Psychiatry Network, a population-based cohort in the United Kingdom. The optimal trans-diagnostic structural model capturing 33 types of impulsive and compulsive problem behaviours was identified. Baseline predictors of subsequent impulsive and compulsive trans-diagnostic phenotypes were characterised, along with cross-sectional associations, using partial least squares.

RESULTS

Current problem behaviours were optimally explained by a bi-factor model, which yielded dissociable measures of impulsivity and compulsivity, as well as a general disinhibition factor. Impulsive problem behaviours were significantly explained by prior antisocial and impulsive personality traits, male gender, general distress, perceived dysfunctional parenting and teasing/arguments within friendships. Compulsive problem behaviours were significantly explained by prior compulsive traits and female gender.

CONCLUSION

This study demonstrates that trans-diagnostic phenotypes of 33 impulsive and compulsive problem behaviours are identifiable in young adults, utilising a bi-factor model based on responses to a single questionnaire. Furthermore, these phenotypes have different antecedents. The findings yield a new framework for fractionating impulsivity and compulsivity, and suggest different early intervention targets to avert emergence of problem behaviours. This framework may be useful for future biological and clinical dissection of impulsivity and compulsivity.

Considering the role of early discrimination experiences and the parent-child relationship in the development of disruptive behaviors in adolescence

Discrimination has been shown to be related to diminished psychological adjustment and greater risk for substance use when personally experienced by adolescents and when their caregivers experience discrimination. Our research considers the impact of primary caregiver experiences of racial- and socioeconomic-based discrimination in early (age 3-5 years) and late childhood (age 9½) on adolescent disruptive behaviors (age 14) with a large sample of diverse caregiver-child dyads (N = 634). In addition, we examine the potential protective effects of parent-child relationship quality in early and late childhood in buffering the effects of caregiver discrimination on adolescent disruptive behaviors. We also explore possible gender differences in children's vulnerability to engage in disruptive behaviors in the context of caregiver experiences of discrimination. The findings from this study indicate that at trend level, early childhood experiences of primary caregiver discrimination (ages 3-5) predicted adolescent disruptive behaviors, accounting for the effects of more recent (age 9½) caregiver discrimination. In addition, parent-child relationship quality at age 9½ years was found to buffer the effects of late childhood (age 9½) primary caregiver discrimination on adolescent disruptive behaviors for both male and female youth. The findings highlight the need for prevention and intervention techniques that foster healthy and positive primary caregiver-child relationships.

Cyberbullying victimisation and internalising and externalising problems among adolescents: the moderating role of parent-child relationship and child's sex

AIMS

Previous research has found links between cyberbullying victimisation and internalising and externalising problems among adolescents. However, little is known about the factors that might moderate these relationships. Thus, the present study examined the relationships between cyberbullying victimisation and psychological distress, suicidality, self-rated poor mental health and substance use among adolescents, and tested whether parent-child relationship and child's sex would moderate these relationships.

METHODS

Self-report data on experiences of cyberbullying victimisation, self-rated poor mental health, psychological distress, suicidality and substance use were derived from the 2013 Ontario Student Drug Use and Health Survey, a province-wide school-based survey of students in grades 7 through 12 aged 11-20 years (N = 5478). Logistic regression models adjusted for age, sex, ethnicity, subjective socioeconomic status and involvement in physical fighting, bullying victimisation and perpetration at school.

RESULTS

Cyberbullying victimisation was associated with self-rated poor mental health (adjusted odds ratio (OR) 2.15; 95% confidence interval (CI) 1.64-2.81), psychological distress (OR 2.41; 95% CI 1.90-3.06), suicidal ideation (OR 2.38; 95% CI 1.83-3.08) and attempts (OR 2.07; 95% CI 1.27-3.38), smoking tobacco cigarette (OR 1.96; 95% CI 1.45-2.65), cannabis use (OR 1.82; 95% CI 1.32-2.51), and binge drinking (OR 1.44; 95% CI 1.03-2.02). The association between cyberbullying victimisation and psychological distress was modified by parent-child relationship and child's sex (three-way interaction term p < 0.05). The association between cyberbullying victimisation and psychological distress was much stronger among boys who have a negative relationship with their parents.

CONCLUSIONS

Findings suggest that cyberbullying victimisation is strongly associated with psychological distress in most adolescents with the exception of males who get along well with their parents. Further research using a longitudinal design is necessary to disentangle the interrelationship among child's sex, parent-child relationship, cyberbullying victimisation and mental health outcomes among adolescents in order to improve ongoing mental health prevention efforts.

