Parental endorsement of spanking and children's internalizing and externalizing problems in African American and Hispanic families

Cultural values, parenting, and child adjustment in the United States

We examined whether cultural values, conformity and parenting behaviours were related to child adjustment in middle childhood in the United States. White, Black and Latino mothers (n = 273), fathers (n = 182) and their children (n = 272) reported on parental individualism and collectivism, conformity values, parental warmth, monitoring, family obligation expectations, and child internalising and externalising behaviours. Mean differences, bivariate correlations and multiple regression analyses were performed on variables of interest. Collectivism in mothers and fathers was associated with family obligation expectations and parental warmth. Fathers with higher conformity values had higher expectations of children's family obligations. Child internalising and externalising behaviours were greater when Latino families subscribed to individualistic values. These results are discussed in the context of cultural values, protective and promotive factors of behaviour, and race/ethnicity in the United States.

Linking child adjustment difficulties with mother's maladaptive parental behavior: The mediating roles of parental cognitions and parenting stress

Child abuse is prevalent worldwide, with most of the burden in developing countries. To reduce and prevent child abuse occurrence, many efforts are directed toward reducing maladaptive parental behaviors (MPBs), a predictor of parents' risk of engaging in child abusive behaviors. MPBs have been associated with child (e.g., behavioral difficulties) and parent characteristics (e.g., parenting stress and parental cognitions), although little research tested for mediational pathways. This study aimed to test the pathways through which child and parent characteristics are linked to MPB. Consistent with the social information processing model of parenting, we hypothesized that child behavioral difficulties would exert an indirect influence on MPB through parenting stress and that parenting stress will exert a direct and indirect effect on MPB through parental cognitions (i.e., expectations, attitudes, and attributions). This study used data from 243 mothers of children aged between 2 and 9 years in Romania. Two-stage structural equation modeling was employed to test the hypothesized model. Results support the role of child behavior, parenting stress, and parental cognitions in predicting MPB (R2 = 0.69). Significant indirect effects were found from child behavior to MPB via parenting stress and parental cognitions. Direct effects from parenting stress and parental cognitions to MPB were significant. Findings show that parenting stress and parental cognitions are important mechanisms through which child behavioral difficulties influence maladaptive parental behavior, underscoring the need to focus on these mechanisms when assessing or intervening with families at risk for child abuse.

Spanking and executive functioning in US children: A longitudinal analysis on a matched sample

BACKGROUND

Spanking has been linked to multiple maladaptive child outcomes. However, previous research linking spanking with children's executive function skills (EFs; inhibitory control, cognitive flexibility, and working memory) is limited by research designs that do not adequately address selection bias concerns, wherein the participant characteristics potentially differ between those who are spanked versus not spanked.

OBJECTIVE

Using a representative sample of US children aged 5 to 6, this study strengthened the evidence for causal estimates on the link between spanking and subsequent EFs with a matched-group design. Low-frequency spanking and potential moderators (child gender, parent race/ethnicity, parental warmth) were tested to determine if they moderated the link between spanking and EFs.

PARTICIPANTS

Data were drawn from the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study, Kindergarten Class of 2010-11 (Ns = 12,750-12,830). To mitigate selection bias, entropy-balanced matching was utilized to match spanked versus not-spanked groups, and lagged dependent variable regression analyses were conducted on the matched sample to predict EFs by spanking group status.

RESULTS

After matching, spanking at age 5 was associated with lower inhibitory control and lower cognitive flexibility at age 6, but was not significantly predictive of later working memory. The association with inhibitory control was observed even for low frequency spanking. However, no evidence of moderation by child gender, parent race/ethnicity, and parental warmth was identified.

CONCLUSIONS

This study provides evidence that spanking is associated with lower executive functioning in children, although the associations varied by different EF domains.

Ethnic Differences in the Effects of Five Disciplinary Techniques on Subsequent Externalizing Behavior Problems

To identify disciplinary alternatives to replace spanking, this study investigated ethnic differences in the associations of five disciplinary techniques with subsequent externalizing behavior problems in a national sample of 7- to 11-year-olds with ANCOVAs and difference-score analyses. Most techniques led to significant reductions in externalizing problems for African-Americans or Hispanics, but only after overcoming known biases in ANCOVA and not for other European-Americans. Privilege removal had the most significantly effective results, followed by grounding. Sending children to their room and spanking significantly reduced externalizing problems only in one or two analyses for African-Americans, whereas removing children's allowance was significantly effective in one overall analysis. Parenting research needs to distinguish between more vs. less effective use of all disciplinary techniques across multiple situational and cultural contexts.

