Training the brain: practical applications of neural plasticity from the intersection of cognitive neuroscience, developmental psychology, and prevention science

An Interpretive Phenomenological Analysis of Teachers' Lived Experiences of Working with Traumatised Children in the Classroom

This study illuminates teachers' lived experiences of working with traumatised children in school environments. Children who experience trauma display a range of behaviours in the classroom which impact on attainment and outcomes. Dealing with childhood trauma in the classroom is challenging and brings risks to teachers' mental health including secondary traumatic stress and burnout. Interpretative phenomenological analysis (IPA) was employed to understand the lived experiences of teachers working with traumatised children in the classroom. Findings from in-depth semi-structured interviews with six teachers indicate that teachers increasingly support traumatised children in the classroom but there is a need for targeted trauma-informed training and effective support from senior management to support teachers' mental health and wellbeing.

Null cross-modal effects of olfactory training on visual, auditory or olfactory working memory in 6- to 9-year-old children

Systematic exposure to odours (olfactory training, OT) is a method of smell loss treatment. Due to olfactory system projections to prefrontal brain areas, OT has been hypothesized to enhance cognitive functions, but its effects have been studied predominantly in adults. This study tested OT effects on working memory (WM), i.e., the ability to store and manipulate information for a short time, in healthy children aged 6-9 years. We expected OT to improve olfactory WM and establish cross-modal transfer to visual and auditory WM. Participants performed 12 weeks of bi-daily OT with either 4 odours (lemon, eucalyptus, rose, cloves; OT group) or odourless propylene glycol (placebo group). Pre- and post-training, participants' WM was measured utilizing odours (olfactory WM) or pictures (visual WM) and a word-span task (auditory WM). 84 children (40 girls) completed the study. The analyses revealed no changes in the WM performance following OT. The olfactory WM task was the most difficult for children, highlighting the need to include olfactory-related tasks in educational programmes to improve children's odour knowledge and memory, just as they learn about sounds and pictures. Further neuroimaging research is needed to fully understand the impact of OT on cognitive functions in children.

A challenge to the expected: Lack of longitudinal associations between the early caregiving environment, executive functions in toddlerhood, and self-regulation at 6 years

Previous research and theory indicate an importance of the quality of the early caregiving environment in the development of self-regulation. However, it is unclear how attachment security and maternal sensitivity, two related but distinct aspects of the early caregiving environment, may differentially predict self-regulation at school start and whether a distinction between hot and cool executive function is informative in characterizing such predictions through mediation. In a 5-year longitudinal study (n = 108), we examined these associations using measures of maternal sensitivity and attachment security at 10-12 months, executive function at 4 years, and self-regulation at 6 years. Surprisingly, and despite methodological rigor, we found few significant bivariate associations between the study variables. We found no credible evidence of a longitudinal association between maternal sensitivity or attachment security in infancy and self-regulation at 6 years, or between executive function at 4 years and self-regulation at 6 years. The lack of bivariate longitudinal associations precluded us from building mediation models as intended. We discuss our null findings in terms of their potential theoretical implications, as well as how measurement type, reliability, and validity, may play a key role in determining longitudinal associations between early caregiving factors and later self-regulation and related abilities. RESEARCH HIGHLIGHTS: The early caregiving environment has been implicated in the development of later self-regulation, which includes more basic skills, such as hot and cool executive functions (EF). In a 5-year longitudinal study, with a sample of 108 children, we rigorously measured aspects of early caregiving, EF, and self-regulation. We found no significant longitudinal associations between early caregiving and self-regulation at 6 years, nor between EF at 4 years and self-regulation at 6 years. These null results highlight the complexity of modeling self-regulation development and raise critical questions about general methodological conventions within self-regulation development research.

Current Trends in Gait Rehabilitation for Stroke Survivors: A Scoping Review of Randomized Controlled Trials

BACKGROUND

Stroke stands as a significant global health concern, constituting a leading cause of disability worldwide. Rehabilitation interventions are crucial in aiding the recovery of stroke patients, contributing to an overall enhancement in their quality of life. This scoping review seeks to identify current trends in gait rehabilitation for stroke survivors.

METHODS

The review followed the methodological framework suggested by Arksey and O'Malley. Electronic databases, such as CINAHL Complete, MEDLINE Complete, and Nursing & Allied Health Collection, were systematically searched in November 2023. Inclusion criteria comprised papers published in either English or Portuguese from 2013 to 2023.

RESULTS

From the initial search, a total of 837 papers were identified; twenty-one papers were incorporated into this review. Thirteen distinct categories of gait rehabilitation interventions were identified, encompassing diverse approaches. These categories comprise conventional rehabilitation exercises, traditional gait training with integrated technology, and gait training supported by modern technologies.

CONCLUSIONS

Although traditional rehabilitation exercises have historically proven effective in aiding stroke survivors, a recent trend has emerged, emphasizing the development and integration of innovative therapeutic approaches that harness modern technologies.

Psychosocial interventions for stimulant use disorder

BACKGROUND

Stimulant use disorder is a continuously growing medical and social burden without approved medications available for its treatment. Psychosocial interventions could be a valid approach to help people reduce or cease stimulant consumption. This is an update of a Cochrane review first published in 2016.

OBJECTIVES

To assess the efficacy and safety of psychosocial interventions for stimulant use disorder in adults.

SEARCH METHODS

We searched the Cochrane Drugs and Alcohol Group Specialised Register, Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials (CENTRAL), MEDLINE, Embase, three other databases, and two trials registers in September 2023. All searches included non-English language literature. We handsearched the references of topic-related systematic reviews and the included studies.

SELECTION CRITERIA

We included randomised controlled trials (RCTs) comparing any psychosocial intervention with no intervention, treatment as usual (TAU), or a different intervention in adults with stimulant use disorder.

DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS

We used the standard methodological procedures expected by Cochrane.

MAIN RESULTS

We included a total of 64 RCTs (8241 participants). Seventy-three percent of studies included participants with cocaine or crack cocaine use disorder; 3.1% included participants with amphetamine use disorder; 10.9% included participants with methamphetamine use disorder; and 12.5% included participants with any stimulant use disorder. In 18 studies, all participants were in methadone maintenance treatment. In our primary comparison of any psychosocial treatment to no intervention, we included studies which compared a psychosocial intervention plus TAU to TAU alone. In this comparison, 12 studies evaluated cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT), 27 contingency management, three motivational interviewing, one study looked at psychodynamic therapy, and one study evaluated CBT plus contingency management. We also compared any psychosocial intervention to TAU. In this comparison, seven studies evaluated CBT, two contingency management, two motivational interviewing, and one evaluated a combination of CBT plus motivational interviewing. Seven studies compared contingency management reinforcement related to abstinence versus contingency management not related to abstinence. Finally, seven studies compared two different psychosocial approaches. We judged 65.6% of the studies to be at low risk of bias for random sequence generation and 19% at low risk for allocation concealment. Blinding of personnel and participants was not possible for the type of intervention, so we judged all the studies to be at high risk of performance bias for subjective outcomes but at low risk for objective outcomes. We judged 22% of the studies to be at low risk of detection bias for subjective outcomes. We judged most of the studies (69%) to be at low risk of attrition bias. When compared to no intervention, we found that psychosocial treatments: reduce the dropout rate (risk ratio (RR) 0.82, 95% confidence interval (CI) 0.74 to 0.91; 30 studies, 4078 participants; high-certainty evidence); make little to no difference to point abstinence at the end of treatment (RR 1.15, 95% CI 0.94 to 1.41; 12 studies, 1293 participants; high-certainty evidence); make little to no difference to point abstinence at the longest follow-up (RR 1.22, 95% CI 0.91 to 1.62; 9 studies, 1187 participants; high-certainty evidence); probably increase continuous abstinence at the end of treatment (RR 1.89, 95% CI 1.20 to 2.97; 12 studies, 1770 participants; moderate-certainty evidence); may make little to no difference in continuous abstinence at the longest follow-up (RR 1.14, 95% CI 0.89 to 1.46; 4 studies, 295 participants; low-certainty evidence); reduce the frequency of drug intake at the end of treatment (standardised mean difference (SMD) -0.35, 95% CI -0.50 to -0.19; 10 studies, 1215 participants; high-certainty evidence); and increase the longest period of abstinence (SMD 0.54, 95% CI 0.41 to 0.68; 17 studies, 2118 participants; high-certainty evidence). When compared to TAU, we found that psychosocial treatments reduce the dropout rate (RR 0.79, 95% CI 0.65 to 0.97; 9 studies, 735 participants; high-certainty evidence) and may make little to no difference in point abstinence at the end of treatment (RR 1.67, 95% CI 0.64 to 4.31; 1 study, 128 participants; low-certainty evidence). We are uncertain whether they make any difference in point abstinence at the longest follow-up (RR 1.31, 95% CI 0.86 to 1.99; 2 studies, 124 participants; very low-certainty evidence). Compared to TAU, psychosocial treatments may make little to no difference in continuous abstinence at the end of treatment (RR 1.18, 95% CI 0.92 to 1.53; 1 study, 128 participants; low-certainty evidence); probably make little to no difference in the frequency of drug intake at the end of treatment (SMD -1.17, 95% CI -2.81 to 0.47, 4 studies, 479 participants, moderate-certainty evidence); and may make little to no difference in the longest period of abstinence (SMD -0.16, 95% CI -0.54 to 0.21; 1 study, 110 participants; low-certainty evidence). None of the studies for this comparison assessed continuous abstinence at the longest follow-up. Only five studies reported harms related to psychosocial interventions; four of them stated that no adverse events occurred.