Sequences of maladaptation: Preadolescent self-regulation, adolescent negative social interactions, and young adult psychopathology

This study aims to test whether adolescent negative social interactions mediate the relation between early adolescent self-regulatory capacities and young adult psychopathology, using a fully prospective mediation model. Data were derived from the Tracking Adolescents' Individual Lives Survey, a large population cohort of Dutch adolescents (n = 962). At age 11, three indicators of self-regulation were assessed: low frustration, high effortful control, and high response inhibition. Negative social interactions between ages 11 and 22 were captured twice using the Event History Calendar. Psychopathology (i.e., internalizing and externalizing problems) was assessed at ages 11 and 22. Findings indicate that adolescents' frustration and effortful control but not response inhibition assessed at age 11 are related to both internalizing and externalizing problems at age 22, after controlling for psychopathology at age 11, sex, and socioeconomic status. These associations were partly (about 22%) mediated by the negative social interactions adolescents experienced. Effect sizes were all modest. This study shows that self-regulation is related to subsequent psychopathology in part through its effect on negative social interactions, providing evidence for sequences of self-regulatory capacities, life experiences, and developmental outcomes.

Affiliation with substance-using peers: Examining gene-environment correlations among parent monitoring, polygenic risk, and children's impulsivity

Parental monitoring can buffer the effect of deviant peers on adolescents' substance use by reducing affiliation with substance-using peers. However, children's genetic predispositions may evoke poorer monitoring, contributing to negative child outcomes. We examined evocative genotype-environment correlations underlying children's genetic predisposition for behavioral undercontrol and parental monitoring in early adolescence via children's impulsivity in middle childhood, and the influence of parental monitoring on affiliation with substance-using peers a year and a half later (n = 359). Genetic predisposition for behavioral undercontrol was captured using a polygenic risk score, and a portion of passive rGE was controlled by including parents' polygenic risk scores. Children's polygenic risk predicted poorer parental monitoring via greater children's impulsivity, indicating evocative rGE, controlling for a portion of passive rGE. Poorer parental monitoring predicted greater children's affiliation with substance-using peers a year and a half later. Results are discussed with respect to gene-environment correlations within developmental cascades.

The Prospective Links Between Hyperactive/Impulsive, Inattentive, and Oppositional-Defiant Behaviors in Childhood and Antisocial Behavior in Adolescence: The Moderating Influence of Gender and the Parent-Child Relationship Quality

We prospectively investigated the effect of child hyperactive/impulsive, inattentive, and oppositional/defiant behaviors on the development of youth antisocial behaviors, and the moderating influence of gender and the parent-child relationship quality in a normative sample. Participants (N = 673, 50 % girls) were assessed at 10 years of age (parent reports) and at age 15 (parent and adolescent reports). Using latent change models, we found that initial levels of, as well as increases in, hyperactivity/impulsivity and oppositional behaviors and initial levels of inattention behaviors predicted youth antisocial behaviors. The increase in oppositional behaviors was predictive of youth antisocial behaviors in girls only. Child hyperactive/impulsive behaviors predicted youth antisocial behaviors only in children for whom the quality of the parent-child relationship deteriorated from childhood to adolescence. Thus, both initial levels of and increases in disruptive behaviors as well as gender are important for understanding the development of antisocial behaviors in adolescence. We received partial support for the hypothesized, moderating role of a high-quality parent-child relationship.

Parental Acculturative Stressors and Adolescent Adjustment Through Interparental and Parent-Child Relationships in Chinese American Families

Perpetual foreigner stereotype and bicultural management difficulty are two understudied acculturative stressors frequently experienced by Asian Americans. This study expanded the family stress model to examine how parental experiences of these two acculturative stressors relate to measures of adolescent adjustment (depressive symptoms, delinquent behaviors, and academic performance) during high school and emerging adulthood through interparental and parent-child relationship processes. Participants were 350 Chinese American adolescents (M age  = 17.04, 58 % female) and their parents in Northern California. Path models showed that parental acculturative stressors positively related to parent-child conflict, either directly (for both mother-adolescent and father-adolescent dyads) or indirectly through interparental conflict (for mother-adolescent dyads only). Subsequently, both interparental and parent-child conflict positively related to a sense of alienation between parents and adolescents, which then related to more depressive symptoms, more delinquent behaviors, and lower academic performance in adolescents, for mother-adolescent and father-adolescent dyads. These effects persisted from high school to emerging adulthood. The results highlight the indirect effects of maternal and paternal acculturative stressors on adolescent adjustment through family processes involving interparental and parent-child relationships.

