Examining the effects of household chaos on child executive functions: A meta-analysis

Prenatal risk factors for child executive function at 3-5 years of age: the roles of maternal mood, substance use, and socioeconomic adversity in a prospective cohort study

BACKGROUND

A growing body of literature links prenatal mood and substance use to children's cognitive and behavioral development. The relative contribution of these risk factors on children's executive function (EF) in the context of socioeconomic adversities needs further evaluation. To address this gap, we investigated the role of prenatal maternal anxiety and depression on childhood EF, specifically inhibitory control and working memory, within the context of socioeconomic adversities and prenatal substance use. We hypothesized that higher maternal mood symptoms, higher persistent prenatal drinking and smoking, and lower socioeconomic status would be associated with lower EF skills during early childhood.

METHODS

We used data from 334 mother-child dyads followed prospectively through pregnancy and the offspring's childhood. Prenatal maternal depression and anxiety were assessed via standardized questionnaires. Prenatal alcohol and tobacco consumption were assessed via a timeline follow-back interview. The EF touch battery assessed child inhibitory control and working memory at 3-5 years of age (4.76 ± 0.58 years, 171 females). Separate linear regression models were used to estimate the association of prenatal tobacco, alcohol, anxiety, and depression exposure with our two components of child EF, inhibitory control and working memory, while adjusting for gestational age, sex, and age at assessment. The following variables were also included as covariates: maternal educational achievement, employment status, parity, and household crowding index.

RESULTS

Children of mothers with high trait anxiety scores had reduced inhibitory control compared to children of mothers without trait anxiety or depression (β = -0.12, 95% CI:-0.22,-0.01). Children of mothers in the moderate to high continuous smoking group showed lower inhibitory control (β = - 0.19, 95% CI:-0.38,-0.01) compared to children of mothers in the none smoking group. Additionally, lower maternal education and higher household crowding were each associated with reduced inhibitory control. We found no significant association between prenatal maternal depression, anxiety, or socioeconomic factors with working memory.

CONCLUSIONS

These results underscore the need for comprehensive context-specific intervention packages, including mental health support for women to promote healthy inhibitory control development in children.

Capturing the complexity of child behavior and caregiver-child interactions in the HEALthy Brain and Child Development (HBCD) Study using a rigorous and equitable approach

The HEALthy Brain and Child Development (HBCD) Study, a multi-site prospective longitudinal cohort study, will examine human brain, cognitive, behavioral, social, and emotional development beginning prenatally and planned through early childhood. This article outlines methodological considerations and the decision-making process for measurement selection for child behavior, parenting/caregiver-child interactions, and the family/home environment for HBCD. The decision-making process is detailed, including formation of a national workgroup (WG-BEH) that focused on developmentally appropriate measures that take a rigorous and equitable approach and aligned with HBCD objectives. Multi-level-observational and caregiver-report measures were deemed necessary for capturing the desired constructs across multiple contexts while balancing the nuance of observational data with pragmatic considerations. WG-BEH prioritized developmentally sensitive, validated assessments with psychometrics supporting use in diverse populations and focused on mechanistic linkages and prediction of desired constructs. Other considerations included participant burden and retention, staff training needs, and cultural sensitivity. Innovation was permitted when it was grounded in evidence and filled key gaps. Finally, this article describes the rationale for the selected constructs (e.g., temperament, social-emotional development, parenting behaviors, family organization) and corresponding measures chosen for HBCD visits from early infancy through 17 months of age.

Household chaos and child problem behaviors: A cross-cultural examination of the mediating and moderating role of mindful parenting

Household chaos has been shown to adversely associate with children's behavioral adjustment. However, the mechanism underlying the relationship between household chaos and children's behaviors is not yet fully understood. The current study proposes mindful parenting as an important mediating and moderating factor in the relationship between household chaos and child problem behaviors. This study also examines cultural influences in this process, comparing the UK and Türkiye, considering both mothers' and children's perspectives on mindful parenting. Cross-sectional questionnaires were administered to mothers and their children aged 11-16 years in the UK (n = 90; 53.3% girl) and Türkiye (n = 154; 54.5% girl) in 2021. Mother reports of the Confusion, Hubbub, and Order Scale and the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire, as well as mother and child reports of Mindful Parenting Inventories for Parents (MPIP) and Children (MPIC), were used to assess household chaos, child problem behaviors, and mindful parenting, respectively. Multiple-group path analysis revealed that household chaos was a significant indirect predictor of child problem behaviors via mindful parenting in both countries. Furthermore, simple slopes analysis showed that mindful parenting moderated the link between household chaos and child problem behaviors in the UK. Overall, our study sheds light on the importance of micro- and macro-environmental factors and their interactions in children's adjustment.

Relations between adolescent perceptions of household chaos and externalizing and internalizing behaviors in low- and middle-income families

A large body of literature has established that chaos in the home environment, characterized by high levels of disorganization, lack of household routine, crowding, noise, and unpredictability, undermines social-emotional and behavioral development in early childhood. It is less clear whether household chaos is linked to elevated risk for behavior problems in adolescence. The aims of this study were 3fold: (1) characterize the variability of adolescent and caregiver reports of household chaos over time; (2) examine associations among caregiver and adolescent reports of chaos over a 9-month period; (3) consider how between- and within- individual variability in household chaos predicts adolescent externalizing and internalizing problems. This study drew data from the Family Income Dynamics study, a 9-month longitudinal study. Participants included 104 adolescents between 14 and 16 years old (55% female; M age = 14.85) and their caregiver (92% female) from low- and middle-income families. Results showed that adolescent-reports of household chaos were more variable over time compared to caregivers' reports. Adolescent-reports of household chaos had positive within- and between-level associations with externalizing problems and between-level associations with internalizing, while caregiver-reports of chaos had no links to behavior. This work highlights the importance of adolescents' own perceptions of household chaos when considering its links to adolescent development.