AUTHORS' CONCLUSIONS

This review's findings indicate that psychosocial treatments can help people with stimulant use disorder by reducing dropout rates. This conclusion is based on high-certainty evidence from comparisons of psychosocial interventions with both no treatment and TAU. This is an important finding because many people with stimulant use disorders leave treatment prematurely. Stimulant use disorders are chronic, lifelong, relapsing mental disorders, which require substantial therapeutic efforts to achieve abstinence. For those who are not yet able to achieve complete abstinence, retention in treatment may help to reduce the risks associated with stimulant use. In addition, psychosocial interventions reduce stimulant use compared to no treatment, but they may make little to no difference to stimulant use when compared to TAU. The most studied and promising psychosocial approach is contingency management. Relatively few studies explored the other approaches, so we cannot rule out the possibility that the results were imprecise due to small sample sizes.

A theory of the skill-performance relationship

The skill-performance relationship is a cornerstone of a meritocratic society. People are selected for schools, colleges and jobs based on the premise that more skillful individuals perform better. Scientific understanding of the skill-performance relationship demands that the effect of skill on performance is objectively assessed without subjective, social, and political considerations. One of the best areas for this analysis is sports. In many sports settings, the skill-performance relationship can objectively be examined at the technical, behavioral, psychological, and neurological levels. This examination reveals that skill and performance are inextricably intertwined. While skill affects performance, performance in turn defines and affects skill. To disentangle the previously confusing and interchangeable use of these key constructs, the paper presents a theoretical model specifying that ability and effort have their own direct effects on performance, as well as indirect effects on performance through skill possession and skill execution in cognitive and physical domains of human performance. Thus, ability and skill are not the same. Although skill is a key determinant of performance, recent theory and research suggests that successful performers are successful not just because of their skills per se, but because they take advantage of their skills by creating more occurrences of momentum, making them last longer, and using them to bounce back faster from streaks of unsuccessful performance. Thus, momentum is an important mediator of the effects of skill on performance.

The effect of cognitive training on children with attention deficit and hyperactivity disorder: A meta-analysis

OBJECTIVE

This document is a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials that evaluated the effect of cognitive training interventions on attention deficit and hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) symptoms.

METHODS

A systematic literature search was conducted using databases such as PubMed, Web of Science, and Embase from the inception of each database to April 28, 2022. Data were analyzed using Stata 15 software. The risk of bias assessment was conducted using five domains from the Cochrane Collaborations tool.

RESULTS

A total of 10 studies with 446 children with ADHD were included. The results showed that cognitive training was effective in improving attention symptoms [SMD= -0.78 (95% CI: -1.46, -0.1)] and executive function [SMD = -0.3 (95% CI: -0.56, -0.05)] in children with ADHD compared to controls. No significant difference in the degree of improvement in hyperactivity/impulsivity with cognitive training compared to the control group [SMD = -0.65 (95% CI: -1.35, 0.05)]. In addition, subgroup analyses also found that cognitive training significantly improved attention in children with ADHD <10 years of age [SMD = -1.3 (95% CI: -2.58, -0.02)] and children with ADHD with length of training >30 days [SMD = -0.94 (95% CI: -1.81, -0.07)] compared to controls.

CONCLUSION

This meta-analysis found that the beneficial effects of cognitive training on attention (particularly for children with ADHD <10 years old and >30 days of training) and executive function in children with ADHD, but not on hyperactivity/impulsivity.

Lateralization of the cerebral network of inhibition in children before and after cognitive training

Inhibitory control (IC) plays a critical role in cognitive and socio-emotional development. IC relies on a lateralized cortico-subcortical brain network including the inferior frontal cortex, anterior parts of insula, anterior cingulate cortex, caudate nucleus and putamen. Brain asymmetries play a critical role for IC efficiency. In parallel to age-related changes, IC can be improved following training. The aim of this study was to (1) assess the lateralization of IC network in children (N = 60, 9-10 y.o.) and (2) examine possible changes in neural asymmetry of this network from anatomical (structural MRI) and functional (resting-state fMRI) levels after 5-week computerized IC vs. active control (AC) training. We observed that IC training, but not AC training, led to a leftward lateralization of the putamen anatomy, similarly to what is observed in adults, supporting that training could accelerate the maturation of this structure.

Current Trends in Balance Rehabilitation for Stroke Survivors: A Scoping Review of Experimental Studies

Balance impairment is a common consequence of a stroke, which can significantly hinder individuals' participation in daily activities, social interactions, and leisure pursuits and their ability to return to work. Rehabilitation is vital for minimizing post-stroke sequelae and facilitating the recovery of patients. This review aims to identify current trends in balance rehabilitation of stroke survivors. This Scoping review followed Arksey and O'Malley's methodological framework. The literature search was conducted in electronic databases, including CINAHL Complete, MEDLINE Complete, and Nursing & Allied Health Collection. The search was performed in March 2023, and the inclusion criteria were articles published in English or Portuguese between 2013 and 2023. A total of 446 articles were identified. After selecting and analyzing the reports, fourteen publications were included in this review. Seven distinct categories of balance rehabilitation interventions were identified, covering various approaches. These categories included conventional rehabilitation exercises, gym-based interventions, vibration therapy, rhythmic auditory stimulation training, boxing therapy, dual-task training, and technology-based rehabilitation interventions. Each of these methods presents unique benefits and can significantly impact the recovery of balance in stroke survivors, enhancing their overall well-being and functional capacity.

Associations among teacher-child interaction, children's executive function and children's comprehensible vocabulary

Objective

To understand the working mechanism and the relationships among the quality of teacher-child interaction (TCI), children's comprehensible vocabulary (CV) and executive function (EF).

Methods

Using stratified sampling, 900 children (boys 50.2%) and 60 preschool teachers were recruited from 4 places in China for testing, and five measurement tools, including the Classroom Assessment Scoring System (CLASS), the Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test (PPVT-R), the Stroop test, a card sorting task, and the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC-IV), were used.