A Systematic Review on Evaluating Responsiveness of Parent- or Caregiver-Reported Child Maltreatment Measures for Interventions

Aims: Child maltreatment (CM) is a global public health and social problem, resulting in serious long-term health and socioeconomic consequences. As parents are the most common perpetrators of CM, parenting interventions are appropriate strategies to prevent CM. However, research on parenting interventions on CM has been hampered by lack of consensus on what measures are most responsive to detect a reduction in parental maltreating behaviours after parenting intervention. This systematic review aimed to evaluate the responsiveness of all current parent- or caregiver-reported CM measures. Methods: A systematic search was conducted in CINAHL, Embase, ERIC, PsycINFO, PubMed and Sociological Abstracts. The quality of studies and responsiveness of the measures were evaluated using the COnsensus-based Standards for the selection of health Measurement INstruments (COSMIN) guidelines for systematic reviews of patient-reported outcome measures. Only measures developed and published in English were included. Studies reporting data on responsiveness of the included measures were selected. Results: Sixty-nine articles reported on responsiveness of 15 identified measures. The study quality was overall adequate. The responsiveness of the measures was overall insufficient or not reported; high-quality evidence on responsiveness was limited. Conclusions: Only the Physical Abuse subscale of the ISPCAN Child Abuse Screening Tool for use in Trials (ICAST-Trial) can be recommended as most responsive for use in parenting interventions, with high-quality evidence supporting sufficient responsiveness. All other overall scales or subscales of the 15 included measures were identified as promising based on current data on responsiveness. Additional psychometric evidence is required before they can be recommended.

Stability of Parenting Profiles in Early Childhood for African American Children in Households Experiencing Poverty

Taking a person-centered approach, this study examined stability and change in profiles of parenting qualities observed at two times in early childhood in a sample of 146 mothers of African American children living in households experiencing poverty. Latent Profile Analysis (LPA) of six qualities of parenting rated from mother-child interactions at ages 2.5 and 3.6 years revealed four distinct parenting profiles characterized as Child-Oriented, Moderately Child-Oriented, Harsh-Intrusive, and Withdrawn at each age. Profile membership was fairly stable, with 41% classified similarly at both times. Moderately Child-Oriented was the least stable, with 24% of this group similarly classified at Time 2; 49-52% of each of the other three groups were classified similarly the second time, indicating their greater stability. Changes from Harsh-Intrusive to Withdrawn profiles or vice versa were rare (n = 3). To further address profile stability, Time 2 profile posterior probabilities were predicted in multiple regression models from Time 1 parenting profiles, with the child-oriented profile as reference group, Time 2 child externalizing and internalizing behavior problems, and cumulative risk. Results indicated Time 2 Withdrawn and Harsh-Intrusive profiles were significantly associated with Time 1 membership in their analogous profile but not with other Time 1 profiles, providing further evidence for stability and distinctiveness of these profiles. Only the Moderately Child-Oriented profile was associated with greater cumulative risk at Time 2; it was not related to any of the other Time 1 profiles. In addition, Withdrawn profile membership at Time 2 was associated with greater child internalizing and fewer externalizing problems. The Time 2 Child-Oriented profile was associated with less probability of membership in withdrawn or harsh-intrusive profiles at Time 1.

Assessing Mothers' Automatic Affective and Discipline Reactions to Child Behavior in Relation to Child Abuse Risk: A Dual-Processing Investigation

Given the scope and adverse clinical consequences of child abuse, assessment of salient etiological factors can lend critical insights needed for abuse prevention. Increasingly, dual-processing models have been applied to aggression, which postulate that parallel automatic and conscious processes can evoke aggressive behavior, implicating both affective and cognitive elements in both routes. Using two samples of mothers (n = 110 and n = 195), the current investigation considered evidence of the reliability and convergent, concurrent, and construct validity of the new Automatic Parent Emotion Analog Response task relevant to parent-child aggression, contrasted with a self-reported conscious processing measure. Findings provide evidence that affective reactions of both anger and worry relate to child abuse risk and inclination to respond aggressively, and demonstrate how mothers' automatic reactions relate to both perceived child misbehavior and child dangerous behavior. Current results lend psychometric support for automatic processing in parent-child aggression consistent with other dual-processing theories of aggression.

Assessing Mothers' Automatic Affective and Discipline Reactions to Child Behavior in Relation to Child Abuse Risk: A Dual-Processing Investigation

Given the scope and adverse clinical consequences of child abuse, assessment of salient etiological factors can lend critical insights needed for abuse prevention. Increasingly, dual-processing models have been applied to aggression, which postulate that parallel automatic and conscious processes can evoke aggressive behavior, implicating both affective and cognitive elements in both routes. Using two samples of mothers (n = 110 and n = 195), the current investigation considered evidence of the reliability and convergent, concurrent, and construct validity of the new Automatic Parent Emotion Analog Response task relevant to parent-child aggression, contrasted with a self-reported conscious processing measure. Findings provide evidence that affective reactions of both anger and worry relate to child abuse risk and inclination to respond aggressively, and demonstrate how mothers' automatic reactions relate to both perceived child misbehavior and child dangerous behavior. Current results lend psychometric support for automatic processing in parent-child aggression consistent with other dual-processing theories of aggression.

Maternal use of corporal punishment and behavior problems in early childhood: A sibling comparison analysis

BACKGROUND

Previous research demonstrates that there are environmental and genetic factors associated with the use of corporal punishment (CP) and children's behavior problems. Thus, it is difficult to disentangle whether CP has a causal effect on children's developmental outcomes.

OBJECTIVE

This study explored the relationship between maternal use of CP at ages 3-4 years and symptoms of internalizing and externalizing behavior problems between the ages of 6 and 9 years using a sibling comparison design. In doing so, we were able to control for shared environmental factors and partially control for genetic factors that could explain the relationship between CP and behavior problems.

