The deubiquitinase Otub1 controls the activation of CD8+ T cells and NK cells by regulating IL-15-mediated priming

NK cells as powerful therapeutic tool in cancer immunotherapy

BACKGROUND

Natural killer (NK) cells have gained considerable attention and hold great potential for their application in tumor immunotherapy. This is mainly due to their MHC-unrestricted and pan-specific recognition capabilities, as well as their ability to rapidly respond to and eliminate target cells. To artificially generate therapeutic NK cells, various materials can be utilized, such as peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs), umbilical cord blood (UCB), induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs), and NK cell lines. Exploiting the therapeutic potential of NK cells to treat tumors through in vivo and in vitro therapeutic modalities has yielded positive therapeutic results.

CONCLUSION

This review provides a comprehensive description of NK cell therapeutic approaches for tumors and discusses the current problems associated with these therapeutic approaches and the prospects of NK cell therapy for tumors.

Deubiquitinating enzymes: potential regulators of the tumor microenvironment and implications for immune evasion

Ubiquitination and deubiquitination are important forms of posttranslational modification that govern protein homeostasis. Deubiquitinating enzymes (DUBs), a protein superfamily consisting of more than 100 members, deconjugate ubiquitin chains from client proteins to regulate cellular homeostasis. However, the dysregulation of DUBs is reportedly associated with several diseases, including cancer. The tumor microenvironment (TME) is a highly complex entity comprising diverse noncancerous cells (e.g., immune cells and stromal cells) and the extracellular matrix (ECM). Since TME heterogeneity is closely related to tumorigenesis and immune evasion, targeting TME components has recently been considered an attractive therapeutic strategy for restoring antitumor immunity. Emerging studies have revealed the involvement of DUBs in immune modulation within the TME, including the regulation of immune checkpoints and immunocyte infiltration and function, which renders DUBs promising for potent cancer immunotherapy. Nevertheless, the roles of DUBs in the crosstalk between tumors and their surrounding components have not been comprehensively reviewed. In this review, we discuss the involvement of DUBs in the dynamic interplay between tumors, immune cells, and stromal cells and illustrate how dysregulated DUBs facilitate immune evasion and promote tumor progression. We also summarize potential small molecules that target DUBs to alleviate immunosuppression and suppress tumorigenesis. Finally, we discuss the prospects and challenges regarding the targeting of DUBs in cancer immunotherapeutics and several urgent problems that warrant further investigation.

Comment on "An Injectable Hydrogel to Modulate T Cells for Cancer Immunotherapy"

Recent clinical successes of immune checkpoint blockade (ICB) therapies represents a milestone as a novel anti-tumor strategy beyond surgery, radiotherapy, chemotherapy, and targeted therapy in cancer therapy. T cells, especially CD8+ T cells, play crucial roles in anti-tumor immune responses. However, most T cells in the tumor microenvironment express high inhibitory receptors, such as PD-1, TIM-3, and LAG-3, and decreased T cell response in response to stimuli. Applying ICB therapies, such as anti-PD-1, promotes T cell activation and increases cytotoxic T lymphocyte (CTL) response, leading to the enhanced anti-tumor immune response in patients with malignancy. Therefore, studies aimed to define novel targets that can restrain T cell terminal exhaustion are urgently required to provide new strategies for patients resistant to immunotherapy. The previously published study by Zhang et al. (An Injectable Hydrogel to Modulate T Cells for Cancer Immunotherapy, https://doi.org/10.1002/smll.202202663) introduces a new type of injectable hydrogel that can regulate the function of T cells, thereby improving their effectiveness in cancer immunotherapy. However, it remains to be discussed for its conclusion, as the flow cell assay of this article may not be proper.

No time to die: Epigenetic regulation of natural killer cell survival

NK cells are short-lived innate lymphocytes that can mediate antigen-independent responses to infection and cancer. However, studies from the past two decades have shown that NK cells can acquire transcriptional and epigenetic modifications during inflammation that result in increased survival and lifespan. These findings blur the lines between the innate and adaptive arms of the immune system, and suggest that the homeostatic mechanisms that govern the persistence of innate immune cells are malleable. Indeed, recent studies have shown that NK cells undergo continuous and strictly regulated adaptations controlling their survival during development, tissue residency, and following inflammation. In this review, we summarize our current understanding of the critical factors regulating NK cell survival throughout their lifespan, with a specific emphasis on the epigenetic modifications that regulate the survival of NK cells in various contexts. A precise understanding of the molecular mechanisms that govern NK cell survival will be important to enhance therapies for cancer and infectious diseases.