Results

For every additional unit of TCI, EF increases by 0.55 units; For every additional unit of EF, CV increases by 0.55 units; For every additional unit of CV, EF increases by 0.55 units; For every additional unit of CV, TCI increases by 0.38 units; For every additional unit of TCI, CV increases by 0.38 units. In the Model of TCI-EF-CV, the estimated value of TCI and the total effect of comprehensible vocabulary is 0.18; Z = 9.84, which is significantly greater than 1.96 at the bias-corrected 95% confidence interval and at the percentile 95% confidence interval (0.15, 0.23), both of which do not contain 0. The direct effect of TCI and CV is significant and indirect effects account for 39%. In the Model of TCI-CV-EF, the total effect of TCI on executive function is 0.09 (Z = 6.14), the direct effect is not significant with bias-corrected 95% confidence interval and 95% confidence interval (-0.01, 0.03), both of which include 0.

Conclusion

There are two-way effects among children's EF and CV, TCI and CV. EF plays a mediating role in the influence of TCI on CV. TCI positively predicts children's EF, but this mainly depends on CV. Therefore, TCI plays a positive role in the development of children's CV and EF.

Effectiveness of non-pharmacological therapies on cognitive function in patients with dementia-A network meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials

Objective

Non-pharmacological therapies (NPTs) have received increasing attention from researchers as a category of treatment to improve cognitive impairment in patients with dementia because of their fewer side effects. In this study, photobiomodulation (PBM), enriched environment (EE), exercise therapy (ET), computerized cognitive training (CCT), and cognitive stimulation therapy (CST) were selected to compare the effects of NPTs that improve dementia by quantifying information from randomized controlled trials (RCTs).

Methods

We did a systematic review and network meta-analysis. We searched PubMed, Embase, Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials (CENTRAL), China National Knowledge Infrastructure Database, Wan Fang Database, Chinese Biomedical Literature Database, Web of Science, and VIP Database from the time of database creation to 1 August 2022. Two investigators independently screened the literature, extracted information, and assessed the RCTs' quality with the Cochrane Collaboration Network Risk of Bias 2.0. Network meta-analysis was performed using R language (X64 version 4.1.3) and STATA 17.0.

Results

We identified 1,268 citations and of these included 38 trials comprising 3,412 participants. For improving dementia, the results of the network meta-analysis showed that compared with the control group (CON), PBM (SMD = 0.90, 95% CI: 0.43-1.37), EE (SMD = 0.71, 95% CI: 0.02-1.41), ET (SMD = 0.42, 95% CI: 0.16-0.68), and CST (SMD = 0.36, 95% CI: 0.11-0.62) were significantly different (P < 0.05); There was no significant difference in CCT (SMD = 0.41, 95% CI: -0.07-0.88) (P > 0.05). The ranked results showed that PBM has more potential to be the best intervention (P = 0.90). In addition, there was a significant difference between PBM and CST in improving cognitive function (SMD = 0.54, 95% CI: 0.00; 1.08, P < 0.05).

Conclusion

In this study, NPTs have excellent potential to improve cognition in people with dementia, and PBM may have more significant benefits in improving cognition than the other four NPTs.

Systematic review registration

https://www.crd.york.ac.uk/prospero/, identifier CRD42022363746.

Sports Participation and Academic Performance in Primary School: A Cross-Sectional Study in Chinese Children

Previous studies have demonstrated that the effect of sports participation on student health and academic performance is significant. However, the relationship between sports participation and academic performance in specific subjects (e.g., English) in the Chinese population is not clear, especially in primary schools. Therefore, the present cross-sectional study aimed to investigate the relationship between sports participation and academic performance in Chinese elementary schools.

METHODS

All study participants were asked to self-report their sociodemographic factors (e.g., sex, grade, age), independence, and outcomes. Alongside that, a self-reported questionnaire was used to assess participation in sports and academic performance of three core subjects in China's schooling system (Chinese; math; English; from A to F, with A indicating the best academic performance). An ordered logistic regression, with an odds ratio (OR) at 95%CI confidence interval, was performed to examine the association between sports team participation and academic performance.

RESULTS

The final analysis included 27,954 children aged 10-14. Children in the fifth and sixth grades accounted for 50.2% and 49.8%. Chinese, math, and English academic performance were positively correlated with participation in sports. Compared with students who never participate in sports, those students who participate in sports 1-3 times a month, 1-2 times a week, and 3 or more times a week, were more likely to achieve better grades. In terms of math, compared with students who never participate in sports, those students who participate in sports 1-3 times a month, 1-2 times a week, and 3 or more times a week, were more likely to achieve better grades. Regarding English, compared with students who never participate in sports, those students who participate in sports 1-3 times a month, 1-2 times a week, and 3 or more times a week, were more likely to achieve better grades.

CONCLUSIONS

Consistent with previous studies, the current study confirms the positive effect of sports participation on children's academic performance. For an academic-related outreach, gender-, grade- and area-specific strategies should be considered in future research.

Growing Brains, Nurturing Minds-Neuroscience as an Educational Tool to Support Students' Development as Life-Long Learners

Compared to other primates, humans are late bloomers, with exceptionally long childhood and adolescence. The extensive developmental period of humans is thought to facilitate the learning processes required for the growth and maturation of the complex human brain. During the first two and a half decades of life, the human brain is a construction site, and learning processes direct its shaping through experience-dependent neuroplasticity. Formal and informal learning, which generates long-term and accessible knowledge, is mediated by neuroplasticity to create adaptive structural and functional changes in brain networks. Since experience-dependent neuroplasticity is at full force during school years, it holds a tremendous educational opportunity. In order to fulfill this developmental and learning potential, educational practices should be human-brain-friendly and "ride" the neuroplasticity wave. Neuroscience can inform educators about the natural learning mechanisms of the brain to support student learning. This review takes a neuroscientific lens to explore central concepts in education (e.g., mindset, motivation, meaning-making, and attention) and suggests two methods of using neuroscience as an educational tool: teaching students about their brain (content level) and considering the neuro-mechanisms of learning in educational design (design level).

Is a hybrid of online and face-to-face services feasible for audiological rehabilitation post COVID-19? Findings from three public health patients

Background: The global coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic has pushed many audiologists to incorporate remote service delivery methods to adhere to mandatory health and safety protocols. The use of tele-audiology for audiological rehabilitation may provide a sustainable, cost-effective modality to suit the existing need, particularly in low-resourced countries.Objectives: This study aimed to investigate the feasibility of implementing a hybrid tele-rehabilitation programme in a South African public health context. An online auditory training (AT) programme was used to determine (1) compliance, (2) clinical benefit, (3) participant experience and (4) costs.Method: A convergent mixed methods design with a feasibility approach was utilised. Data collection was done through questionnaires, in-booth assessments, online AT, and face-to-face interviewing. Participants undertook online AT over 4 weeks. For pre- and post-online AT, the Abbreviated Profile of Hearing Aid Benefit (APHAB), QuickSIN, entrance and exit questionnaires, interviews and a system usability scale were administered.Results: Key findings of this study included (1) a high compliance rate (84.82%) with minimal clinician contact time at 3 h 25 min over 5–6-weeks; (2) improvement in perceived hearing aid (HA) benefit, and improvement in listening skills; (3) reported positive experiences; and (4) minimal programme costs at an average of R1350.00 per participant.Conclusion: The results showed positive indicators that the use of hybrid tele-rehabilitative strategies may provide a viable alternative to the traditional face-to-face modality. The hybrid approach showed clinical benefits, cost-effectiveness, minimal contact time as well as COVID-19 compliance. Further large-scale research is still needed.