Parent-Child Relationships: A Shield Against Maternal Depression in the Midst of Household Chaos

Background

Depression, a severe mental disorder, not only jeopardizes the health of mothers but also significantly negative impacts on families and their children. This study investigates the correlation between household chaos and maternal depression.

Methods

This study adopted a cross-sectional design and used the Confusion, Hubbub, and Order Scale, Dyadic Adjustment Scale, Parent-Child Relationship Scale, and Beck Depression Inventory to assess 1947 mothers of children in seven kindergartens in Shanghai, China.

Results

The findings revealed a significant positive correlation between household chaos, marital conflict, and maternal depression. Marital conflict also showed a significantly positively correlated with maternal depression. Marital conflict mediates the relationship between household chaos and maternal depression. Parent-child relationships moderated the direct effect of household chaos on maternal depression. When parent-child relationships were low, household chaos had a greater predictive effect on maternal depression. Conversely, when parent-child relationships were high, the predictive effect of household chaos on maternal depression was reduced.

Conclusion

This study reveals that parent-child relationships play a protective role in the impact of household chaos on maternal depression. This study significantly contributes to enriching the social support buffering model.

Adaptation and validation for use in Brazil of the Confusion, Hubbub, and Order Scale (CHAOS)

BACKGROUND

The Confusion, Hubbub, and Order Scale (CHAOS in English Version) was originally developed in the USA by Matheny et al (Bringing order out of chaos: psychometric characteristics of the confusion, hubbub, and order scale. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology 16(3):429-444, 1995) to measure chaos in the family environment, characterized by confusion, lack of routine, and organization.

OBJECTIVE

To present evidence of content validity, internal structure validity, and validity based on relationships with external measures of an adapted version of the CHAOS into Brasilian Portuguese with adolescents sample in São Paulo - Brasil.

METHOD

Study 1 involved the translation/back-translation and adaptation of the scale into Brazilian Portuguese [here named "Escala de Confusão, Alvoroço e Ordem no Sistema familiar" (CAOS)], assessed by 5 judges. In Study 2, we conducted an exploratory factor analyses (EFA) to determine the scale's factor structure (N = 180 adults). In Study 3, we carried out confirmatory factor analyses (CFA) to confirm the internal validity of the scale, along with complete structural equation modeling to explore convergent validity in another sample (N = 239 adolescents).

RESULTS

The CAOS scale displayed content validity, and the EFA and CFA showed a unifactorial structure (with some scale adjustments) with an acceptable fit. The family chaos latent factor was associated with externalizing symptoms and perceived stress in adolescents.

CONCLUSION

Overall, the Brazilian version of the scale presented evidence of construct, internal, and concurrent validity that indicate its usefulness in Brazil.

Patterns of Adverse Childhood Experiences and Neurocognitive Development

Importance

Early life adversity is associated with higher risk of many adult health problems, including mental illness, substance abuse, suicide attempt, and chronic diseases. Many previous studies investigated adversities one at a time or investigated the health toll associated with the cumulative number of adversities.

Objective

To examine the co-occurrence of adversities among children and how specific patterns of adversities are associated with neurocognitive development.

Design, Setting, and Participants

This cohort study used data from the Collaborative Perinatal Project (CPP), which enrolled a national sample of women during pregnancy and followed their offspring to ages 7 to 8 years, between 1959 and 1974. The CPP was a community-based study conducted in 12 US medical centers. The CPP sample was ascertained through prenatal clinics and is diverse with respect to race and socioeconomic status. Data analysis was performed from August 2023 to March 2024.

Exposures

A latent class analysis was conducted of 12 adverse childhood experiences that occurred between birth and 7 years to identify common patterns of childhood adversities.

Main Outcomes and Measures

Five neurocognitive tests were used to measure children's visual-motor, sensory-motor, auditory-vocal, intelligence quotient, and academic skills.

Results

The analysis sample included 49 853 offspring (25 226 boys [50.6%]); 24 436 children (49.0%) had low probability of experiencing any adversity, whereas the remaining half were classified into 5 groups reflecting distinct patterns of childhood adversities: parental harshness and neglect, 1625 children (3.3%); parental separation and poverty, 8731 children (17.5%); family instability, 3655 children (7.3%); family loss, instability, and poverty, 1505 children (3.0%); and crowded housing and poverty, 9901 children (19.9%). Children in 4 of these groups had lower neurocognitive scores than children with a low probability of experiencing adversity, with standardized mean differences ranging from -0.07 (95% CI, -0.11 to -0.03) to -0.86 (95% CI, -1.06 to -0.65).

Conclusions and Relevance

These findings suggest that adverse childhood experiences are associated with deficits in children's neurocognitive functions. It is important to understand the complexity in children's exposure to adversity and the resulting developmental consequences, as well as the underlying mechanisms, to help support children exposed to adversity and foster healthier and resilient trajectories of development.