METHODS

This study analyzed data from 11,506 children from the United States. We used generalized linear models to assess the relationship between the use of CP and behavior problems among biological siblings raised in the same home.

RESULTS

At the population level, CP was significantly associated with the development of internalizing behavior problems (β = 0.134, SE = 0.03, p < .001). When comparing siblings, this relationship was no longer significant. In contrast, CP was significantly associated with externalizing behavior problems at both the population (β = 0.233, SE = 0.02, p < .001) and sibling comparison level (β = 0.107, SE = 0.03, p < .001).

CONCLUSION

We did not find evidence to suggest that the association between CP and externalizing behavior problems is due to environmental and genetic factors exclusively. Corroborating previous research, these results suggest that CP may increase the likelihood of externalizing behavior problems.

Racial and Ethnic Differences in the Relation Between Parenting and Preschoolers' Externalizing Behaviors

This study examined racial/ethnic differences in the relations between three dimensions of parenting practices (harsh, lax, and warm parenting) and children's externalizing behaviors across European American, African American, and Latinx families. Participants included 221 mothers who identified as African American (n = 32), Latina (n = 46), or European American (n = 143). Mothers' self-rated and observer-coded harshness, laxness, and warmth, and their ratings of their 3-year-old children's externalizing behaviors (hyperactivity, aggression) were analyzed. Multiple regression analyses indicated some racial/ethnic differences in the relations between harsh and warm parenting, and children's externalizing behaviors. The slopes of the relation between greater harshness and greater aggression and hyperactivity were more positive for European American families than for African American or Latinx families. The slopes of the relation between greater warmth and less aggression were more negative for European American and Latinx families than for African American families. Results indicated no racial/ethnic differences in the relation between laxness and externalizing behaviors. These findings suggest racial/ethnic differences in the relation between some parenting practices and externalizing behaviors, which has important implications in culturally sensitive clinical practice for different racial/ethnic groups. More research is necessary to replicate these findings, and to identify other parenting practices that may be more important in racial/ethnic minority families.

Spillover and Crossover Effects: Mothers' and Fathers' Intimate Partner Violence, Parent-Child Aggression Risk, and Child Behavior Problems

The high co-occurrence of intimate partner violence (IPV) and physical child abuse suggests that studying these forms of aggression simultaneously, bidirectionally, and longitudinally is critical. Guided by family systems theory, this study examined parent-child aggression (PCA) risk, IPV victimization, and child behavior problems as reported by mothers and fathers when their child was 18 months and at 4 years old, to evaluate whether negative processes can transmit across family subsystems (i.e., spillover hypothesis) and/or across individuals (i.e., crossover hypothesis). Results indicated that mothers' PCA risk predicted their subsequent IPV victimization and their reported child behavior problems (i.e., spillover effects) as well as fathers' reported IPV victimization (i.e., crossover effect). Maternal reports of child behavior problems also predicted mothers' reported IPV victimization and fathers' reported child behavior problems, indicating child-driven effects. Overall, mothers rather than fathers appear more vulnerable to harmful spillover effects. Findings underscore the need for early prevention and intervention given the complex, transactional nature of family violence.

Measurement and Identification of Parenting Behaviors Associated with Social-Emotional Outcomes in Children: The Racial and Cultural Appropriateness of a Commonly Used Parenting Measure

OBJECTIVE

The objective of this study was to examine parenting styles (observed parent-child interactions via the Two-Bag Task) associated with young children's socioemotional outcomes, comparing children from Mexican-American and African American families with children from their White counterparts.

METHODS

The Early Childhood Longitudinal Study Birth Cohort data were used to examine 6 global parenting styles with socioemotional outcomes at 48 months of age while controlling for both time-independent and time-depending sociodemographic, maternal mental health, and child characteristics. Data were stratified by race and ethnicity, and weighted longitudinal linear regressions models were estimated using STATA/Xtmixed.

RESULTS

The 6 global parenting scores from the Two-Bag Task measures differed across White, African American, and Mexican-American groups of parents. White parents on average scored higher on parenting styles related to sensitivity, positive regard, and cognitive stimulation, whereas Mexican-American and African American parents scored lower. These parenting styles were associated with both approach to learning and social competence outcomes among White children but were nearly nonexistent for Mexican-American and African American children when adjusting for covariates.

CONCLUSION

Our results highlight the need to critically evaluate measures of parenting behaviors used in research studies with racially and ethnically diverse families. Examining the comprehensive psychometric properties and cultural appropriateness of parenting measures for diverse families is important to optimally support child development for non-White children. Furthermore, a critical lens is important to mitigate the perpetuation of inaccurate research findings for Mexican-American and African American children.

Physical punishment and child outcomes: a narrative review of prospective studies

Physical punishment is increasingly viewed as a form of violence that harms children. This narrative review summarises the findings of 69 prospective longitudinal studies to inform practitioners and policy makers about physical punishment's outcomes. Our review identified seven key themes. First, physical punishment consistently predicts increases in child behaviour problems over time. Second, physical punishment is not associated with positive outcomes over time. Third, physical punishment increases the risk of involvement with child protective services. Fourth, the only evidence of children eliciting physical punishment is for externalising behaviour. Fifth, physical punishment predicts worsening behaviour over time in quasi-experimental studies. Sixth, associations between physical punishment and detrimental child outcomes are robust across child and parent characteristics. Finally, there is some evidence of a dose-response relationship. The consistency of these findings indicates that physical punishment is harmful to children and that policy remedies are warranted.