Behavioral and electrophysiological indices of inhibitory control in maltreated adolescents and nonmaltreated adolescents

Early adverse experiences are believed to have a profound effect on inhibitory control and the underlying neural regions. In the current study, behavioral and event-related potential (ERP) data were collected during a go/no-go task from adolescents who were involved with the child welfare system due to child maltreatment (n = 129) and low-income, nonmaltreated adolescents (n = 102). The nonmaltreated adolescents were more accurate than the maltreated adolescents on the go/no-go task, particularly on the no-go trials. Paralleling the results with typically developing populations, the nonmaltreated adolescents displayed a more pronounced amplitude of the N2 during the no-go trials than during the go trials. However, the maltreated adolescents demonstrated a more pronounced amplitude of the N2 during the go trials than during the no-go trials. Furthermore, while the groups did not differ during the go trials, the nonmaltreated adolescents displayed a more negative amplitude of the N2 than the maltreated adolescents during no-go trials. In contrast, there was not a significant group difference in amplitude of the P3. Taken together, these results provide evidence that the early adverse experiences encountered by maltreated populations impact inhibitory control and the underlying neural activity in early adolescence.

Viewing Strategies in Children With Visual Impairment and Children With Normal Vision: A Systematic Scoping Review

Viewing strategies are strategies used to support visual information processing. These strategies may differ between children with cerebral visual impairment (CVI), children with ocular visual impairment, and children with normal vision since visual impairment might have an impact on viewing behavior. In current visual rehabilitation practice a variety of strategies is used without consideration of the differences in etiology of the visual impairment or in the spontaneous viewing strategies used. This systematic scoping review focuses on viewing strategies used during near school-based tasks like reading and on possible interventions aimed at viewing strategies. The goal is threefold: (1) creating a clear concept of viewing strategies, (2) mapping differences in viewing strategies between children with ocular visual impairment, children with CVI and children with normal vision, and (3) identifying interventions that can improve visual processing by targeting viewing strategies. Four databases were used to conduct the literature search: PubMed, Embase, PsycINFO and Cochrane. Seven hundred and ninety-nine articles were screened by two independent reviewers using PRISMA reporting guidelines of which 30 were included for qualitative analysis. Only five studies explicitly mentioned strategies used during visual processing, namely gaze strategies, reading strategies and search strategies. We define a viewing strategy as a conscious and systematic way of viewing during task performance. The results of this review are integrated with different attention network systems, which provide direction on how to design future interventions targeting the use of viewing strategies to improve different aspects of visual processing.

Validity of The Evaluation System of Children and Adolescents to Measure Executive Functions: Convergent Validity

Executive functions (EFs) refer to a set of cognitive skills used to achieve goals and adapt to novelty and social situations. These cognitive skills strongly impact people’s daily lives. Hence, assessing these skills is important for an early intervention to address their lack if need be. Nevertheless, relevant scientific literature reports difficulties in assessing EFs, as they are a set of processes that involve many dimensions. Further, there are differences between everyday situations wherein EFs are employed and the context of a typical performance-based task, involving the use of EFs. Questionnaires are an excellent way to address these difficulties. The objective of this study is to test SENA’s convergent validity in terms of EFs’ assessment. The SENA is the first Spanish standardized questionnaire based on DSM-5 (2013), it assesses emotional and behavioral problems in children aged 3–18 years. This experiment involved students from regular schools ( N = 140; M age = 6.97 SD = 1.02). Statistical analysis was conducted that compared a validated EFs test (BRIEF-2) and the SENA test. The results of this study suggested the presence of convergent validity between SENA and BRIEF-2 vis-a-vis EFs. Thus, SENA is a valid assessment for EFs that are called for in school and family environments for those who speak Spanish. That said SENA is more comprehensive than BRIEF-2, as it not only assesses EFs but also identifies the problems currently associated with the failure in employing EFs, psychological vulnerabilities, and personal resources that are lacking. SENA provides a complete picture of children’s and adolescents' behaviors and emotions.

Exploring Cognitive Processes of Knowledge Acquisition to Upgrade Academic Practices

The development of cognitive functions follows certain pathways through brain maturation. Concepts taught at school can be reinforced by understanding the related cognitive functions that enhance learning. The cultural and social diversities faced by the education system worldwide can be solved by understanding the unifying cognitive processes of learning. This knowledge can be effectively used to devise better curriculum and training for students. Cognition, conation, and emotional regulation are the main components that determine an individual’s efficiency to deal with various situations. How the brain receives input, perceives, and organizes these information lays the foundation for learning. The objectives of the study were (i) to explore age-group specific inputs for knowledge acquisition, (ii) to relate knowledge organization to the cognitive processes, and (iii) to identify factors that strengthen the knowledge ensemble through subject-domain allied training. The review focused on studies related to elementary school age (below 7 years), middle school age (7–12 years), and high school age (12 years and above). Published journal articles related to the objectives were randomly reviewed to establish a possible relationship. The findings of this review can help to advance student learning practices and instructional strategies. The findings are listed below. (i) Acquisition of knowledge during early childhood is based on sensory-motor integration on which attentional, perceptual, memory, language, and socialization systems develop. As brain development progresses toward adolescence, meta-awareness and social-emotional cognition influence the student learning process. (ii) Knowledge representations can be strengthened by domain-specific training inputs. (iii) Associational integration of the developmental, cognitive, and conative processes are indicators of curriculum strength. (iv) The strengthening of cognitive processes by rerouting through complementary neural circuitry, such as music, arts, real-life-based experiments, and physical exercises, is an effective way to improve child-friendly instructions.

Neighborhood environmental exposures and incidence of attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder: A population-based cohort study

BACKGROUND

Emerging studies have associated low greenspace and high air pollution exposure with risk of child attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Population-based studies are limited, however, and joint effects are rarely evaluated. We investigated associations of ADHD incidence with greenspace, air pollution, and noise in a population-based birth cohort.

METHODS

We assembled a cohort from administrative data of births from 2000 to 2001 (N ∼ 37,000) in Metro Vancouver, Canada. ADHD was identified by hospital records, physician visits, and prescriptions. Cox proportional hazards models were applied to assess associations between environmental exposures and ADHD incidence adjusting for available covariates. Greenspace was estimated using vegetation percentage derived from linear spectral unmixing of Landsat imagery. Fine particulate matter (PM_2.5) and nitrogen dioxide (NO₂) were estimated using land use regression models; noise was estimated using a deterministic model. Exposure period was from birth until the age of three. Joint effects of greenspace and PM_2.5 were analysed in two-exposure models and by categorizing values into quintiles.

RESULTS

During seven-year follow-up, 1217 ADHD cases were diagnosed. Greenspace was associated with lower incidence of ADHD (hazard ratio, HR: 0.90 [0.81-0.99] per interquartile range increment), while PM_2.5 was associated with increased incidence (HR: 1.11 [1.06-1.17] per interquartile range increment). NO₂ (HR: 1.01 [0.96, 1.07]) and noise (HR: 1.00 [0.95, 1.05]) were not associated with ADHD. There was a 50% decrease in the HR for ADHD in locations with the lowest PM_2.5 and highest greenspace exposure, compared to a 62% increase in HR in locations with the highest PM_2.5 and lowest greenspace exposure. Effects of PM_2.5 were attenuated by greenspace in two-exposure models.

CONCLUSIONS

We found evidence suggesting environmental inequalities where children living in greener neighborhoods with low air pollution had substantially lower risk of ADHD compared to those with higher air pollution and lower greenspace exposure.

A multidimensional evaluation of the benefits of an ecologically realistic training based on pretend play for preschoolers' cognitive control and self-regulation: From behavior to the underlying theta neuro-oscillatory activity

To what extent can cognitive control, self-regulation, and the underlying midfrontal theta oscillatory activity of preschool children be modified by an ecologically realistic training based on pretend play? To answer this question, 70 children aged 4-6 years (37 boys) were assigned to a training group or a control group using a pairing randomization procedure. Children were administered 20 play sessions over 10 weeks. Benefits were evaluated with a pre-post design. The intervention helped children to engage more in self-regulation within the training activities. However, the intervention did not promote self-regulation outside of the training context, nor did it influence cognitive control and theta activity. These results provide a better understanding of the limitations of an ecologically realistic approach to cognitive control training.