Growing Up Together in Society (GUTS): A team science effort to predict societal trajectories in adolescence and young adulthood

Our society faces a great diversity of opportunities for youth. The 10-year Growing Up Together in Society (GUTS) program has the long-term goal to understand which combination of measures best predict societal trajectories, such as school success, mental health, well-being, and developing a sense of belonging in society. Our leading hypothesis is that self-regulation is key to how adolescents successfully navigate the demands of contemporary society. We aim to test these questions using socio-economic, questionnaire (including experience sampling methods), behavioral, brain (fMRI, sMRI, EEG), hormonal, and genetic measures in four large cohorts including adolescents and young adults. Two cohorts are designed as test and replication cohorts to test the developmental trajectory of self-regulation, including adolescents of different socioeconomic status thereby bridging individual, family, and societal perspectives. The third cohort consists of an entire social network to examine how neural and self-regulatory development influences and is influenced by whom adolescents and young adults choose to interact with. The fourth cohort includes youth with early signs of antisocial and delinquent behavior to understand patterns of societal development in individuals at the extreme ends of self-regulation and societal participation, and examines pathways into and out of delinquency. We will complement the newly collected cohorts with data from existing large-scale population-based and case-control cohorts. The study is embedded in a transdisciplinary approach that engages stakeholders throughout the design stage, with a strong focus on citizen science and youth participation in study design, data collection, and interpretation of results, to ensure optimal translation to youth in society.

PROTOCOL: Key characteristics of effective preschool-based interventions to promote self-regulation: A systematic review and meta-analysis

This is the protocol for a Cochrane Review. The objectives are as follows: The aim of this systematic review is to advance our understanding of the key characteristics of effective preschool-based interventions designed to foster self-regulation. To accomplish this, the review addresses the following questions: 1. What types of preschool-based interventions have been developed to promote self-regulation? 2. What is the average effect of these preschool-based interventions on self-regulation, focusing on four key constructs: integrative effortful control, integrative executive function, self-regulation, and self-regulated learning? 3. What characteristics-such as Resource Allocation, Activity Type, and Instruction Method-could potentially contribute to the effects of preschool-based interventions in promoting self-regulation?

Understanding Working Memory and Mathematics Development in Ethnically/Racially Minoritized Children through an Integrative Theory Lens

Limited research on working memory has centered on ethnically/racially minoritized children, thereby limiting researchers' abilities to draw conclusions about working memory or to provide additional supports in cultivating working memory for these children. Using the Integrative Theory as a lens, the current study explored the predictive benefit of parent academic socialization strategies on the working memory and subsequent mathematics skills of a nationally representative sample of ethnically/racially minoritized children. Using structural equation modeling techniques, a path model including social position; family structure; leisure activities; parent academic socialization strategies; and their association with kindergarten Asian/Asian-American (N = 1211), Black (N = 1927), and Latine (N = 3671) children's working memory and first-grade mathematics skills were examined. Furthermore, multigroup moderation was used to test for differences between ethnic/racial groups. Connections to social capital theory, community cultural wealth, and culturally relevant interpretations of the study findings are discussed.

Annual Research Review: The power of predictability - patterns of signals in early life shape neurodevelopment and mental health trajectories

The global burden of early life adversity (ELA) is profound. The World Health Organization has estimated that ELA accounts for almost 30% of all psychiatric cases. Yet, our ability to identify which individuals exposed to ELA will develop mental illness remains poor and there is a critical need to identify underlying pathways and mechanisms. This review proposes unpredictability as an understudied aspect of ELA that is tractable and presents a conceptual model that includes biologically plausible mechanistic pathways by which unpredictability impacts the developing brain. The model is supported by a synthesis of published and new data illustrating the significant impacts of patterns of signals on child development. We begin with an overview of the existing unpredictability literature, which has focused primarily on longer patterns of unpredictability (e.g. years, months, and days). We then describe our work testing the impact of patterns of parental signals on a moment-to-moment timescale, providing evidence that patterns of these signals during sensitive windows of development influence neurocircuit formation across species and thus may be an evolutionarily conserved process that shapes the developing brain. Next, attention is drawn to emerging themes which provide a framework for future directions of research including the evaluation of functions, such as effortful control, that may be particularly vulnerable to unpredictability, sensitive periods, sex differences, cross-cultural investigations, addressing causality, and unpredictability as a pathway by which other forms of ELA impact development. Finally, we provide suggestions for prevention and intervention, including the introduction of a screening instrument for the identification of children exposed to unpredictable experiences.

Childhood unpredictability research within the developmental psychopathology framework: Advances, implications, and future directions

Greater unpredictability in childhood from the level of the caregiver-child dyad to broader family, home, or environmental instability is consistently associated with disruptions in cognitive, socioemotional, behavioral, and biological development in humans. These findings are bolstered by experimental research in non-human animal models suggesting that early life unpredictability is an important environmental signal to the developing organism that shapes neurodevelopment and behavior. Research on childhood unpredictability has surged in the past several years, guided in part by theoretical grounding from the developmental psychopathology framework (shaped largely by Dr. Dante Cicchetti's innovative work). The current review focuses on future directions for unpredictability research, including probing intergenerational effects, the role of predictability in resilience, cultural and contextual considerations, and novel developmental outcomes that should be tested in relation to childhood unpredictability. We urge the integration of multidisciplinary perspectives and collaborations into future research on unpredictability. We also provide ideas for translating this research to real-world practice and policy and encourage high-quality research testing whether incorporating predictability into interventions and policy improves developmental outcomes, which would support further dissemination of these findings.