Underlying mechanisms for racial disparities in parent-child physical and psychological aggression and child abuse risk

BACKGROUND

Understanding factors that contribute to parents' use of physical and psychological parent-child aggression (PCA) is critical in efforts to mitigate child maltreatment.

OBJECTIVE

Extant research has not adequately distinguished risk factors that may differ by race.

PARTICIPANTS AND METHODS

The present study investigated potential racial differences in worry, approval of PCA, justification for PCA use, negative child intent attributions, and discrimination experiences in relation to child abuse risk and physical and psychological PCA use in a sample of 292 Black (44.9 %) and White mothers.

RESULTS

As hypothesized, compared to White mothers, Black mothers demonstrated higher child abuse risk and reported more PCA use, stronger approval for using PCA, and more justification of their PCA to teach children obedience. Although Black mothers reported more discipline-relevant worry as well as more experience of discrimination, White mothers' lower trait worry related to their greater approval of PCA for discipline, which indirectly related to their abuse risk. Contrary to expectations, perceptions of greater discrimination were related to White mothers' increased child abuse risk, approval of PCA, and justification for PCA because of anger and to teach obedience-findings not observed for Black mothers.

CONCLUSIONS

The current results underscore the need for additional research on the role of discrimination and the cultural context of parenting and highlight the importance of explicitly testing racial differences to develop more culturally informed abuse prevention approaches.

Parental Beliefs and Actual Use of Corporal Punishment, School Violence and Bullying, and Depression in Early Adolescence

Prior studies on adverse outcomes of parental corporal punishment on children have focused on examining one of two broad domains of parental corporal punishment: parental beliefs or actual use. Recently, researchers have argued that parental belief and actual use of corporal punishment should work jointly to contribute to children's depression and involvement in school violence. Yet, studies supporting this proposition are lacking. This study examined the indirect link from parental attitudes towards corporal punishment to children's depression and school violence involvement through actual use of corporal punishment. Four hundred and thirty-three elementary school students and their parents in Taiwan participated in this study. The results indicate that positive parental attitudes towards corporal punishment do not predict children's depression and involvement in school violence. However, parental attitudes towards corporal punishment had significant indirect relationships with depression and involvement in school violence through the actual use of corporal punishment. These findings applied to both genders. This study supports the proposition that parental attitudes and the actual use of corporal punishment could work together to predict children's depression and school violence. Future intervention programs for decreasing children's depressive symptoms and involvement in school violence might need to tackle corporal punishment in the family.

Bidirectional Spillover in the Family across the Transition to Parenthood

Although family systems theory posits reciprocal causality between subsystems of the family, such as intimate partner violence exacerbating harsh parenting and vice versa, longitudinal studies with cross-lagged models have been used infrequently to test these principles. As guided by the spillover model, this study examined bidirectional associations between couple dysfunction, parent-child aggression risk, and child functioning across the transition to parenthood to determine whether and how disruptions in one subsystem relate to problems in other family subsystems. Participants were 201 first-time mothers and 151 fathers from a diverse community sample, evaluated during pregnancy, and reassessed two more times through their child's first 18 months of life. Individual and dyadic path model results indicate bidirectional spillover effects between parent-child aggression risk and child functioning for both mothers and fathers, and spillover from parent-child aggression risk to couple dysfunction for mothers but not fathers. However, limited spillover effects were identified between couple functioning and child adjustment, in contrast to previous work. Findings suggest that spillover can happen reciprocally and early in the family, supporting transactional models of behavior and highlighting the need for early family level intervention.

Impact of Intimate Partner Violence on Parenting and Children's Externalizing Behaviors: Transactional Processes Over Time

This study used longitudinal data to examine the transactional associations between mothers’ spanking and mother–child relationship quality with children’s externalizing behaviors in the context of intimate partner violence (IPV). Data came from a sample of 1,152 low-income mothers with children age 10–14 years. Results showed that past-year IPV triggered transactional associations by increasing children’s externalizing behaviors which, in turn, increased spanking and subsequently more externalizing behaviors. Transactional associations were also found for relationship quality. All outcomes used were mothers-reported except relationship quality. Implications for practice include the importance of the mother–child dyad and their reciprocal processes in assessment and treatment.

Parenting and Child Development: A Relational Health Perspective

A child's development is embedded within a complex system of relationships. Among the many relationships that influence children's growth and development, perhaps the most influential is the one that exists between parent and child. Recognition of the critical importance of early parent-child relationship quality for children's socioemotional, cognitive, neurobiological, and health outcomes has contributed to a shift in efforts to identify relational determinants of child outcomes. Recent efforts to extend models of relational health to the field of child development highlight the role that parent, child, and contextual factors play in supporting the development and maintenance of healthy parent-child relationships. This review presents a parent-child relational health perspective on development, with an emphasis on socioemotional outcomes in early childhood, along with brief attention to obesity and eating behavior as a relationally informed health outcome. Also emphasized here is the parent-health care provider relationship as a context for supporting healthy outcomes within families as well as screening and intervention efforts to support optimal relational health within families, with the goal of improving mental and physical health within our communities.