Parental Serotonin Transporter Polymorphism (5-HTTLPR) Moderates Associations of Stress and Child Behavior With Parenting Behavior

The serotonin transporter-linked polymorphic region (5-HTTLPR) is associated with caregiving in nonhuman animals and with affective and cognitive correlates of human parenting, yet its association with human parenting is largely unknown. Using a well-characterized sample of parents and offspring, we evaluated the association of parental 5-HTTLPR with observed positive and negative parenting behavior, as well as its biologically plausible moderation of child-related stress and disruptive child behavior as predictors of parenting. One hundred and sixty-two parents (86% mothers) and their 6- to 9-year-old children with and without attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder were ascertained using multiple methods including structured interviews, rating scales, and observed parent-child interaction, yielding strong measures of key constructs. Controlling for multiple youth-level (e.g., sex, 5-HTTLPR genotype, disruptive behavior) and parent-level (e.g., demographics, depression, attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder) factors, parents with an S allele exhibited significantly less observed positive parenting than those with the LL genotype. Significant Gene × Environment interactions were also observed: Child-related stress was negatively associated with observed parental negativity among SS/SL genotype parents but not LL genotype parents; next, observed disruptive child behavior was positively associated with parental negativity for both genotypes, but the effect was strongest in SS/SL parents. These preliminary findings suggest that parental 5-HTTLPR is uniquely associated with positive and negative parenting behavior, with more specific patterns according to child-related stress and disruptive child behavior. We consider implications for future research evaluating genetic influences on parenting as well as considerations for designing and delivering parenting-based interventions.

Associations Between Mother-Child Relationship Quality and Adolescent Adjustment: Using a Genetically Controlled Design to Determine the Direction and Magnitude of Effects

This study used a genetically controlled design to examine the direction and the magnitude of effects in the over-time associations between perceived relationship quality with mothers and adolescent maladjustment (i.e., depressive symptoms and delinquency). A total of 163 monozygotic (MZ) twins pairs (85 female pairs, 78 male pairs) completed questionnaires at ages 13 and 14. Non-genetically controlled path analyses models (in which one member of each twin dyad was randomly selected for analyses) were compared with genetically controlled path analyses models (in which MZ-twin difference scores were included in analyses). Results from the non-genetically controlled models revealed a) child-driven effects in the longitudinal associations between adolescent perceived maternal support and depressive symptoms, and b) parent-driven and child-driven effects in the longitudinal association between perceived maternal negativity and adolescent delinquent behaviors. However, results from the genetically controlled models revealed only child-driven effect, suggesting that, purported parent-driven effects were a product of error arising from potential gene-environment correlations (rGE).

Chickens and eggs-how should we interpret environment-behavior associations?

As usual, the research published in this issue of the Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry contains impressive state-of-the-science studies of child and adolescent psychopathology and related issues. Breeman and colleagues, for example, found that children born before 32 weeks gestation or with a very low birth weight (<1,500 g) were not only more frequently diagnosed with Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) during childhood, but continued to have an increased risk for attention problems up through early adulthood.

Adolescent age moderates genetic and environmental influences on parent-adolescent positivity and negativity: Implications for genotype-environment correlation

We examined how genotype-environment correlation processes differ as a function of adolescent age. We tested whether adolescent age moderates genetic and environmental influences on positivity and negativity in mother-adolescent and father-adolescent relationships using parallel samples of twin parents from the Twin and Offspring Study in Sweden and twin/sibling adolescents from the Nonshared Environment in Adolescent Development Study. We inferred differences in the role of passive and nonpassive genotype-environment correlation based on biometric moderation findings. The findings indicated that nonpassive gene-environment correlation played a stronger role for positivity in mother- and father-adolescent relationships in families with older adolescents than in families with younger adolescents, and that passive gene-environment correlation played a stronger role for positivity in the mother-adolescent relationship in families with younger adolescents than in families with older adolescents. Implications of these findings for the timing and targeting of interventions on family relationships are discussed.

Demographic and Parenting Correlates of Adolescent Sleep Functioning

Despite the importance of parenting practices for adolescent adjustment, parenting correlates of adolescent sleep functioning remain understudied. This study delineated patterns of sleep functioning in a sample of ethnically diverse, low-income, adolescents and examined associations among three types of parenting practices (parental involvement, parent-child conflict, and parental control) and adolescent sleep functioning (difficulties initiating sleep and maintaining sleep, and sleep duration). Adolescents (N = 91, 11-19 years old) self-reported on sleep functioning and parenting practices. Results showed that in the preceding month, 60.5% of adolescents had difficulties initiating sleep and 73.6% had difficulties maintaining sleep. Most adolescents slept 8 or more hours per night, but 30.7% slept less than 8 hours. Latino adolescents slept longer and had fewer difficulties maintaining sleep than non-Latino. High school students had fewer difficulties maintaining sleep than their middle school counterparts; conversely, older adolescents experienced shorter sleep duration than younger ones. Adolescents whose parents had post-secondary education had shorter sleep duration than those whose parents had not graduated from high school. Parental control was correlated with fewer difficulties initiating sleep, whereas parent-child conflict was correlated with more difficulties maintaining sleep. There were no parenting correlates of sleep duration. Latino adolescents had better sleep profiles than non-Latino ones. Regression analyses showed that parental control and parent-child conflict were associated with adolescent sleep functioning across ethnicities. Results suggest that parenting practices, as well as demographic characteristics, are associated with adolescent sleep functioning and should be taken into account in interventions aimed at improving sleep functioning among adolescents.