Household chaos and parenting: The effect of household chaos does not depend on sensory-processing sensitivity and self-regulation

Previous studies have found evidence for a causal effect of household chaos on parenting and suggest that this effect may be stronger for parents with higher sensory-processing sensitivity (SPS) or lower self-regulation. This study investigates whether primary caregivers of children around age 1.5-2 years show greater improvement in parenting after a decrease in household chaos if parents have higher SPS or lower self-regulation. The study employs a randomized controlled trial (RCT) design with an intervention aimed at reducing household chaos. A total of 125 parents of toddlers participated in the study. All participants were living in the Netherlands at the time of the study, 89% identified with the Dutch ethnicity and 11% with a non-Dutch ethnicity. Self-report as well as objective measures were used, including videotaped parent-child interactions and home observations. The effect of the intervention on parenting did not depend on SPS or self-regulation. When studying the relation between change in measures of household chaos and posttest parenting, decreased self-reported household chaos was related to less harsh discipline in parents with higher self-regulation, and to more harsh discipline in parents with lower self-regulation. However, this is a tentative finding that should be further explored in future research.

Preschoolers' Self-Regulation and Behavior Problems in the Midst of Caregiver Depression and Chaos

OBJECTIVES

Preschoolers' self-regulation is partially developed through home and child care routines. COVID-19-related child care closures increased caregiver depressive symptoms, household chaos, and children's behavior problems. This longitudinal study examined how preschoolers' prepandemic self-regulation was related to behavior problems early in the pandemic, including buffering against the adverse effects of caregiver depressive symptoms and household chaos.

METHODS

A sample of 264 caregivers of preschoolers reported on their children's self-regulation (Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Function-Preschool Version Inhibitory Self Control Index) before the pandemic and caregiver depressive symptoms (Center for Epidemiological Studies), household chaos (Confusion, Hubbub, and Order Scale), and children's behavior problems (Behavior Rating Index for Children) during the pandemic. We used linear mixed models to examine predictors of children's behavior problems, including prepandemic self-regulation, and further examined moderation by pandemic-related caregiver depressive symptoms and household chaos.

RESULTS

Children were 64% non-Hispanic White and 24% non-Hispanic Black, with mean pandemic age 5.9 years. Prepandemic self-regulation significantly predicted early pandemic behavior problems (β = -0.38 [95% confidence interval, -0.69 to -0.07]). This association was moderated by pandemic-related caregiver depressive symptoms and household chaos; the protective association was maintained at high levels of caregiver depressive symptoms or household chaos, although the association diminished when these co-occurred.

CONCLUSION

The protective association between prepandemic self-regulation and subsequent behavior problems suggests longitudinal benefits of preschoolers' inhibitory and emotional control. Despite reduced protection associated with co-occurring caregiver and household challenges, self-regulation continued to demonstrate protection against subsequent behavior problems, even in the midst of a pandemic.

Perceived social support mitigates the associations among household chaos and health and well-being in rural early adolescents

PURPOSE

Previous studies have demonstrated that early adolescents residing in chaotic households experience adverse health and well-being outcomes. However, the potential protective factors that mitigate the relationship between household chaos and early adolescents' health and well-being remain unknown. Accordingly, this study aims to investigate whether perceived social support moderates the link between household chaos and the health and well-being among Chinese rural early adolescents.

METHODS

Physical health difficulties were assessed using two measures: general health and allostatic load (AL). Mental health difficulties were measured by depression. Well-being was reflected by life satisfaction. Specifically, this study included early adolescents (N = 337; Mage  = 10.88 ± 1.36 years) from rural counties in China who reported their household chaos, perceived social support, general health, depression, and life satisfaction. AL scores were determined based on six physiological indices.

RESULTS

Household chaos exhibited a negative relationship with the general health and life satisfaction while a positive correlation with depression. Moreover, perceived social support was found to moderate the association between household chaos and these health and well-being indicators of early adolescents. Specifically, early adolescents who reported higher levels of perceived social support exhibited weaker negative connections among household chaos and their general health, depression, and life satisfaction. Furthermore, no significant relationships were observed between the adolescents' AL and household chaos, perceived social support, or their interactions.

CONCLUSIONS

Household chaos poses a significant risk to health and well-being. Furthermore, the findings indicate that perceived social support can mitigate these negative effects.

What's Next? Advances and Challenges in Understanding How Environmental Predictability Shapes the Development of Cognitive Control

Forming predictions about what will happen next in the world happens early in development, without instruction, and across species. Some environments support more accurate predictions. These more predictable environments also support what appear to be positive developmental trajectories, including increases in cognitive control over thoughts and actions. Such consequences of predictable environments have broad-reaching implications for society and have been explained across ecological, psychological, computational, and neural frameworks. However, many challenges remain in understanding the effects of environmental predictability, including adaptive responses to unpredictable environments and the mechanisms underlying the effects of predictable environments on developmental trajectories. Future work addressing different dimensions of predictability -- across time scales, locations, actions, people, and outcomes -- and their interactions will advance the ability to understand, predict, and support developmental trajectories.

Early life adversity and substance use: The mediating role of mood and the moderating role of impulsivity

INTRODUCTION

Early life adversity (ELA) is a risk factor for substance use and misuse, and multiple factors mediate and moderate this association. We examined whether moods mediate the relationships between ELA and nicotine use, cannabis use, and co-use, and whether these mediation effects varied as a function of delay discounting.