Examining the Longitudinal Effect of Spanking on Young Latinx Child Behavior Problems

Spanking is a divisive discipline practice in the USA and is considered an inappropriate and harmful discipline tactic by some scholars and practitioners. However, increased diversity in the USA has contributed to varying cultural beliefs regarding discipline, which in turn influences child development. While prior literature has examined correlates of spanking, few studies have examined its impact on Latinx children over time. We examined the use of spanking by Mexican-American (n = 185) and Dominican-American mothers (n = 141) across three time points. The main objective was to investigate whether maternal spanking predicted externalizing problems in young Latinx youth overtime. Families were recruited from public urban schools. Data were collected when children were 4-, 5- and 6-years old. A three-wave cross-lagged multi-group path analysis examined the potential reciprocal relationships between maternal spanking and child externalizing behaviors. According to cross-sectional linear regression models, spanking was concurrently associated with behavior problems at all three time points. However, the results of the cross-lagged multi-group path analyses showed that spanking did not predict subsequent behavior problems, nor did behavior problems predict subsequent spanking. The impact of spanking on child behavior may not be long-lasting in all Latinx families. Spanking and youth externalizing problems are concurrently and positively related; however, maternal use of spanking as a means of discipline did not result in negative and long term effects on child externalizing problems. Implications for practice with Latinx families are explored.

Prediction of health, education, and psychosocial professionals' attitudes in favor of parental use of corporal punishment

BACKGROUND

To date, there have been few studies pertaining to the knowledge and attitudes regarding the use of corporal punishment (CP) among professionals working with parents and children. Yet, many parents turn to these professionals for advice on child discipline.

OBJECTIVE

This study aimed to describe professionals' legal knowledge about parental use of CP and their attitudes toward this practice.

METHOD

A study was conducted among professionals working directly with children or their parents through an online questionnaire.

PARTICIPANTS

A total of 1,758 respondents from three sectors of training (psychosocial, health, education) completed the questionnaire.

RESULTS

The results showed that professionals have little knowledge of the legal guidelines surrounding the use of CP in Canada. This poor knowledge as well as the perceived impacts of CP on children acted as predictors of favorable attitudes toward this disciplinary practice. According to the regression analyses, other personal and professional factors also explain a person's approval of CP, including violence in childhood, religious practice, and sources of knowledge. The results also highlighted some findings related to the respondents' professional sectors.

CONCLUSIONS

The study results emphasize the need to better train professionals by targeting cognitive, personal, as well as professional factors.

Parental Education and Spanking of American Children: Blacks' Diminished Returns

Background

Based on the Minorities' Diminished Returns (MDRs) framework, high socioeconomic status (SES) indicators such as parental education shows weaker protective effects against adverse experiences for Blacks than Whites. For example, Black children with highly educated parents report high levels of depression, anxiety, suicide, smoking, obesity, and chronic disease. Limited knowledge exists on MDRs of parental education on the child's exposure to spanking by the mother.

Aims

Built on the MDRs framework, we tested the hypothesis of whether the effect of parental education on the child's exposure to spanking by the mother differs in Black and White families. We hypothesized that: 1) there is an inverse association between mothers' educational attainment and child spanking, and 2) the effect of mothers' educational attainment on mothers' spanking of the child is weaker for Black than White families.

Methods

We used data from the Fragile Families and Child Well-being Study (FFCWS), a 9-year follow up study of a random sample of births in cities larger than 200,000 population. In this analysis, 2722 Black or White families were followed. The main predictor was parental educational attainment at birth. The outcomes were exposure to spanking at ages 3, 5, and 9. Logistic regression was used for data analysis.

Results

Higher parental educational attainment at birth was inversely associated with the child's exposure to spanking by the mother among Whites, not Blacks. We also found a significant interaction between parental educational attainment at birth and race, suggesting that the associations between parental education and child exposure to spanking by the mother at ages 3, 5, and 9 were weaker for Black than White families.

Conclusions

Diminished returns of parental educational attainment in terms of reducing children's exposure to trauma and stress may be a mechanism that contributes to racial health disparities, particularly poor health of children in highly educated Black families. That is a smaller protective effect of parental education on reducing undesired exposures for Black than White children may be one of the mechanisms that may explain why children develop worse than expected physical, mental, and behavioral health in high SES Black families. Not all health disparities are due to racial differences in SES, but some of them are also secondary to the diminishing returns of socioeconomic status indicators such as parental education for racial minorities. Research should study contextual, structural, family, and behavioral factors that reduce Black families' ability to mobilize their human capital and secure health outcomes for themselves and their children.