Buffering effect of positive parent-child relationships on adolescent risk taking: A longitudinal neuroimaging investigation

Adolescence is marked by a steep increase in risk-taking behavior. The serious consequences of such heightened risk taking raise the importance of identifying protective factors. Despite its dynamic change during adolescence, family relationships remain a key source of influence for teenagers. Using a longitudinal fMRI approach, we scanned 23 adolescents twice across a 1.5-year period to examine how changes in parent-child relationships contribute to changes in adolescent risk taking over time via changes in adolescents' neural reactivity to rewards. Results indicate that although parent-child relationships are not associated with adolescent risk taking concurrently, increases in positive parent-child relationships contribute to declines in adolescent risk taking. This process is mediated by longitudinal decreases in ventral striatum activation to rewards during risk taking. Findings highlight the neural pathways through which improvements in positive parent-child relationships serve to buffer longitudinal increases in adolescent risk taking.

The etiology of the association between child antisocial behavior and maternal negativity varies across aggressive and non-aggressive rule-breaking forms of antisocial behavior

There is a robust association between negative parenting and child antisocial behavior problems. However, the etiology of this association remains unclear. Extant literature has reported strikingly different conclusions across studies, with some highlighting genetic mediation and others highlighting environmental mediation. One possible reason for these discrepancies across studies may be the failure to differentiate between aggressive and non-aggressive (rule-breaking) dimensions of childhood antisocial behavior, given their notably different etiologies and developmental trajectories (Burt 2012). The current study sought to examine the phenotypic and etiologic associations of maternal negativity with aggressive and rule-breaking antisocial behavior, respectively. Participants included 824 mothers and their twin children between the ages of 6 and 10. Our results highlighted clear etiologic distinctions in the associations of aggression and rule-breaking with maternal negativity. Aggression was associated with maternal negativity via both genetic and environmental factors, whereas the association between non-aggressive rule-breaking and maternal negativity was entirely environmental in origin. These findings provide additional support for the presence of meaningful distinctions between aggressive and non-aggressive forms of antisocial behavior, and highlight the complex relationship between parenting and child outcome.

Parent-child conflict and early childhood adjustment in two-parent low-income families: parallel developmental processes

Parent-child conflict is central to most intervention models focused on reducing child problem behavior, yet few longitudinal studies have examined these processes during early childhood. The current study investigates (1) growth in mother-child and father figure (FF)-child conflict, (2) associations between trajectories of mother-child and FF-child conflict and children's adjustment; and (3) intervention effects in attenuating conflict. Participants are 195 ethnically diverse mother-FF-child triads drawn from a larger parenting intervention study for families with children at risk for developing conduct problems. Mother-child conflict decreased from ages 2 to 4, but decreases were unrelated to changes in children's adjustment problems. In contrast, the slope of FF-child conflict was positively related to the slope of child externalizing behaviors. Random assignment to a family-centered parenting intervention predicted rate of decline in mother-child conflict. Findings are discussed with respect to developmental patterns of parent-child conflict in early childhood and implications for prevention.

Parental knowledge is an environmental influence on adolescent externalizing

BACKGROUND

There is evidence both that parental monitoring is an environmental influence serving to diminish adolescent externalizing problems and that this association may be driven by adolescents' characteristics via genetic and/or environmental mechanisms, such that adolescents with fewer problems tell their parents more, and therefore appear to be better monitored. Without information on how parents' and children's genes and environments influence correlated parent and child behaviors, it is impossible to clarify the mechanisms underlying this association.

METHOD

The present study used the Extended Children of Twins model to distinguish types of gene-environment correlation and direct environmental effects underlying associations between parental knowledge and adolescent (age 11-22 years) externalizing behavior with a Swedish sample of 909 twin parents and their adolescent offspring and a US-based sample of 405 White adolescent siblings and their parents.

RESULTS

Results suggest that more parental knowledge is associated with less adolescent externalizing via a direct environmental influence independent of any genetic influences. There was no evidence of a child-driven explanation of the association between parental knowledge and adolescent externalizing problems.

CONCLUSIONS

In this sample of adolescents, parental knowledge exerted an environmental influence on adolescent externalizing after accounting for genetic influences of parents and adolescents. Because the association between parenting and child development originates in the parent, treatment for adolescent externalizing must not only include parents but should also focus on altering their parental style. Thus, findings suggest that teaching parents better knowledge-related monitoring strategies is likely to help reduce externalizing problems in adolescents.