METHODS

A total of 2555 adults completed a delay discounting task and responded to questions related to demographics, ELA, mood, and substance use. Data were analyzed using Pearson correlations and moderated mediation using Hayes' PROCESS macro (V3.4, Model 15).

RESULTS

ELA was positively associated with cannabis use, nicotine use, co-use of both substances, depressed and stressed moods, and it was negatively associated with positive mood. While cannabis use was associated negatively with stressed and depressed moods and positively with positive mood, nicotine use was associated negatively with positive mood. Moderated mediation analyses indicated that positive mood mediated the relationship between ELA and cannabis use for those with average and above average delay discounting. Positive mood also mediated the relationship between ELA and co-use among those with above average delay discounting.

CONCLUSION

The results suggest that ELA's associations with cannabis use and cannabis-nicotine co-use may be partially attributable to ELA's effects on positive mood among those who are predisposed to moderately to highly impulsive decision making.

Neighborhood disadvantage, household chaos, and personal stressors: exploring early-life contextual factors and current mental health symptoms in college students

OBJECTIVE

Using Bronfenbrenner's socio-ecological model as a frame, we explored the impact of neighborhood disadvantage, household chaos, and personal stressors on current mental health symptoms in college students.

PARTICIPANTS

144 students at a large, public university in the southern U.S.

METHODS

Participants completed measures of demographics, family-of-origin household chaos, stressors, anxiety, and depression, and provided their childhood home ZIP code. Using U.S. Census Data, four structural indicators of neighborhood disadvantage were extracted and appended to each participant's ZIP code.

RESULTS

Hierarchical regression revealed that all three variables predicted anxiety symptoms. However, only household chaos and personal stressors predicted current depressive symptoms. Unexpectedly, greater neighborhood disadvantage predicted lower levels of current anxiety. Mediation analyses demonstrated that personal stressors partially mediated the relationships between household chaos and mental health symptoms.

CONCLUSIONS

College administration and counseling centers may wish to consider pre-college factors that influence college students' current anxious and depressive symptoms.

Does preschool executive control mediate the impact of early environmental unpredictability and deprivation on the general factor of psychopathology a decade later?

BACKGROUND

Although deprivation has been consistently shown to increase risk for psychopathology through impaired executive control, the unique effects of other dimensions of early adversity, such as unpredictability, on executive control development are poorly understood. The current study evaluated whether deprivation and/or unpredictability early in life have unique effects on the general factor of psychopathology through impaired preschool executive control.

METHODS

Participants included 312 children (51% female) oversampled for greater sociodemographic risk. Preschool executive control was measured using a battery of nine developmentally appropriate executive control tasks. Dimensions of adversity were measured with observational and caregiver assessments, and psychopathology was measured with caregiver and child reports.

RESULTS

In separate models, both deprivation and unpredictability had significant indirect effects on the adolescent general factor of psychopathology through impaired preschool executive control. However, when both dimensions of adversity were included simultaneously, early life deprivation, but not unpredictability, was uniquely associated with the general factor of psychopathology in adolescence through impaired preschool executive control.

CONCLUSIONS

Preschool executive control appears to be a transdiagnostic mechanism through which deprivation, but not unpredictability, increases risk for the general factor of psychopathology in adolescence. Results elucidate potential transdiagnostic targets for intervention efforts aimed at reducing the development and maintenance of psychopathology across the life span.

Environment and child well-being: A scoping review of reviews to guide policies

Background

Acting on social determinants is the most effective, efficient, and fairest strategy to improve population health and health equity. Because of their vulnerability and dependence, children are particularly exposed to the deleterious effects of their living environment. Taking these issues into account in the development of public policies and identifying levers for action are crucial. The objective of this scoping review of reviews is to identify the main environmental determinants on children's health and development, and their mechanisms of effect, to be addressed by public policies.

Methods

We conducted a scoping review of reviews in accordance with the method developed by Arksey and O'Malley, and Levac and colleagues' methodology advancement and the PRISMA guideline. Inclusion criteria were identified with the PICos (population-phenomena of interest-context-study design) framework. We used the PubMed database and conducted a thematic analyze.

Results

Forty-seven articles were selected. Their analysis allowed us to identify five categories of interdependent environmental determinants of child health: i) urban design ii) contaminants, iii) parenting environment, iv) social conditions, v) climate change. Together and in a systemic way, they act on the health of the child.

Conclusion

The review carried out allows us to propose a pragmatic framework for clarifying the effects of the physical, social, and economic environment on children's health and wellbeing.

Predicting Effortful Control at 3 Years of Age from Measures of Attention and Home Environment in Infancy: A Machine Learning Approach

Effortful control (EC) is a dimension of temperament that encompass individual differences in self-regulation and the control of reactivity. Much research suggests that EC has a strong foundation on the development of executive attention, but increasing evidence also shows a significant contribution of the rearing environment to individual differences in EC. The aim of the current study was to predict the development of EC at 36 months of age from early attentional and environmental measures taken in infancy using a machine learning approach. A sample of 78 infants participated in a longitudinal study running three waves of data collection at 6, 9, and 36 months of age. Attentional tasks were administered at 6 months of age, with two additional measures (i.e., one attentional measure and another self-restraint measure) being collected at 9 months of age. Parents reported household environment variables during wave 1, and their child's EC at 36 months. A machine-learning algorithm was implemented to identify children with low EC scores at 36 months of age. An "attention only" model showed greater predictive sensitivity than the "environmental only" model. However, a model including both attentional and environmental variables was able to classify the groups (Low-EC vs. Average-to-High EC) with 100% accuracy. Sensitivity analyses indicate that socio-economic variables together with attention control processes at 6 months, and self-restraint capacity at 9 months, are the most important predictors of EC. Results suggest a foundational role of executive attention processes in the development of EC in complex interactions with household environments and provide a new tool to identify early markers of socio-emotional regulation development.