Infant precursors of executive function in Down syndrome

BACKGROUND

Although early features of infant cognition are predictive of executive function (EF) in typically developing (TD) children, there is little information regarding the developmental origins of EF in neurogenetic conditions, such as Down syndrome (DS).

METHODS

The current study compared the performance of infants with and without DS on three dimensions that are hypothesised EF precursors: visual engagement, attention shifting and action planning. Additionally, the relationship between these EF precursors at Time 1 and EF performance at Time 2 (6 months later) was examined in the DS group. Participants were 36 infants with DS, M chronological age = 12.65 months, SD = 2.11; M developmental age = 8.84 months, SD = 2.22, and 36 TD infants, M chronological age = 8.62, SD = 3.06; M developmental age = 8.64 months, SD = 3.40.

RESULTS

Infants with DS visually engaged with objects for longer durations and demonstrated challenges with action planning compared with TD infants at Time 1. Attention shifting at Time 1 significantly predicted EF performance at Time 2 in the DS group.

CONCLUSIONS

This study provides evidence that an early atypical presentation of EF precursors is detectable during infancy in DS and is predictive of subsequent EF performance. These findings contribute to the identification of areas of early cognitive risk in DS and can inform future interventions in this population.

Therapeutic applications of transcutaneous auricular vagus nerve stimulation with potential for application in neurodevelopmental or other pediatric disorders

Non-invasive transcutaneous auricular vagus nerve stimulation (taVNS) as a newly developed technique involves stimulating the cutaneous receptive field formed by the auricular branch of the vagus nerve in the outer ear, with resulting activation of vagal connections to central and peripheral nervous systems. Increasing evidence indicates that maladaptive neural plasticity may underlie the pathology of several pediatric neurodevelopmental and psychiatric disorders, such as autism spectrum disorder, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, disruptive behavioral disorder and stress-related disorder. Vagal stimulation may therefore provide a useful intervention for treating maladaptive neural plasticity. In the current review we summarize the current literature primarily on therapeutic use in adults and discuss the prospects of applying taVNS as a therapeutic intervention in specific pediatric neurodevelopmental and other psychiatric disorders. Furthermore, we also briefly discuss factors that would help optimize taVNS protocols in future clinical applications. We conclude from these initial findings that taVNS may be a promising alternative treatment for pediatric disorders which do not respond to other interventions.

Transferring cognitive talent across domains to reduce the disposition effect in investment

We consider Theory of Mind (ToM), the ability to correctly predict the intentions of others. To an important degree, good ToM function requires abstraction from one’s own particular circumstances. Here, we posit that such abstraction can be transferred successfully to other, non-social contexts. We consider the disposition effect, which is a pervasive cognitive bias whereby investors, including professionals, improperly take their personal trading history into account when deciding on investments. We design an intervention policy whereby we attempt to transfer good ToM function, subconsciously, to personal investment decisions. In a within-subject repeated-intervention laboratory experiment, we record how the disposition effect is reduced by a very significant 85%, but only for those with high scores on the social-cognitive dimension of ToM function. No such transfer is observed in subjects who score well only on the social-perceptual dimension of ToM function. Our findings open up a promising way to exploit cognitive talent in one domain in order to alleviate cognitive deficiencies elsewhere.

Evaluation of a multidisciplinary concept of mental demands at work on cognitive functioning in old age

OBJECTIVES

Previous work has shown that high mental demands are associated with better cognitive functioning in old age. As there is a lack of a general conceptual framework for this association, the aim of the study was to investigate how mental demands and other work-related factors relate to cognitive functioning as a foundation for developing such a framework.

METHODS

An expert panel discussion was conducted with the aim of determining relevant work-related factors, which were then tested in a survey with 346 employees aged 50+ years, who were actively working. Assessment of cognitive functioning comprised complex attention, executive function, learning/memory, language, perceptual-motor, and social cognition. Confirmatory factor analysis was conducted to confirm factor belonging. Associations with cognitive functioning were analyzed using structure equation modelling to confirm associations and to identify additional direct and indirect paths.

RESULTS

Only 42.3% (22/52) of the work-related factors and 19.0% (4/21) of the mediating paths suggested by the experts were significant with respect to cognitive functioning. Factor analysis and structural equation modeling indicated that high mental demands are only associated with better cognitive functioning in old age to the extent that they are intellectually stimulating and this effect is embedded in individual capacities and the social context.

CONCLUSION

Based on the panel discussion and the empirical testing, we propose the Conceptual Framework of Social Dependency of Intellectual Stimulation on Cognitive Health. We recommend researchers and workplace health experts to pay attention to the component of this theory when assessing workplace risk.

Insects Provide Unique Systems to Investigate How Early-Life Experience Alters the Brain and Behavior

Early-life experiences have strong and long-lasting consequences for behavior in a surprising diversity of animals. Determining which environmental inputs cause behavioral change, how this information becomes neurobiologically encoded, and the functional consequences of these changes remain fundamental puzzles relevant to diverse fields from evolutionary biology to the health sciences. Here we explore how insects provide unique opportunities for comparative study of developmental behavioral plasticity. Insects have sophisticated behavior and cognitive abilities, and they are frequently studied in their natural environments, which provides an ecological and adaptive perspective that is often more limited in lab-based vertebrate models. A range of cues, from relatively simple cues like temperature to complex social information, influence insect behavior. This variety provides experimentally tractable opportunities to study diverse neural plasticity mechanisms. Insects also have a wide range of neurodevelopmental trajectories while sharing many developmental plasticity mechanisms with vertebrates. In addition, some insects retain only subsets of their juvenile neuronal population in adulthood, narrowing the targets for detailed study of cellular plasticity mechanisms. Insects and vertebrates share many of the same knowledge gaps pertaining to developmental behavioral plasticity. Combined with the extensive study of insect behavior under natural conditions and their experimental tractability, insect systems may be uniquely qualified to address some of the biggest unanswered questions in this field.

Training-Induced Neural Plasticity in Youth: A Systematic Review of Structural and Functional MRI Studies

Experience-dependent neural plasticity is high in the developing brain, presenting a unique window of opportunity for training. To optimize existing training programs and develop new interventions, it is important to understand what processes take place in the developing brain during training. Here, we systematically review MRI-based evidence of training-induced neural plasticity in children and adolescents. A total of 71 articles were included in the review. Significant changes in brain activation, structure, microstructure, and structural and functional connectivity were reported with different types of trainings in the majority (87%) of the studies. Significant correlation of performance improvement with neural changes was reported in 51% of the studies. Yet, only 48% of the studies had a control condition. Overall, the review supports the hypothesized neural changes with training while at the same time charting empirical and methodological desiderata for future research.

Cognitive training in elite soccer players: evidence of narrow, but not broad transfer to visual and executive function

Visual and executive functions have been suggested to be crucial in high-demanding team sports. Consequently, the interest in evaluating training possibilities of these functions is relatively high. However, easily applicable training tools, as well as evidence of their efficacy, especially in the present group of age (i.e. 17–21 years) and performance level, are scarce. Therefore, the present study aimed to evaluate the effectiveness and transfer of an essential cognitive training tool (i.e. NeuroTracker [NT] three dimensional [3D] multiple-object tracking [MOT]) in youth elite soccer players. Visual and executive functions were analyzed in a pre–post test design with an intervention and a control group after 10 weeks of training twice a week. Physical activity was included as a possible covariate. Results show meaningful benefits in the trained ability (i.e. MOT) besides small but negligible improvements in visual clarity and inhibition for the intervention group. Consequently, strict single-task NT 3D-MOT seems to have little transfer to other visual or executive functions. However, future studies should investigate the effects of sport-specific dual-task NT 3D-MOT to analyze possible multitasking adaptations further.