Family stress and adolescents' cognitive functioning: sleep as a protective factor

We examined 2 sleep-wake parameters as moderators of the associations between exposure to family stressors and adolescent cognitive functioning. Participants were 252 school-recruited adolescents (M = 15.79 years; 66% European American, 34% African American). Youths reported on 3 dimensions of family stress: marital conflict, harsh parenting, and parental psychological control. Cognitive functioning was indexed through performance on the Woodcock-Johnson III Tests of Cognitive Abilities. Sleep minutes and efficiency were measured objectively using actigraphy. Toward identifying unique effects, path models controlled for 2 family stress variables while estimating the third. Analyses revealed that sleep efficiency moderated the associations between negative parenting (harsh parenting and parental psychological control) and adolescents' cognitive functioning. The highest level of cognitive performance was predicted for adolescents with higher levels of sleep efficiency in conjunction with lower levels of either harsh parenting or psychological control. The effects of sleep were more pronounced at lower levels of negative parenting, in which adolescents with higher sleep efficiency performed better than their counterparts with poorer sleep. At higher levels of either harsh parenting or psychological control, similar levels of cognitive performance were observed regardless of sleep. Results are discussed in comparison with other recent studies on interrelations among family stress, sleep, and cognitive performance in childhood and adolescence.

[The role of genotype in the intergenerational transmission of experiences of childhood adversity]

The prevalence of childhood abuse and maltreatment is estimated to lie at about 15% in the overall German population. Previous research suggested that about one third of all individuals who had experienced childhood adversity subsequently maltreated their own children or responded insensitively to their children's needs. Empirical studies imply that interindividual differences in the responsiveness to childhood adversity can partially be explained by gene-environment interactions. This article discusses the potential interplay of genes and environment in the context of transmitting maltreating behavior and (in)sensitive parenting against the background of current challenges in genetic research. Selected studies on gene × environment interactions are presented and relevant gene polymorphisms are identified. Overall, previous studies reported interactions between polymorphisms of the serotonergic, dopaminergic, oxytocin-related, and arginine vasopressin-related systems and childhood experiences of care and abuse in the prediction of social behaviors during mother-child interactions. The results indicate a differential susceptibility toward both negative and positive environments which is dependent on genetic characteristics. Future research should thus investigate the effects of children's presumed risk gene variants toward negative as well as positive parenting. This could contribute to a deeper understanding of the underlying mechanisms of the intergenerational transmission of abusive and beneficial parenting behavior and help to avoid false stigmatizations.

Do non-shared environmental influences persist over time? An examination of days and minutes

Non-shared environmental influences show only minimal stability over time prior to adulthood. The long assessment lags (typically 3-5 years) that characterize most longitudinal twin studies, however, make it difficult to interpret these results. To more rigorously evaluate non-shared environmental stability prior to adulthood, we fitted biometric correlated factors models to (1) seven consecutive days of self-reported negative and positive affect in 239 twin pairs aged 16-25 years and (2) seven consecutive minutes of observer rated warmth and control in 687 twin pairs aged 6-10 years. We then empirically examined patterns of etiologic stability over time using a mixed effects analog to the one-way ANOVA. Genetic and shared environmental correlations were found to be highly stable over both days and minutes. By contrast, non-shared environmental correlations decreased monotonically with increasing lag length, and moreover, were small-to moderate in magnitude when examining intervals longer than a few minutes. Such findings imply that the non-shared environment may be comprised primarily of transient and idiosyncratic effects prior to adulthood.

The development of perceived maternal hostile, aggressive conflict from adolescence to early adulthood: antecedents and outcomes

The goal of this study was to investigate the development of mother-adolescent hostile aggressive conflict (MHAC) from late adolescence to young adulthood. The role of child' depressive and delinquency problems and family characteristics, as well as the relation of level and change in MHAC to adolescents' delinquency and depression in early adulthood will be investigated. From the Genzano Longitudinal study 385 adolescents (51% males) participated in this study and completed self report measures. Latent growth curve modeling, separately by gender, indicated that the overall level MHAC exhibited a modest decline over time. For both males and females, depressive problems were associated to higher initial levels of MHAC and early maternal age predicted less decline of MHAC. Starting levels of MHAC were associated with Delinquency in males and with Depression in females, while the growth of MHAC was associated to delinquency in males and females and to depression in males.