Influence of the environment on the early development of attentional control

The control of visual attention is key to learning and has a foundational role in the development of self-regulated behavior. Basic attention control skills emerge early in life and show a protracted development along childhood. Prior research suggests that attentional development is influenced by environmental factors in early and late childhood. Although, much less information is available about the impact of the early environment on emerging endogenous attention skills during infancy. In the current study we aimed to test the impact of parental socioeconomic status (SES) and home environment (chaos) in the emerging control of orienting in a sample of typically-developing infants. A group of 142 (73 female) 6-month-old infants were longitudinally tested at 6, 9 (n = 122; 60 female) and 16-18 (n = 91; 50 female) months of age using the gap-overlap paradigm. Median saccade latency (mdSL) and disengagement failure (DF) were computed as dependent variables for both overlap and gap conditions. Also, composite scores for a Disengagement Cost Index (DCI) and Disengagement Failure Index (DFI) were computed considering mdSL and DF of each condition, respectively. Families reported SES and chaos in the first and last follow-up sessions. Using Linear Mixed Models with Maximum Likelihood estimation (ML) we found a longitudinal decrease in mdSL in the gap but not in the overlap condition, while DF decreased with age independently of the experimental condition. Concerning early environmental factors, an SES index, parental occupation and chaos at 6 months were found to show a negative correlation with DFI at 16-18 months, although in the former case it was only marginally significant. Hierarchical regression models implementing ML showed that both SES and chaos at 6 months significantly predicted a lower DFI at 16-18 months. Results show a longitudinal progression of endogenous orienting between infancy and toddlerhood. With age, an increased endogenous control of orienting is displayed in contexts where visual disengagement is facilitated. Visual orienting involving attention disengagement in contexts of visual competition do not show changes with age. Moreover, these attentional mechanisms of endogenous control seem to be modulated by early experiences of the individual with the environment.

Positive Parenting and Early Childhood Cognition: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials

This review examines the effectiveness of positive parenting interventions aimed at improving sensitivity, responsiveness, and/or non-harsh discipline on children's early cognitive skills, in four meta-analyses addressing general mental abilities, language, executive functioning, and pre-academics. The objectives are to assess the magnitude of intervention effectiveness and identify moderators of effectiveness. We include randomized controlled trials of interventions targeting positive parenting to improve cognition in children < 6 years. Studies that include children with neurodevelopmental and/or hearing disorders were excluded. MEDLINE, PsycINFO, ERIC, and ProQuest Dissertations & Theses (October 2021) and citation chaining identified relevant records. Five reviewers completed screening/assessments, extraction, and risk of bias. Pooled analysis in Comprehensive Meta-Analysis (Version 3) used random effects modeling, with moderation via Q-statistics and meta-regression. Positive parenting interventions led to significant improvements in mental abilities (g = 0.46, N = 5746; k = 33) and language (g = 0.25, N = 6428; k = 30). Effect sizes were smaller and nonsignificant for executive functioning (g = 0.07, N = 3628; k = 14) and pre-academics (g = 0.16, N = 2365; k = 7). Robust moderators emerged for language and cognition. For cognition, studies with higher risk of bias scores yielded larger intervention effects. For language, studies with younger children had larger effect sizes. Studies mitigated selection and detection bias, though greater transparency of reporting is needed. Interventions that promote parental sensitivity, responsiveness, and non-harsh discipline improve early mental abilities and language. Studies examining executive functioning and pre-academics are needed to examine moderators of intervention effectiveness. Trial registration Systematic review PROSPERO registration. CRD42020222143.

Variability Across Caregiver and Performance-Based Measures of Executive Functioning in an Acute Pediatric Neurocritical Care Population

Youth admitted to the pediatric intensive care unit (PICU) for traumatic brain injury (TBI) commonly struggle with long-term residual effects in the domains of physical, cognitive, emotional, and psychosocial/family functioning. In the cognitive domain, executive functioning (EF) deficits are often observed. The Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Functioning, Second Edition (BRIEF-2) is a parent/caregiver-completed measure that is regularly utilized to assess caregivers' perspectives of daily EF abilities. Using parent/caregiver-completed measures like the BRIEF-2 in isolation as outcome measures for capturing symptom presence and severity might be problematic given that caregiver ratings are vulnerable to influence from external factors. As such, this study aimed to investigate the association between the BRIEF-2 and performance-based measures of EF in youth during the acute recovery period post-PICU admission for TBI. A secondary aim was to explore associations among potential confounding factors, including family-level distress, injury severity, and the impact of pre-existing neurodevelopmental conditions. Participants included 65 youths, 8-19 years of age, admitted to the PICU for TBI, who survived hospital discharge and were referred for follow-up care. Non-significant correlations were found between BRIEF-2 outcomes and performance-based measures of EF. Measures of injury severity were strongly correlated with scores from performance-based EF measures, but not BRIEF-2. Parent/caregiver-reported measures of their own health-related quality of life were related to caregiver responses on the BRIEF-2. Results demonstrate the differences captured by performance-based versus caregiver-report measures of EF, and also highlight the importance of considering other morbidities related to PICU admission.