Unlocking the power of immunotherapy: Combinatorial delivery of plasmid IL-15 and gemcitabine to synergistically remodeling the tumor microenvironment

Cancer immunotherapy has emerged as a promising clinical treatment strategy in recent years. Unfortunately, the satisfactory antitumor therapeutic efficacy of immunotherapy is limited by intricate immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment (ITM). To remodel the ITM and alleviate the immune evasion, we constructed FA-PEG-modified liposomes to deliver plasmid IL-15 (pIL-15) and gemcitabine (GEM) (FPCL@pIL-15 + FPGL), respectively. The FPCL@pIL-15 (150 nm) and FPGL (120 nm) exhibited symmetrically spherical structures as well as desirable penetration and accumulation on tumor tissue depending on folic acid (FA) specialized targeting function. The transfected expression of IL-15 efficiently fosters the proliferation and co-activation of Natural killer (NK) cells and CD8+T cells through binding to IL-15R. FPGL upregulated the expression of Natural killer group 2 member D ligands (NKG2DLs) and reinforced recognition by NK cells to alleviate the immune evasion, and simultaneously promoted activation of CD8+T cells through immunogenic cell death (ICD) effects. More importantly, the combinatorial administration achieved intended anti-tumor efficacy in the subcutaneous 4T1 tumor model. In essence, we demonstrated that combining FPCL@pIL-15 with FPGL synergistically stimulates and mobilizes the immune system to reverse the ITM and trigger an anti-tumor immune response, indicating a tremendous potential for application in immunotherapy.

Lung cancer cell-intrinsic IL-15 promotes cell migration and sensitizes murine lung tumors to anti-PD-L1 therapy

BACKGROUND

IL-15 plays a vital role in enhancing NK cell- and T-cell-mediated antitumor immune responses; however, the direct effect of IL-15 on tumor cells has not been fully elucidated. Herein, we investigated the effect of IL-15 on lung adenocarcinoma cells.

METHODS

Silencing and overexpression techniques were used to modify endogenous IL-15 expression in tumor cells. Transwell assays were used to assess tumor cell migration and invasion; a live-cell analysis system was used to evaluate cell motility; cellular morphological changes were quantified by confocal fluorescence microscopy; the molecular mechanisms underlying the effect of IL-15 on tumor cells were analyzed by western blotting; and RhoA and Cdc42 activities were evaluated by a pulldown assay. NCG and C57BL/6 mouse models were used to evaluate the functions of IL-15 in vivo.

RESULTS

Cancer cell-intrinsic IL-15 promoted cell motility and migration in vitro and metastasis in vivo via activation of the AKT-mTORC1 pathway; however, exogenous IL-15 inhibited cell motility and migration via suppression of the RhoA-MLC2 axis. Mechanistic analysis revealed that both the intracellular and extracellular IL-15-mediated effects required the expression of IL-15Rα by tumor cells. Detailed analyses revealed that the IL-2/IL-15Rβ and IL-2Rγ chains were undetected in the complex formed by intracellular IL-15 and IL-15Rα. However, when exogenous IL-15 engaged tumor cells, a complex containing the IL-15Rα, IL-2/IL-15Rβ, and IL-2Rγ chains was formed, indicating that the differential actions of intracellular and extracellular IL-15 on tumor cells might be caused by their distinctive modes of IL-15 receptor engagement. Using a Lewis lung carcinoma (LLC) metastasis model, we showed that although IL-15 overexpression facilitated the lung metastasis of LLC cells, IL-15-overexpressing LLC tumors were more sensitive to anti-PD-L1 therapy than were IL-15-wild-type LLC tumors via an enhanced antitumor immune response, as evidenced by their increased CD8+ T-cell infiltration compared to that of their counterparts.

CONCLUSIONS

Cancer cell-intrinsic IL-15 and exogenous IL-15 differentially regulate cell motility and migration. Thus, cancer cell-intrinsic IL-15 acts as a double-edged sword in tumor progression. Additionally, high levels of IL-15 expressed by tumor cells might improve the responsiveness of tumors to immunotherapies.

Bulk RNA sequencing reveals the comprehensive genetic characteristics of human cord blood-derived natural killer cells

Introduction

Innate immune cells are important in tumor immunotherapy. Natural killer cells (NKCs) are also categorized as innate immune cells and can control tumor growth and metastatic spread. Glioblastoma (GBM) is the most common and aggressive primary brain tumor in adults. NKC-based immunotherapy is a promising treatment strategy against GBM. We previously reported a feeder-free expansion system that yielded large-scale highly purified and cytotoxic NKCs derived from human cord blood (CB). In the present study, we performed comprehensive genomic analyses of NKCs generated from human CB (CBNKCs) as compared those from human peripheral blood (PB) (PBNKCs).