Divergence between adolescent and parental perceptions of conflict in relationship to adolescent empathy development

Adolescents' developing empathy may be associated with the frequency of conflict with parents, as well as the level of agreement between adolescent and parental perceptions of the frequency of such conflicts. This 6-year longitudinal study investigated the link between adolescent empathy development and perceptions of the frequency of parent-child conflict, as reported by 467 adolescents (43% female, from age 13) and both parents. First, we investigated heterogeneity in empathy development by identifying classes of individuals with similar developmental trajectories. Adolescents were categorized into high-, average-, and low-empathy classes. Initial differences between these classes further increased from age 13 to 16, particularly for cognitive empathy. To assess the association between empathy and the frequency of conflict, we compared these empathy classes in terms of initial levels and over-time changes in the frequency of adolescent- and parent-reported conflict. Compared to the average- and high-empathy classes, the low-empathy class evidenced elevated conflict throughout adolescence. Furthermore, the low- and average-empathy classes demonstrated temporary divergence between adolescent- and parent-reported conflict from early- to mid-adolescence, with adolescents underreporting conflict compared to both parents. Adolescents' agreement with parents was moderated by empathy class, while parents were always in agreement with one another. This may suggest that these discrepancies are related to distortions in adolescents' perceptions, as opposed to biased parental reports. These findings highlight the potential importance of early detection and intervention in empathy deficiencies, and suggest that lower adolescent empathy may indicate elevated family conflict, even if a failure to consider parents' perspective leads adolescents to underreport it.

Parent-child conflict and drug use in college women: a moderated mediation model of self-control and mindfulness

This cross-sectional study examined the association between parent-child conflict and illicit drug use in a sample of female college students (N = 928). The mediating roles of self-control and mindfulness, as well as an interaction between self-control and mindfulness, were examined in a moderated mediation model for the purposes of expanding etiological theory and introducing targets for the prevention and treatment of drug abuse. Whereas deficits in self-control were found to facilitate the positive relation observed between parent-child conflict and the likelihood of experiencing drug-related problems, an interaction between mindfulness and self-control helped explain the association between parent-child conflict and intensity of drug-related problems. Parent-child conflict was related to low mindfulness when self-control was low, and low mindfulness in turn was related to a higher intensity of drug-related problems. This association did not exist for women with high self-control. Findings are consistent with developmental research on the etiology of drug use and the protective properties of mindfulness and self-control. Mindfulness as a potential target of intervention for drug users with low self-control to prevent drug-related problems is explored.

"Great expectations" of adoptive parents: theory extension through structural equation modeling

BACKGROUND

Most of the 2 million adoptive parents in the United States make the transition to parenting successfully. Adoptive parents who do not make the transition easily may put their children at risk for negative outcomes.

OBJECTIVES

The aim of this study was to further refine Foli's midrange theory of postadoption depression, which postulates that fulfillment of expectations is a principal contributor to parental emotional health status, aggravation, and bonding.

METHODS

The linked dataset (National Survey of Children's Health and National Survey of Adoptive Parents) was used for structural equation modeling. The sample consisted of 1,426 parents with adopted children who had been placed in the home more than 2 years before survey completion.

RESULTS

Special services and child's behaviors were direct determinants of parental expectations, and parental expectations were direct determinants of parental aggravation and parentalbonding. As anticipated, parental expectations served as a mediator between child-related variables and parental outcomes. A path was also found between child's behaviors and special services and parental emotional health status. Child's past trauma was also associated with parental bonding.

DISCUSSION

Parental expectations showed direct relationships with the latent variables of parental aggravation and bonding. Future research should examine factors associated with early transition when children have been in the adoptive home less than 2 years and include specific expectations held by parents.

Gene-environment correlation underlying the association between parental negativity and adolescent externalizing problems

Studies of adolescent or parent-based twins suggest that gene-environment correlation (rGE) is an important mechanism underlying parent-adolescent relationships. However, information on how parents' and children's genes and environments influence correlated parent and child behaviors is needed to distinguish types of rGE. The present study used the novel Extended Children of Twins model to distinguish types of rGE underlying associations between negative parenting and adolescent (age 11-22 years) externalizing problems with a Swedish sample of 909 twin parents and their adolescent offspring and a U.S.-based sample of 405 adolescent siblings and their parents. Results suggest that evocative rGE, not passive rGE or direct environmental effects of parenting on adolescent externalizing, explains associations between maternal and paternal negativity and adolescent externalizing problems.

Do etiological influences on aggression overlap with those on rule breaking? A meta-analysis

BACKGROUND

Although aggressive (AGG) and non-aggressive rule-breaking (RB) dimensions of antisocial behavior have been shown to be differentially heritable, available studies have disagreed on the extent to which the genetic and environmental factors influencing AGG also influence RB. The current meta-analysis sought to clarify the extent of etiological overlap between AGG and RB. Method Thirteen twin/sibling studies examining the covariation between AGG and RB were collected, of which 11 (with 12 independent samples) were ultimately included in the analyses (n=12923 twin/sibling pairs). Genetic and environmental correlations between AGG and RB served as study effect sizes. When squared, these correlations directly index the proportion of genetic and environmental overlap. Data were analyzed using mixed effect models.