Do cognitive training applications improve executive function in children with adverse childhood experiences? A pilot study

Executive function (EF) is comprised of inhibitory control, working memory and cognitive flexibility, core components which more complex skills and abilities develop from, including problem solving, reasoning and planning. Adverse childhood experiences (ACE) negatively impact the development of these skills and in turn life outcomes. This pilot-study explores the use of computerized cognitive training applications (CCTA) (software-based training programs) in school, to improve these skills in children aged 6-11 with ACE. A pre-post-test, between-subject experimental design using an experimental and a placebo-control group was used. The control group were matched to the experimental group by prior academic attainment level and age. A one-way multivariate analysis of covariance (MANCOVA) assessed changes in EF across two time-points between the experimental and the control group. Both groups of participants were selected based on an ACE parent-report questionnaire score of 4+ (n = 32). EF was measured using the Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Function (BRIEF), assessing far-transfer of training to behavioral measures of EF. Results show CCTA had a significant positive impact on executive function, particularly on working memory. This small-scale pilot study presents exciting directions for future research into the role of CCTA in order to confirm conclusions drawn.

Training effects of attention and EF strategy-based training "Nexxo" in school-age students

Given the importance of attention and executive functions in children's behavior, programs directed to improve these processes are of interest. Nexxo-training combines the use of the Nexxo touchscreen application (go/no-go and stop signal tasks) with procedural metacognitive strategies. The present paper reports a test of Nexxo's impact on children aged 6-7 and 8-9 years. We conducted a randomized active-controlled trial involving 108 typically-developing children: 1st grade (N = 61, M = 6.46 years, SD = 0.35) and 3rd grade (N = 47, M = 8.5 years, SD = 0.27), randomly assigned to: (1) experimental, (2) active-control, or (3) passive-control groups. A 2-month follow-up was carried out after the intervention. The 3rd grade experimental group displayed a significant reduction in attentional problems at follow-up compared to both control groups. Executive Function problems were also reduced at follow-up in the experimental group. Participants in this group improved in Supervision (self-monitoring) at post-intervention and follow-up compared to passive-controls. Although group effect was not significant at t1, it was significant at post measures in experimental group compared to passive-controls. Nexxo-training revealed a trend-level improvement in attention and executive functions for children in the 3rd grade.

Fostering Self-Control Development With a Designed Intervention in Physical Education: A Two-Year Class-Randomized Trial

This study evaluated whether a theory-based intervention in physical education (PE) designed to train self-control may positively impact children's quick-temperedness and disruptiveness and whether changes in executive functions (EFs) may be a correlate or antecedent of such effects. One hundred and sixteen children aged 8-9 years participated in a 2-year intervention and completed three assessments at baseline, 6- and 18-month follow-ups in quick-temperedness and disruptiveness, hot and cool EFs. After the intervention, children in the intervention group showed lower quick-temperedness and disruptiveness and improvement in hot EF. Changes over the intervention period were moderately associated and showed marginal evidence of causal ordering, suggesting that designed PE may benefit self-control through a possible linkage to hot EF improvement.

Domain-Specific Inhibitory Control Training to Improve Children's Learning of Counterintuitive Concepts in Mathematics and Science

Evidence from cognitive neuroscience suggests that learning counterintuitive concepts in mathematics and science requires inhibitory control (IC). This prevents interference from misleading perceptual cues and naïve theories children have built from their experiences of the world. Here, we (1) investigate associations between IC, counterintuitive reasoning, and academic achievement and (2) evaluate a classroom-based computerised intervention, called Stop & Think, designed to embed IC training within the learning domain (i.e. mathematics and science content from the school curricula). Cross-sectional analyses of data from 627 children in Years 3 and 5 (7- to 10-year-olds) demonstrated that IC, measured on a Stroop-like task, was associated with counterintuitive reasoning and mathematics and science achievement. A subsample (n = 456) participated either in Stop & Think as a whole-class activity (teacher-led, STT) or using individual computers (pupil-led, STP), or had teaching as usual (TAU). For Year 3 children (but not Year 5), Stop & Think led to better counterintuitive reasoning (i.e. near transfer) in STT (p < .001, ηp 2 = .067) and STP (p < .01, ηp 2 = .041) compared to TAU. Achievement data was not available for Year 3 STP or Year 5 STT. For Year 3, STT led to better science achievement (i.e. far transfer) compared to TAU (p < .05, ηp 2 = .077). There was no transfer to the Stroop-like measure of IC. Overall, these findings support the idea that IC may contribute to counterintuitive reasoning and mathematics and science achievement. Further, we provide preliminary evidence of a domain-specific IC intervention with transferable benefits to academic achievement for Year 3 children.

Environmental Training and Synaptic Functions in Young and Old Brain: A Presynaptic Perspective

BACKGROUND

Aging is an unavoidable, physiological process that reduces the complexity and the plasticity of the synaptic contacts in Central Nervous System (CNS), having profound implications for human well-being. The term "cognitive reserve" refers to central cellular adaptations that augment the resilience of human brain to damage and aging. The term "Cognitive training" indicates the cultural, social and physical stimulations proposed as add-on therapy for the cure of central neurological diseases. "Cognitive training" reinforces the "cognitive reserve" permitting to counteract brain impairments and rejuvenating synaptic complexity. The research has begun investigating the clinical impact of the "cognitive training" in aged people, but additional work is needed to definitively assess its effectiveness. In particular, there is a need to understand, from a preclinical point of view, whether "cognitive training" promotes compensatory effects or, alternatively, if it elicits genuine recovery of neuronal defects. Although the translation from rodent studies to the clinical situation could be difficult, the results from pre-clinical models are of high clinical relevance, since they should allow a better understanding of the effects of environmental interventions in aging-associated chronic derangements in mammals.

CONCLUSION

Data in literature and the recent results obtained in our laboratory concerning the impact of environmental stimulation on the presynaptic release of noradrenaline, glutamate and gamma amino butyric acid (GABA) suggest that these neurotransmitters undergo different adaptations during aging and that they are differently tuned by "cognitive training". The impact of "cognitive training" on neurotransmitter exocytosis might account for the cellular events involved in reinforcement of "cognitive reserve" in young and old animals.

Schoolchildren's Compensatory Strategies and Skills in Relation to Attention and Executive Function App Training

BACKGROUND

Given the importance of attention and executive functions (EF) in children's behavior, programs aimed at improving these processes are of special interest. Nexxo-training combines the use of the Nexxo touchscreen application (inhibition and vigilance tasks) with procedural metacognitive strategies (imparted by an instructor) for all the individuals using the app, regardless of their level of ability, plus compensatory strategies based on individual child performance. This study presents an analysis of the compensatory strategies that schoolchildren (aged 6-8 years old) receive when experiencing difficulties with EF tasks, in addition to an analysis of the developmental factors and cognitive skills that may modulate EF task performance.

METHODS

For this study, we use data from a previous randomized active-controlled study (under review), in which forty-six typically developing children aged between 6 and 8 years old (24 girls/22 boys) were enrolled in the training group. The selected children were in the 1st grade (n = 28, x ¯ = 78.32 ± 4.037 months) and 3rd grade of primary education (n = 18, x ¯ = 102.11 ± 3.445). We collected data on EF training performance, compensatory strategies needed and neuropsychological assessments.