Child Cognitive Flexibility and Maternal Control: A First Step toward Untangling Genetic and Environmental Contributions

Executive functions (EF) play an essential role in many spheres of child development. Therefore, it is crucial to get a better understanding of their etiology. Using a genetic design that involved 934 twins (400 monozygotic), this study examined the etiology of cognitive flexibility, a component of EF, at 5 years of age and its phenotypic and etiological associations with maternal control. Cognitive flexibility was measured in a laboratory setting at 5 years of age using a well-known EF-task, i.e. the Dimensional Change Card Sort (DCCS). Maternal control was measured using a self-report questionnaire. The univariate genetic model demonstrated that environmental factors mainly explained individual differences in preschoolers' performance on the DCCS task. A bivariate genetic model demonstrated that non-shared environmental mechanisms mainly explained the association (r = .-13) between maternal control and children's performance on the DCCS task. This study represents a preliminary step toward a better understanding of the genetic and environmental contributions underlying the relation between parenting behaviors and children's EF.

Maternal sensitivity moderates the association between maternal history of childhood maltreatment and child executive function

BACKGROUND

Experiences of childhood maltreatment are associated with a variety of negative outcomes throughout individuals' lives as well as disadvantaged cognitive and socioemotional development among their offspring. The mechanisms through which some children show resilience against the intergenerational transmission of risk, however, are less well understood.

OBJECTIVE

The current study focuses on a proximal parental factor that plays a central role in children's early cognitive development - maternal sensitivity - and examines whether it moderates the association between maternal history of childhood maltreatment and child executive function (EF).

PARTICIPANTS AND SETTING

Data were collected from a community sample of 139 mothers and their infants (51 % female) recruited from urban areas in Ontario, Canada.

METHODS

Maternal maltreatment history was assessed via self-report at child age 3 months. Maternal sensitivity was assessed observationally at child age 8 months, and child executive function was assessed using performance-based measures at child age 3 years. Hypotheses were tested through multiple regression models.

RESULTS

In the current sample, maternal maltreatment history was not associated with child EF on average. However, results were consistent with a moderation model, indicating that maternal maltreatment history was associated with lower levels of child EF only when mothers were relatively insensitive.

CONCLUSIONS

The findings indicate the importance of considering sensitive parenting practices as a protective factor for children's cognitive development in the context of more distal risk factors such as mothers' history of childhood maltreatment.

Mothers' and fathers' executive function both predict emergent executive function in toddlerhood

There are multivariate influences on the development of children's executive function throughout the lifespan and substantial individual differences can be seen as early as when children are 1 and 2 years of age. These individual differences are moderately stable throughout early childhood, but more research is needed to better understand their origins. To some degree, individual differences in executive function are correlated between mother and child, but no research to date has examined these associations prior to when children are preschool age, nor have any studies considered the role of fathers' and mothers' executive function in tandem. Here, we use a sample of 484 families (Mothers 89.2% white; Fathers 92.5% white) in three countries (UK, USA, Netherlands) to investigate the role of each parents' executive function on the development of children's (49.7% female) executive function from 14 (M = 14.42, SD = 0.57) to 24 (M = 24.47, SD = 0.78) months, as well as parenting practices that underlie these associations. Results of structural equation models suggest stability in some-but not all-components of executive function and growing unity between components as children age. We replicate extant findings such that mothers' executive function predicts children's executive function over and above stability and extend these findings to include associations between father and child skills. We find an additive role of fathers' EF, similar in magnitude to the role of mothers' EF. Finally, for both mothers and fathers we find that sensitivity and autonomy supportive practices mediate the relations between parents' and children's executive function.

Relationships between Depression and Executive Functioning in Adolescents: The Moderating Role of Unpredictable Home Environment

Although researchers have explored the link between depression and executive functioning (EF), the influence of early-life environmental and relational instability on this association has not been comprehensively assessed in adolescents. This cross-sectional study examined whether unpredictability of home environment in childhood moderated the relationship between depression and EF in adolescents. Participants were 138 adolescents aged 13 to 17 years (72% female; 47.8% White; 47.1% Hispanic). Diagnostic status (major depression versus healthy control) and depression severity were assessed using psycho-diagnostic interviews and self-reports from parents and adolescents. Participants also completed the Questionnaire of Unpredictability in Childhood (QUIC). EF was assessed using self-report (Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Function, Second Edition; BRIEF2) and a battery of performance-based measures. Results showed that QUIC scores moderated the relationship between depression and BRIEF2 scores, such that high unpredictability was associated with poorer EF for adolescents exhibiting low depression severity. Participants with the highest levels of depression exhibited the poorest EF ratings, regardless of childhood unpredictability. Unpredictability was moderately associated with performance-based measures, but did not interact with depressive symptoms to predict complex performance-based EF. Recommendations include assessing for unpredictable childhood environment and acknowledging this risk factor for poor EF in youth with sub-threshold depression. Treatment implications are discussed with respect to family systems/parenting interventions, as mildly depressed adolescents growing up in unstable homes may be vulnerable to EF difficulties. Further, this study adds to the EF measurement literature by examining associations between self-report and performance-based EF instruments in a diverse sample of adolescents.