RESULTS

Analyses revealed that genetic influences on AGG were largely, but not entirely, distinct from those on RB: only 38.4% of the genetic influences on AGG overlapped with those on RB. Similarly, only 10.2% of the non-shared environmental influences on AGG overlapped with those on RB. Although the conclusion that etiological influences on AGG are partially distinct from those on RB persisted across several potential moderators, the age of the sample and the informant used were found to moderate the extent of overlap.

CONCLUSIONS

The findings underscore the presence of meaningful etiological distinctions between AGG and RB, and imply that future conceptualizations of antisocial behavior should be organized (at least in part) around the dimensions of AGG and RB.

Overview of Behavioral Genetics Research for Family Researchers

This article provides an overview of the methods, assumptions, and key findings of behavioral genetics methodology for family researchers with a limited background. We discuss how family researchers can utilize and contribute to the behavioral genetics field, particularly in terms of conducting research that seeks to explain shared environmental effects. This can be done, in part, by theoretically controlling for genetic confounds in research that seeks to determine cause-and-effect relationships among family variables and individual outcomes. Gene-environment correlation and interaction are especially promising areas for the family researcher to address. Given the methodological advancements in the field, we also briefly comment on new methods in molecular genetics for studying psychological mental health disorders.

Maternal Attachment Status, Mother-Child Emotion Talk, Emotion Understanding, and Child Conduct Problems

Conduct problems that emerge in childhood often persist into adolescence and are associated with a range of negative outcomes. It is therefore important to identify the factors that predict conduct problems in early childhood. The present study investigated the relations among maternal attachment status, mother-child emotion talk, child emotion understanding, and conduct problems in a sample of 92 (46 males) typically developing children (M age = 61.3 months, SD = 8.3 months). The results support a model in which maternal attachment status predicts the level of appropriate/responsive mother-child emotion talk, which predicts child emotion understanding, which in turn negatively predicts child conduct problems. These findings further underline the developmental role of mother-child emotion talk as well as the importance of involving parents in programs designed to increase children’s emotion understanding and/or decrease the incidence of conduct problems.

Etiological contributions to the covariation between children's perceptions of inter-parental conflict and child behavioral problems

Prior work has suggested that inter-parental conflict likely plays an etiological role in child behavior problems. However, family-level measurement of inter-parental conflict in most traditional child twin studies has made it difficult to tease apart the specific causal mechanisms underlying this association. The Children's Perception of Inter-parental Conflict scale (CPIC) provides a child-specific measurement tool for examining these questions, as its subscales tap multiple dimensions of conflict assessed from the child's (rather than the parent's) perspective. The current study examined (1) the degree of genetic and environmental influence on each of the CPIC subscales, and (2) etiological contributions to the covariation between the CPIC scales and parental reports of child behavioral problems. The CPIC was completed by 1,200 child twins (aged 6-11 years) from the Michigan State University Twin Registry (MSUTR). Parents completed the Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL) to assess child internalizing and externalizing behavior problems. Multivariate models were examined to evaluate the relative contributions of genetic and environmental factors to both the CPIC scales and to their overlap with child behavioral outcomes. Modeling results indicated no significant moderation of sex or age. Significant environmental overlap emerged between the CPIC conflict properties scale and child internalizing and externalizing problems. By contrast, significant genetic correlations emerged between the CPIC self-blame scale and externalizing problems as well as between the CPIC threat scale and internalizing problems. Overall, findings suggest that the subscales of the CPIC are somewhat etiologically diverse and may provide a useful tool for future investigations of possible gene-environment interplay.

A longitudinal investigation of the associations among parenting, deviant peer affiliation, and externalizing behaviors: a monozygotic twin differences design

Non-shared parenting and deviant peer affiliation are linked to differences in externalizing behaviors between twins. However, few studies have examined these two non-shared environments simultaneously. The present study examined the transactional roles of differential parenting (i.e., warmth and hostility) and deviant peer affiliation on monozygotic (MZ) twin differences in externalizing behaviors using a two-wave longitudinal study of twins and their parents. The sample consisted of 520 pairs of MZ twins (46.5% males, 53.5% females), with a mean age of 13.86 years (SD = 2.10) at the T1 assessment, residing in Beijing, China. The association between non-shared hostility in parenting and adolescent externalizing behaviors was mainly explained by a child-driven effect whereby the twin with a higher level of externalizing behaviors than his or her co-twin was more likely to receive more hostility from the parents. Similarly, the relationship between deviant peer affiliation and adolescent externalizing behaviors supported the selection effect whereby the twin with a higher level of externalizing behaviors than his or her co-twin was more likely to affiliate with deviant peers. The theoretical and practical implications of these findings are discussed.