Reciprocity in Undesirable Parent-Child Behavior? Verbal Aggression, Corporal Punishment, and Girls' Oppositional Defiant Symptoms

Parental verbal aggression and corporal punishment are associated with children's conduct problems and oppositional defiant disorder (ODD). The strength of bidirectional relationships among specific disruptive behaviors has been inconsistent across gender, and the direction of influence between parental aggression and girls' ODD symptoms is particularly understudied. This study tested reciprocal effects between aggressive parent behaviors and girls' ODD dimensions of oppositionality, antagonism, and irritability. Data from the Pittsburgh Girls Study (N = 2,450) were used, including annual child and parent-reported aggressive discipline and girls' parent-reported ODD symptoms between ages 5 and 16. Separate clustered Poisson regression models examined change in parent or child behavior outcomes using predictors lagged by one time point. After controlling for demographic factors, behavior stability, and other disruptive behaviors, parent-reported corporal punishment predicted girls' increasing antagonism and irritability, whereas child-reported corporal punishment was unrelated to ODD symptom change. Both parent- and child-reported verbal aggression predicted increases across ODD dimensions. Girls' oppositionality and antagonism predicted increasing parent-reported verbal aggression over time, but only oppositionality was significantly related to child-reported verbal aggression. Although ODD symptoms were unrelated to change in corporal punishment, attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) predicted increasing parental aggression of both types. Bidirectional associations emerged such that parental verbal aggression escalates reciprocally with girls' behavioral ODD symptoms. Verbal aggression contributed to increasing irritability, but irritability did not influence parenting behavior. "Child effects" may be most salient for behavioral ODD symptoms in transaction with verbal aggression and for ADHD symptoms in predicting worsening corporal punishment and verbal aggression.

Predicting Child Problem Behavior and Maternal/Paternal Parent-Child Aggression: Identifying Early Prevention Targets

Parental socio-cognitive factors may predict their physical discipline use as well as their perceptions of children's problem behavior; infant temperament may also influence parents' discipline use. Using a bidirectional approach, the current study investigated whether attitudes approving of parent-child aggression (PCA), negative child behavior attributions, knowledge of nonphysical discipline options, and infant temperament predicted 186 mothers' and 146 fathers' PCA use and child problem behaviors one year later. Findings indicated mothers who approved of PCA use and held negative child attributions were more likely to report greater subsequent PCA use; less knowledge of nonphysical discipline options predicted more perceived problem behaviors one year later. Fathers were more likely to engage in PCA with toddlers if they had less knowledge of nonphysical discipline options but also if they viewed their infants as active. Contributors to mothers' and fathers' PCA use and implications for prevention efforts and children's outcomes are considered.

Parent Spanking and Verbal Punishment, and Young Child Internalizing and Externalizing Behaviors in Latino Immigrant Families: Test of Moderation by Context and Culture

Objective

This study examined the prevalence and correlates of spanking and verbal punishment in a community sample of Latino immigrant families with young children, as well as the association of spanking and verbal punishment with child internalizing and externalizing problems 1 year later. Parenting context (e.g., warmth) and cultural context (e.g., the cultural value of respeto) are considered as potential moderators.

Design

Parenting and cultural socialization practices were assessed via parent self-report in sample of 633 Mexican and Dominican immigrant families with young children (M age = 4.43 years). Parent and teacher assessments of child internalizing and externalizing were also collected at baseline and 12 months later.

Results

At Time 1, male child gender was positively correlated with concurrent spanking; familial social support and U.S. American cultural knowledge were negatively correlated with mothers' spanking. Verbal punishment at Time 1 was associated with externalizing problems at Time 2 among both Mexican and Dominican American children, and this relation was not moderated. Additionally, verbal punishment was associated with Time 2 child internalizing problems among Mexican American children. There were no significant associations between spanking and later child internalizing or externalizing behaviors.

Conclusion

It is important that researchers examine both physical and verbal discipline strategies to understand their unique influences on Latino child outcomes, as well as contextual influences that may elucidate the use and long-term effects of spanking and verbal punishment on Latino children at different developmental stages.

Independent Contributions of Early Positive Parenting and Mother-Son Coercion on Emerging Social Development

In the current study, we explored associations between parent-child coercion and positive parenting in the toddler period in relation to children's social-behavioral development during the school-age period. The data were drawn from the Pitt Mother & Child Project, a sample of 310 low-income, ethnically diverse boys. Drawing on tenets of both attachment and social learning theory, it was hypothesized that coercive mother-son interaction would lead to reductions in positive maternal parenting in the toddler period, and that both positive parenting and mother-son coercion in the toddler period would contribute to children's conduct problems at school entry and lower social skills and peer rejection in middle childhood. The results were largely confirmed, such that mother-son coercive interaction at 18 months was related to decreases in positive parenting at 24 months. Additionally, mother-son coercive interaction and positive parenting at 24 months were linked to child conduct problems at age 5, which in turn predicted child social skills and peer rejection during middle childhood. In addition to indirect effects through child conduct problems, mother-son coercion continued to be independently related to school-age peer rejection. The findings are discussed with respect to the importance of early coercive interactions in the growth of child social-behavioral development from early to middle childhood.