Differential Predictive Effect of Self-Regulation Behavior and the Combination of Self- vs. External Regulation Behavior on Executive Dysfunctions and Emotion Regulation Difficulties, in University Students

The aim of this research was to establish linear relations (association and prediction) and inferential relations between three constructs at different levels of psychological research - executive dysfunction (microanalysis), self-regulation (molecular level), and self- vs. external regulation (molar level), in the prediction of emotion regulation difficulties. We hypothesized that personal and contextual regulatory factors would be negatively related to levels of executive dysfunction and emotion regulation difficulties; by way of complement, non-regulatory and dysregulatory personal, and contextual factors would be positively related to these same difficulties. To establish relationships, we used a retrospective, ex post facto design, where 298 university students voluntarily participated by completing standardized self-reports. Linear and structural correlational, predictive analyses were performed, as well as inferential analyses. Results were consistent and validated the proposed hypotheses, for both association and prediction. The most important result refers to the discriminant value of the five-level combination heuristic for predicting Executive Function and External (contextual) Dys-Regulation. In conclusion: (1) both personal and contextual regulation factors must be analyzed in order to better understand the variation in executive functions and emotion regulation difficulties; (2) it is important to continue connecting the different levels of the constructs referring to self-regulation, given their complementary role in the behavioral analysis of regulation difficulties.

The effects of early life adversity on children's mental health and cognitive functioning

Emerging evidence suggests that partially distinct mechanisms may underlie the association between different dimensions of early life adversity (ELA) and psychopathology in children and adolescents. While there is minimal evidence that different types of ELA are associated with specific psychopathology outcomes, there are partially unique cognitive and socioemotional consequences of specific dimensions of ELA that increase transdiagnostic risk of mental health problems across the internalizing and externalizing spectra. The current review provides an overview of recent findings examining the cognitive (e.g., language, executive function), socioemotional (e.g., attention bias, emotion regulation), and mental health correlates of ELA along the dimensions of threat/harshness, deprivation, and unpredictability. We underscore similarities and differences in the mechanisms connecting different dimensions of ELA to particular mental health outcomes, and identify gaps and future directions that may help to clarify inconsistencies in the literature. This review focuses on childhood and adolescence, periods of exquisite neurobiological change and sensitivity to the environment. The utility of dimensional models of ELA in better understanding the mechanistic pathways towards the expression of psychopathology is discussed, with the review supporting the value of such models in better understanding the developmental sequelae associated with ELA. Integration of dimensional models of ELA with existing models focused on psychiatric classification and biobehavioral mechanisms may advance our understanding of the etiology, phenomenology, and treatment of mental health difficulties in children and youth.

The Impact of Household Chaos and Dietary Intake on Executive Function in Young Children

Children's executive functions (EFs) emerge over time and can be shaped by household environments and dietary intake. However, there is a lack of knowledge about how these factors influence EFs in children aged 18-24 months. This study tested a model exploring the relations between parent-reported dietary intake, household chaos, and child EF. The sample consisted of 294 families participating in the STRONG Kids2 birth cohort study of nutrition and child health. Caregivers completed the Food Frequency Questionnaire (FFQ), the Confusion, Hubbub, and Order Scale (CHAOS), and the Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Function^®-Preschool Version (BRIEF-P) to assess model variables. Regression analyses revealed a significant and independent association between assorted snacks and processed foods and two EF subscales. There were also significant associations between household chaos and each EF subscale. There was no significant moderation effect. These findings suggest that family households characterized by dysregulation are associated with children's EF difficulties during early childhood and that the role of unhealthy dietary intake in child EF should be explored further. Future longitudinal studies that include multi-method approaches are needed to document the mechanisms through which household chaos impacts child EF over time.

Effects of household chaos and parental responsiveness on child executive functions: a novel, multi-method approach

Background

Executive functions can be adversely affected by contextual risks in the home environment including chaos and parenting challenges. Furthermore, household chaos negatively influences parenting practices. Few studies, however, have examined the role of parenting in the association between household chaos and child executive functions.

Methods

Using a sample of 128 school-aged children (mean = 61.9 months, SD = 2.0, range 58–68 months) and their mothers, the present study examined direct and indirect effects (via parental responsiveness) of household chaos on child executive functioning. Multi-measures were used including performance-based assessments, behavioural observations, questionnaires, and video-home tours.

Results

Household chaos had both a direct effect on child executive functions (β = − .31, 95% CI [− .58, − .04]) and an indirect effect (β = − .05, 95% [− .13, − .01]) via parental responsiveness. Further, the indirect effect was only significant for household instability.

Conclusion

These findings indicate that parental responsiveness may be compromised by household chaos, with implications for the executive functions of school-aged children. Preventative strategies are needed to improve the stability in the home and strengthen parenting practices.

Executive Functions in Social Context: Implications for Conceptualizing, Measuring, and Supporting Developmental Trajectories

Success in life is linked to executive functions, a collection of cognitive processes that support goal-directed behaviors. Executive functions is an umbrella term related to cognitive control, self-control, and more. Variations in executive functioning predict concurrent success in schooling, relationships, and behavior, as well as important life outcomes years later. Such findings may suggest that certain individuals are destined for good executive functioning and success. However, environmental influences on executive function and development have long been recognized. Recent research in this tradition demonstrates the power of social contextual influences on children's engagement of executive functions. Such findings suggest new interpretations of why individuals differ in executive functioning and associated life outcomes, including across cultures and socioeconomic statuses. These findings raise fundamental questions about how best to conceptualize, measure, and support executive functioning across diverse contexts. Future research addressing real-world dynamics and computational mechanisms will elucidate how executive functioning emerges in the world.