RESULTS

A total of 80.43% participants required some form of compensatory strategy during training. Regarding required compensatory strategies, those who had lower scores in EF training needed more compensatory strategies, in particular, instructional comprehension (r = -0.561, p < 0.001 for inhibition-tasks; r = -0.342, p < 0.001 for vigilance-tasks). Concerning developmental factors, age significantly predicted better performance in both EF tasks (β = 0.613, p < 0.001 for inhibition; β = 0.706, p < 0.001 for attention). As regards task performance, those with better performance in inhibition tasks also had better performance in vigilance tasks (r = 0.72, p < 0.001). Finally, regarding cognitive skills, participants with higher performance in fluid intelligence (Q1, n = 12) had higher scores (U = 14.5, p < 0.05) than the group with the lowest performance (Q4, n = 11) in vigilance.

CONCLUSION

As previous literature suggests, inhibition is one of the core processes of EF. Therefore, we should focus training on the core EF processes. Inhibition and vigilance are closely related processes. In terms of the use of compensatory strategies, these are more needed for participants with lower levels of performance in inhibition or vigilance. Regarding strategy analysis, instructional comprehension and self-instruction (goal setting and planning) seem to be the most useful strategies for those with difficulties in inhibitory and vigilance task performance. Regarding development, as expected, age moderates task performance in inhibition and attention. Finally, cognitive skills, such as fluid intelligence and cognitive flexibility, predicted better results in attention. EF training using not only an app, but also compensatory strategies based on user performance, is a new research direction offering more opportunities to generalize EF training in everyday life.

Improvement in cognitive performance and mood in healthy older adults: a multimodal approach

The aim of this research was to evaluate if being involved in a programme that integrates physical, mental, and social activities could help to reduce the impacts of cerebral ageing on cognitive functions. Fifty healthy adults over 65 years of age and without cognitive impairment were randomly assigned to either an experimental or a control group; subjects were equally divided by age, sex, schooling, physical health, mood, and social integration. For 6 months, the experimental group had biweekly meetings, participating in a multimodal approach based on a combination of simultaneous physical, mental, and social activities. At pre-test and post-test, both experimental and control subjects underwent a neuropsychological assessment, including tests to measure attention, verbal and spatial memory, language, constructional praxis, executive functions, processing speed, and intelligence. Furthermore, a visual analogue scale was used to examine well-being and mood states. Compared to the pre-test levels and the control subjects, the performance of subjects in the experimental group significantly improved in several neuropsychological tests, including attention, processing speed, memory, and executive functions, as well as mood state. Even in older subjects without cognitive impairments, a multimodal approach based on simultaneous physical, mental, and social activity can be a useful strategy that has beneficial effects on mood and cognition. The results suggest that an active lifestyle may protect against cognitive decline in ageing.

An Applied Contextual Model for Promoting Self-Regulation Enactment Across Development: Implications for Prevention, Public Health and Future Research

This theoretical paper presents a public health approach for promoting self-regulation across development that is based in cross-disciplinary theory and research. The self-regulation promotion model includes three key approaches that are each dependent on the relationship that children and youth have with caregivers: teaching self-regulation skills, building supportive environments, and providing co-regulation. This model extends the science of self-regulation insofar as it: (1) focuses on promoting wellbeing (not only reducing risks) across domains of functioning, (2) addresses self-regulation intervention across childhood and through young adulthood, (3) integrates multiple theories and applies them to intervention in meaningful ways, and (4) identifies specific strategies that can be used in natural developmental contexts and that address the social ecological environment as well as the individual child. We describe seven key principles that support the model including a description of self-regulation processes and implications for promoting self-regulation at each developmental stage. We end with broad implications for intervention, highlighting the relevance of the self-regulation promotion model for practitioners, policy makers, and prevention researchers.

Brain structural changes after multi-strategic metamemory training in older adults with subjective memory complaints: A randomized controlled trial

BACKGROUND

Metamemory is the process of monitoring and controlling one's memory. Improving metamemory may reduce the memory problem in old age. We hypothesized that metamemory training (MMT) would improve cognition in older adults with subjective memory complaints and change the brain region related to metacognition.

METHOD

We recruited and randomized older adults to the multi-strategic memory training of 10 weekly 90-min sessions, based on the metamemory concept or usual care. Cognitive tests including the Elderly Verbal Learning Test, Simple Rey Figure Test, Digit Span, Spatial Span, Categorical Fluency, and the Boston Naming Test were done in 201 participants, together with magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) in 49 participants before and after training.

RESULTS

A total of 112 in the training group and 89 in the control group participated. The training group had a significant increase in long-term delayed free recall, categorical fluency, and the Boston Naming test. In MRI, the mean diffusivity of the bundles of axon tracts passing from the frontal lobe to the posterior end of the lateral sulcus decreased in the training group.

CONCLUSION

These results indicate that the MMT program has a positive impact on enhancing older people' cognitive performance. Improved white matter integrity in the anterior and posterior cerebrum and increased cortical thickness of prefrontal regions, which related to metacognition, possibly suggest that the effects of the MMT would be induced via the enhancement of cognitive control.

Achieving Neuroplasticity in Artificial Neural Networks through Smart Cities

Through the Internet of things (IoT), as promoted by smart cities, there is an emergence of big data accentuating the use of artificial intelligence through various components of urban planning, management, and design. One such system is that of artificial neural networks (ANNs), a component of machine learning that boasts similitude with brain neurological networks and its functioning. However, the development of ANN was done in singular fashion, whereby processes are rendered in sequence in a unidimensional perspective, contrasting with the functions of the brain to which ANN boasts similitude, and in particular to the concept of neuroplasticity which encourages unique complex interactions in self-learning fashion, thereby encouraging more inclusive urban processes and render urban coherence. This paper takes inspiration from Christopher Alexander’s Nature of Order and dwells in the concept of complexity theory; it also proposes a theoretical model of how ANN can be rendered with the same plastic properties as brain neurological networks with multidimensional interactivity in the context of smart cities through the use of big data and its emerging complex networks. By doing so, this model caters to the creation of stronger, richer, and more complex patterns that support Alexander’s concept of “wholeness” through the connection of overlapping networks. This paper is aimed toward engineers with interdisciplinary interest looking at creating more complex and intricate ANN models, and toward urban planners and urban theorists working on the emerging contemporary concept of smart cities.

Brain Modularity: A Biomarker of Intervention-related Plasticity

Interventions using methods such as cognitive training and aerobic exercise have shown potential to enhance cognitive abilities. However, there is often pronounced individual variability in the magnitude of these gains. Here, we propose that brain network modularity, a measure of brain subnetwork segregation, is a unifying biomarker of intervention-related plasticity. We present work from multiple independent studies demonstrating that individual differences in baseline brain modularity predict gains in cognitive control functions across several populations and interventions, spanning healthy adults to patients with clinical deficits and cognitive training to aerobic exercise. We believe that this predictive framework provides a foundation for developing targeted, personalized interventions to improve cognition.

Resilience in Extremely Preterm/Extremely Low Birth Weight Kindergarten Children

OBJECTIVES

Research on developmental outcomes of preterm birth has traditionally focused on adverse effects. This study investigated the prevalence and correlates of resilience in 146 extremely preterm/extremely low birth weight (EPT/ELBW) children (gestational age &lt;28 weeks and/or birth weight &lt;1000 g) attending kindergarten and 111 term-born normal birth weight (NBW) controls.

METHODS

Adaptive competence (i.e., "resilience" in the EPT/ELBW group) was defined by scores within grade expectations on achievement tests and the absence of clinically elevated parent ratings of child behavior problems. The "adaptive" children who met these criteria were compared to the "maladaptive" children who did not on child and family characteristics. Additional analyses were conducted to assess the conjoint effects of group (ELBW vs. NBW) and family factors on adaptive competence.

RESULTS

A substantial minority of the EPT/ELBW group (45%) were competent compared to a majority of NBW controls (73%), odds ratio (95% confidence interval)=0.26 (0.15, 0.45), p&lt;.001. Adaptive competence was associated with higher cognitive skills, more favorable ratings of behavior and learning not used to define adaptive competence, and more advantaged family environments in both groups, as well as with a lower rate of earlier neurodevelopmental impairment in the EPT/ELBW group. Higher socioeconomic status and more favorable proximal home environments were associated with competence independent of group, and group differences in competence persisted across the next two school years.