Risk Factors for Antisocial Behavior in Low- and Middle-Income Countries: A Systematic Review of Longitudinal Studies

Violent crime is a major cause of social instability, injury, and death in low- and middle-income countries. Longitudinal studies in high-income countries have provided important evidence on developmental precursors of violence and other antisocial behaviors. However, there may be unique influences or different risk factor effects in other social settings. Extensive searches in seven languages and screening of over 60,000 references identified 39 longitudinal studies of antisocial behavior in low- and middle-income countries. Many risk factors have roughly the same average effects as when studied in high-income countries. Stability of aggression over a 3-year period is almost identical across low- and middle-income countries and high-income countries. Dimensions of comorbid psychopathology such as low self-control, hyperactivity, and sensation seeking are associated with antisocial behavior in low- and middle-income countries, but some early physical health factors have consistently weak or null effects.

Developmental Psychopathology in a Racial/Ethnic Minority Group: Are Cultural Risks Relevant?

OBJECTIVE

The current study examined (a) the mediating role of parenting behaviors in the relationship between parental risks and youth antisocial behaviors (YASB), and (b) the role of youth cultural stress in a racial/ethnic minority group (i.e., Puerto Rican [PR] youth).

METHOD

This longitudinal study consisted of 3 annual interviews of PR youth (N = 1,150; aged 10-14 years at wave 1) and their caretakers from the South Bronx (SB) in New York City and from San Juan, Puerto Rico. Parents reported on parental risks, parenting behaviors, and YASB. Youth also self-reported on YASB and youth cultural stress. A lagged structural equation model examined the relationship between these variables across 3 yearly waves, with youth cultural stress as a moderator of the association between effective parenting behaviors and YASB.

RESULTS

Findings supported the positive influence of effective parenting on YASB, independently of past parental risks and past YASB: higher effective parenting significantly predicted lower YASB at the following wave. Parenting also accounted for (mediated) the association between the composite of parental risks and YASB. Youth cultural stress at wave 1 was cross-sectionally associated with higher YASB and moderated the prospective associations between effective parenting and YASB, such that for youth who perceived higher cultural stress, the positive effect of effective parenting on YASB was weakened compared to those with lower/average cultural stress.

CONCLUSION

Among PR families, both parental and cultural risk factors influence YASB. Such findings should be considered when treating racial/ethnic minority youth for whom cultural factors may be a relevant influence on determining behaviors.

American Parents' Attitudes and Beliefs About Corporal Punishment: An Integrative Literature Review

Research on American parents' beliefs about the use of corporal punishment (CP) shows widespread approval of this child-rearing practice. This review integrated 25 research articles to gain a better understanding of what American parents believe about the use of CP as a method of child-rearing, where they get their information about CP, and if American parents' beliefs about CP translate to the actual use of CP. The results showed that the main factors that influence a parent's endorsement of CP is the belief that CP is normative and expected when raising a child; is a necessary part of parenting, even for infants; and that certain stressors involving interactions between the parent, child, and environment can elicit the use of CP. Further research is needed to determine what methods are effective in changing parents' attitudes and beliefs about the use of CP.

A Review of the Key Considerations in Mental Health Services Research: A Focus on Low-Income Children and Families

Children have been particularly vulnerable to the economic challenges of the past decade, with half (45 to 51%) of children under the age of 18 living in a low-income home and nearly 22% of those living in poverty. Low-income children are overrepresented in a range of statistics on psychosocial maladjustment issues, but their families are less likely than other socioeconomic groups to participate in mental health services and intervention research. Thus, this review asserts that substantive advances in mental health services and intervention research with low income families must move beyond a between-group, deficit-focused perspective to a more nuanced contemplation of how to: 1) Operationalize the "income" in low-income families; 2) Disentangle the interrelationship of low income, race, and ethnicity; and 3) Optimize recruitment, engagement and retention efforts via sensitivity to the culture of low-income status. Examples of mental health services and intervention research with low-income families will be discussed, and a summary, conclusions, and directions for future research are discussed in the context of these recommendations.

Changes in parents' spanking and reading as mechanisms for Head Start impacts on children

This study examined whether Head Start, the nation's main two-generation program for low-income families, benefits children in part through positive changes in parents' use of spanking and reading to children. Data were drawn from the 3-year-old cohort of the national evaluation of the Head Start program known as the Head Start Impact Study (N = 2,063). Results indicated that Head Start had small, indirect effects on children's spelling ability at Age 4 and their aggression at Age 4 through an increase in parents' reading to their children. Taken together, the results suggest that parents play a role in sustaining positive benefits of the Head Start program for children's behavior and literacy skills, one that could be enhanced with a greater emphasis on parent involvement and education. (PsycINFO Database Record

Harsh discipline relates to internalizing problems and cognitive functioning: findings from a cross-sectional study with school children in Tanzania

BACKGROUND

Child maltreatment poses a risk to children and adolescents' mental health and may also affect cognitive functioning. Also harsh discipline has been frequently associated with mental health problems. However, within societies in which harsh disciplinary methods are culturally normed and highly prevalent less is known about the association between harsh punishment, mental health problems, and cognitive functioning.

METHODS

In a cross-sectional study, we conducted structured clinical interviews with a sample of Tanzanian primary school students assessing exposure to harsh discipline (Maltreatment and Abuse Chronology of Exposure), internalizing problems (Strength and Difficulties Questionnaire, Children's Depression Inventory), and working memory (Corsi Blocktapping Task). School performance was measured by using the exam grades in 4 core subjects. The 409 children (52% boys) had a mean age of 10.5 years (range: 6 - 15).