Mother-Adolescent Conflict: Stability, Change, and Relations with Externalizing and Internalizing Behavior Problems

Stability and change in mother-adolescent conflict reactions (CRs) and the prediction of CRs from adolescents' earlier behavior problems (and vice versa) were examined with 131 mothers and their adolescents (63 boys). Dyads engaged in a 6-minute conflict discussion twice, 2 years apart (M age was 13 at Time 1 (T1). Nonverbal expressive and verbal CRs during the conflict discussion were coded. Mothers, fathers, and teachers reported on adolescents' problem behaviors. There was inter-individual (rank-order) stability for adolescents' CRs whereas mothers' reactions were less stable. Mean levels of mothers' negativity, anger, and positive reactions and adolescents' negativity declined with time. Mothers' CRs predicted and were predicted by adolescents' problem behaviors more often than adolescents' CRs in zero-order correlations. In structural models with the stability of the constructs accounted for, adolescents' externalizing problems at T1 predicted higher maternal anger at T2. Mothers' anger and positive CRs at T1 predicted fewer T2 adolescents' internalizing problems. Stability and change in CRs are discussed.

The implications of genotype-environment correlation for establishing causal processes in psychopathology

The significance of genotype-environment interplay is its focus on how causal factors, whether environmental or genetic, have their effects. It is difficult to establish causality in observational research because of the potential for reverse causation and confounding. Most environmental measures are heritable, which means that their effects on the risk for psychopathology are potentially confounded by genotype. In contrast, genetic influences on psychopathology may be mediated by their effect on environmental exposures. The existence of genetic influences on putative environmental risk factors offers both possibilities and pitfalls for research into environmental epidemiology. We use the example of parenting and its influence on childhood externalizing problems to review how genotype-environment correlations can be exploited to demonstrate causal processes in pyschopathology.

Stress in Latino families following an adolescent's childbearing: effects on family relationships and siblings

This study examined how increased stress in Latino families following an adolescent's childbearing impacts family relationships and the adolescent's siblings. Participants were 243 Mexican American youth (mean age: 13.7 years; 62% girls), or 121 youth who had a pregnant adolescent sister and 122 youth who had an adolescent sister who had never been pregnant. Youth and their mothers were studied at 4 time points across 15 months: The families of pregnant adolescents were studied when the adolescent sister was in her third trimester of pregnancy, and at 2 months, 6 months, and 12 months postpartum; the families of never-pregnant adolescents were studied at like intervals. Individual fixed-effects structural equation models were computed, which control for earlier measures of study constructs and thereby reduce omitted variable bias from preexisting family group differences. Results showed that an adolescent's childbearing was related to increases in family stress, which were related to increases in mothers' harsh parenting and mother-sibling conflict, which, in turn, were related to subsequent increases in siblings' problem behavior. Multiple group analyses revealed that the pathways through which a teenager's childbearing influences siblings operate similarly for girls and boys. Tests of an alternate ordering of model variables indicated a poor fit with the data. Findings provide evidence that the accumulation of stressful family changes following an adolescent's childbearing can negatively impact siblings. Findings also elucidate how family-level stress and disruption experienced across a family transition trickle down to affect family relationships and, in turn, child family members.

The role of family conflict on risky sexual behavior in adolescents aged 15 to 21

PURPOSE

Family conflict is related to numerous risky behavioral outcomes during adolescence; however, few studies have examined how family conflict is associated with risky sexual behavior during adolescence.

METHODS

Data from 1104 adolescents aged 15 to 21 who completed the 2008 National Longitudinal Survey of Youth were analyzed. Information on family conflict (family fighting and family criticizing) and sexual behavior (number of sexual partners in past year and use of contraception at last intercourse) was self-reported. Logistic regression was used to obtain odds ratios (ORs) and 95% confidence intervals (CIs).

RESULTS

After adjustment, adolescents whose family members often fought had increased odds of not using contraception at last intercourse and having two or more sexual partners in the past year (OR, 1.40 [95% CI, 1.04-1.88] and OR, 1.62 [95% CI, 1.23-2.14], respectively). Adolescents whose family members often criticized each other also had increased odds of not using contraception at last intercourse and having two or more sexual partners in the past year (OR, 1.46 [95% CI, 1.12-1.90] and OR, 1.22 [95% CI, 0.96-1.55], respectively).

CONCLUSIONS

Family conflict was associated with risky sexual behaviors in this racially/ethnically diverse sample of adolescents. If confirmed in other studies, adolescents who experience family conflict may be an important population to target with information regarding safer sex practices.