CONCLUSIONS

The findings document resilience in kindergarten children with extreme prematurity and highlight the role of environmental factors as potential influences on outcome. (JINS, 2019, 25, 362-374).

Working Memory Training in Children: A Review of Basic Methodological Criteria

Working memory is a process of great relevance during childhood due to its role in diverse complex skills. Like the rest of executive functions, it is highly sensitive to environmental influences, so it is assumed that it could be modified through targeted interventions. A large number of working memory training studies in children aim to achieve transfer effects both on this process and on those with which it is related. Although some promising results have been found, the efficacy of working memory training cannot be affirmed; methodological quality of studies is one of the main reasons for this. Compliance with basic methodological criteria (inclusion of a control group that must preferably be active, random assignment of participants to groups) has a great impact on the internal validity of the studies. Furthermore, the need to control for the effects of motivational factors associated with the intervention is added and emphasized. This study reviews the fulfillment of these criteria in process-based working memory training literature in children, analyzing its impact on internal validity. Limitations of the field in relation to the lack of compliance with the proposed criteria are discussed and alternatives are suggested in order to improve the quality of future studies.

Neurocognitive Precursors of Substance Misuse Corresponding to Risk, Resistance, and Resilience Pathways: Implications for Prevention Science

Studies of substance misuse prevention generally focus on characteristics that typify risk, with the assumption that the prevalence of the problem will be optimally reduced by identifying, targeting, and reducing or eliminating risk factors. However, this risk-centered approach neglects variations in individual-level and environmental characteristics that portend differential pathways that are distinguishable by timing of substance use initiation (e.g., early versus delayed), the likelihood of use escalation versus eventual desistance, and enduring abstinence, despite exposure to significant risk factors. Considering the various underpinnings of these distinct substance use trajectories is critical to a more nuanced understanding of the effects, potency, and malleability of factors that are known to increase risk or confer protection. Here, we discuss three pathways relative to substance use patterns and predictors in the context of adversity, a well-known, highly significant influence on propensity for substance misuse. The first pathway is designated as "high risk" based on early onset of substance use, rapid escalation, and proneness to substance use disorders. Individuals who defy all odds and eventually exhibit adaptive developmental outcomes despite an initial maladaptive reaction to adversity, are referred to as "resilient." However, another categorization that has not been adequately characterized is "resistant." Resistant individuals include those who do not exhibit problematic substance use behaviors (e.g., early onset and escalation) and do not develop substance use disorders or other forms of psychopathology, despite significant exposure to factors that normally increase the propensity for such outcomes (e.g. trauma and/or adversity). In this paper, we apply this conceptualization of risk, resistance, and resilience for substance misuse to a more fine-grained analysis of substance use pathways and their corresponding patterns (e.g., non-use, initiation, escalation, desistance). The significance of the progression of neurocognitive functioning over the course of development is discussed as well as how this knowledge may be translated to make a science-based determination of intervention targets. This more encompassing theoretical model has direct implications for primary prevention and clinical approaches to disrupt risk pathways and to optimize long-term outcomes.

Effects of the portage early education program on Chinese children with global developmental delay

Children with global developmental delay (GDD) were trained with the Portage Guide to Early Education (PGEE) program.In the treatment group, the PGEE program was performed on children with GDD (45 cases) through a combination of family and hospital interventions, in a 1-to-1 ratio. The Gesell Infant Development Scale (GESELL) developmental quotient (DQ) and social adaptability were measured before and 6 months after PGEE implementation in the treatment group. These parameters were also evaluated in a control group (30 cases) during an initial visit and 6 months later.Before the PGEE intervention, no significant differences were observed between the general characteristics of children in the control and treatment groups. Six months after the PGEE intervention, the DQ values of the children with GDD in the treatment group (64.7 ± 9.5) were significantly higher than those before treatment (54.6 ± 9.3) and those of the control group (58.3 ± 10.2) (P < .05). The PGEE intervention significantly increased the DQ values on 5 aspects, including gross motor, fine motor, adaptability, language, and personal social activity abilities, and the scores on the Infants-Junior Middle School Students' Social-Life Abilities Scales (SM scales), as compared with the control group (P < .05).The PGEE program improves the DQ, social adaptability, and prognosis of children with GDD.

Neural measures of anticipatory bodily attention in children: Relations with executive function

The ability to selectively direct attention to a certain location or modality is a key neurocognitive skill. One important facet of selective attention is anticipation, a foundational biological construct that bridges basic perceptual processes and higher-order cognition. The current study focuses on the neural correlates of bodily anticipation in 6- to 8-year-old children using a task involving tactile stimulation. Electroencephalographic (EEG) activity over sensorimotor cortex was measured after a visual cue directed children to monitor their right or left hand in anticipation of tactile stimulation. Prior to delivery of the tactile stimulus, a regionally-specific desynchronization of the alpha-range mu rhythm occurred over central electrode sites (C3/C4) contralateral to the cue direction. The magnitude of anticipatory mu rhythm desynchronization was associated with children's performance on two executive function tasks (Flanker and Card Sort). We suggest that anticipatory mu desynchronization has utility as a specific neural marker of attention focusing in young children, which in turn may be implicated in the development of executive function.

A meta-analysis of the relationship between socioeconomic status and executive function performance among children

The relationship between childhood socioeconomic status (SES) and executive function (EF) has recently attracted attention within psychology, following reports of substantial SES disparities in children's EF. Adding to the importance of this relationship, EF has been proposed as a mediator of socioeconomic disparities in lifelong achievement and health. However, evidence about the relationship between childhood SES and EF is mixed, and there has been no systematic attempt to evaluate this relationship across studies. This meta-analysis systematically reviewed the literature for studies in which samples of children varying in SES were evaluated on EF, including studies with and without primary hypotheses about SES. The analysis included 8760 children between the ages of 2 and 18 gathered from 25 independent samples. Analyses showed a small but statistically significant correlation between SES and EF across all studies (rrandom  = .16, 95% CI [.12, .21]) without correcting for attenuation owing to range restriction or measurement unreliability. Substantial heterogeneity was observed among studies, and a number of factors, including the amount of SES variability in the sample and the number of EF measures used, emerged as moderators. Using only the 15 studies with meaningful SES variability in the sample, the average correlation between SES and EF was small-to-medium in size (rrandom  = .22, 95% CI [.17, .27]). Using only the six studies with multiple measures of EF, the relationship was medium in size (rrandom  = .28, 95% CI [.18, .37]). In sum, this meta-analysis supports the presence of SES disparities in EF and suggests that they are between small and medium in size, depending on the methods used to measure them.

Prefrontal mechanisms of comorbidity from a transdiagnostic and ontogenic perspective

Accumulating behavioral and genetic research suggests that most forms of psychopathology share common genetic and neural vulnerabilities and are manifestations of a relatively few core underlying processes. These findings support the view that comorbidity mostly arises, not from true co-occurrence of distinct disorders, but from the behavioral expression of shared vulnerability processes across the life span. The purpose of this review is to examine the role of the prefrontal cortex (PFC) in the shared vulnerability mechanisms underlying the clinical phenomena of comorbidity from a transdiagnostic and ontogenic perspective. In adopting this perspective, we suggest complex transactions between neurobiologically rooted vulnerabilities inherent in PFC circuitry and environmental factors (e.g., parenting, peers, stress, and substance use) across development converge on three key PFC-mediated processes: executive functioning, emotion regulation, and reward processing. We propose that individual differences and impairments in these PFC-mediated functions provide intermediate mechanisms for transdiagnostic symptoms and underlie behavioral tendencies that evoke and interact with environmental risk factors to further potentiate vulnerability.