RESULTS

Using structural equation modeling, a strong relationship was found between harsh discipline and internalizing problems (β = .47), which were related to lower working memory capacity (β = -.17) and school performance (β = -.17).

CONCLUSIONS

The present study suggests that harsh discipline is closely linked to children's internalizing mental health problems, which are in turn associated with lower cognitive functioning and school performance. Given the high rates of harsh discipline experienced by children in East African homes and elsewhere, the findings of the present study emphasize the need to inform the population at large about the potentially adverse consequences associated with harsh discipline.

Global Prevalence of Past-year Violence Against Children: A Systematic Review and Minimum Estimates

CONTEXT

Evidence confirms associations between childhood violence and major causes of mortality in adulthood. A synthesis of data on past-year prevalence of violence against children will help advance the United Nations' call to end all violence against children.

OBJECTIVES

Investigators systematically reviewed population-based surveys on the prevalence of past-year violence against children and synthesized the best available evidence to generate minimum regional and global estimates.

DATA SOURCES

We searched Medline, PubMed, Global Health, NBASE, CINAHL, and the World Wide Web for reports of representative surveys estimating prevalences of violence against children.

STUDY SELECTION

Two investigators independently assessed surveys against inclusion criteria and rated those included on indicators of quality.

DATA EXTRACTION

Investigators extracted data on past-year prevalences of violent victimization by country, age group, and type (physical, sexual, emotional, or multiple types). We used a triangulation approach which synthesized data to generate minimum regional prevalences, derived from population-weighted averages of the country-specific prevalences.

RESULTS

Thirty-eight reports provided quality data for 96 countries on past-year prevalences of violence against children. Base case estimates showed a minimum of 50% or more of children in Asia, Africa, and Northern America experienced past-year violence, and that globally over half of all children-1 billion children, ages 2-17 years-experienced such violence.

LIMITATIONS

Due to variations in timing and types of violence reported, triangulation could only be used to generate minimum prevalence estimates.

CONCLUSIONS

Expanded population-based surveillance of violence against children is essential to target prevention and drive the urgent investment in action endorsed in the United Nations 2030 Sustainable Development Agenda.

Should Parents' Physical Punishment of Children Be Considered a Source of Toxic Stress That Affects Brain Development?

The notion that negative childhood experiences can be sources of toxic stress that have short-and long-term consequences for children's health and well-being has gained increasing attention in recent years. The family environment can be a key source of stress, particularly when parents inflict pain on children; when that pain rises to the level of physical abuse the stress is thought to be toxic. In this article the author considers the possibility that nonabusive physical punishment may also constitute a source of toxic stress in the lives of children that affects their brain structure and functioning. The research linking physical abuse and physical punishment to children's brain structure and functioning is summarized, and the article concludes with a discussion of implications for future research, policy, and practice.

Self-Reported Parenting of Clinic-Referred and Non-referred Mexican American Mothers of Young Children

Behavioral parent training (BPT) interventions for child behavior problems have been based on decades of research that demonstrate links between particular parent behaviors and child externalizing problems. However, the majority of this research has been conducted with European-American (EA) families, and less is known about whether these findings can be generalized to Mexican Americans (MAs). In the current study, we investigated self-reported parenting practices that have been associated with externalizing behavior problems among EA families (harsh parenting, inconsistency, and low parental warmth), to determine if those practices can also differentiate MA mothers whose young children have clinically significant behavior problems from MA mothers whose children do not have behavior problems. Participants were 115 MA families with young children, 58 with a child with clinically significant behavior problems and 57 with a child in the normal range for such problems. Results indicated that MA mothers whose children have behavior problems self-reported significantly less warmth and consistency and more harsh parenting compared to parents whose children's behavior was in the normal range. These findings indicate that parenting behaviors that are associated with externalizing behavior problems among EA families are associated with the same problems among MA families with young children, suggesting that parent training interventions designed to target these behaviors are also likely to be relevant to MA families with children in this age range. However, findings also indicate that parenting behaviors differ depending on acculturation level, suggesting that BPT programs must respond to variation in normative parenting practices for MA families.

Age, sex, and racial differences in harsh physical punishment: results from a nationally representative United States sample

The purpose of this research was to examine age, sex, and racial differences in the prevalence of harsh physical punishment in childhood in a nationally representative sample of the United States. Data were from the National Epidemiologic Survey on Alcohol and Related Conditions (NESARC) collected in 2004 and 2005 (n=34,653). Logistic regression analyses were conducted to examine age, sex, and racial differences in the prevalence of harsh physical punishment. Results suggest that the prevalence of harsh physical punishment has been decreasing among more recently born age groups; however, there appear to be sex and racial differences in this trend over time. The magnitude of the decrease appears to be stronger for males than for females. By race, the decrease in harsh physical punishment over time is only apparent among Whites; Black participants demonstrate little change over time, and harsh physical punishment seems to be increasing over time among Hispanics. Prevention and intervention efforts that educate about the links of physical punishment to negative outcomes and alternative non-physical discipline strategies may be particularly useful in reducing the prevalence of harsh physical punishment over time.