Methods

Frozen T cell-free CB mononuclear cells were cultured with recombinant human interleukin (rhIL)-18 and rhIL-2 in anti-NKp46 and anti-CD16 antibody immobilization settings. After 14-day expansion, the total RNA of the CBNKCs or PBNKCs was extracted and transcriptomic analyses was performed to determine their similarities and differences. We also examined CBNKC and PBNKC activity against a GBM cell line.

Results

Differential expression gene analysis revealed that some NK activating and inhibitory receptors were significantly downregulated in the CBNKCs compared to PBNKCs. Furthermore, genes related to anti-apoptosis and proliferation were upregulated in the CBNKCs. Enrichment analysis determined that the gene sets related to immune response and cytokines were enriched in the CBNKCs. Gene set enrichment analysis demonstrated that the immune response pathway was upregulated in the CBNKCs. Cytotoxic assays using impedance-based cell analyzer revealed that the CBNKCs enhanced NKC-mediated cytotoxicity on GBM cells as compared to the PBNKCs.

Conclusions

We demonstrated the characteristics of human CBNKCs. Cell-based therapy using the CBNKCs is promising for treating GBM.

Glioblastoma Therapy: Past, Present and Future

Glioblastoma (GB) stands out as the most prevalent and lethal form of brain cancer. Although great efforts have been made by clinicians and researchers, no significant improvement in survival has been achieved since the Stupp protocol became the standard of care (SOC) in 2005. Despite multimodality treatments, recurrence is almost universal with survival rates under 2 years after diagnosis. Here, we discuss the recent progress in our understanding of GB pathophysiology, in particular, the importance of glioma stem cells (GSCs), the tumor microenvironment conditions, and epigenetic mechanisms involved in GB growth, aggressiveness and recurrence. The discussion on therapeutic strategies first covers the SOC treatment and targeted therapies that have been shown to interfere with different signaling pathways (pRB/CDK4/RB1/P16ink4, TP53/MDM2/P14arf, PI3k/Akt-PTEN, RAS/RAF/MEK, PARP) involved in GB tumorigenesis, pathophysiology, and treatment resistance acquisition. Below, we analyze several immunotherapeutic approaches (i.e., checkpoint inhibitors, vaccines, CAR-modified NK or T cells, oncolytic virotherapy) that have been used in an attempt to enhance the immune response against GB, and thereby avoid recidivism or increase survival of GB patients. Finally, we present treatment attempts made using nanotherapies (nanometric structures having active anti-GB agents such as antibodies, chemotherapeutic/anti-angiogenic drugs or sensitizers, radionuclides, and molecules that target GB cellular receptors or open the blood-brain barrier) and non-ionizing energies (laser interstitial thermal therapy, high/low intensity focused ultrasounds, photodynamic/sonodynamic therapies and electroporation). The aim of this review is to discuss the advances and limitations of the current therapies and to present novel approaches that are under development or following clinical trials.

Antitumor Effects of Intravenous Natural Killer Cell Infusion in an Orthotopic Glioblastoma Xenograft Murine Model and Gene Expression Profile Analysis

Despite standard multimodality treatment, containing maximum safety resection, temozolomide, radiotherapy, and a tumor-treating field, patients with glioblastoma (GBM) present with a dismal prognosis. Natural killer cell (NKC)-based immunotherapy would play a critical role in GBM treatment. We have previously reported highly activated and ex vivo expanded NK cells derived from human peripheral blood, which exhibited anti-tumor effect against GBM cells. Here, we performed preclinical evaluation of the NK cells using an in vivo orthotopic xenograft model, the U87MG cell-derived brain tumor in NOD/Shi-scid, IL-2RɤKO (NOG) mouse. In the orthotopic xenograft model, the retro-orbital venous injection of NK cells prolonged overall survival of the NOG mouse, indirectly indicating the growth-inhibition effect of NK cells. In addition, we comprehensively summarized the differentially expressed genes, especially focusing on the expression of the NKC-activating receptors' ligands, inhibitory receptors' ligands, chemokines, and chemokine receptors, between murine brain tumor treated with NKCs and with no agents, by using microarray. Furthermore, we also performed differentially expressed gene analysis between an internal and external brain tumor in the orthotopic xenograft model. Our findings could provide pivotal information for the NK-cell-based immunotherapy for patients with GBM.

IL-15 in T-Cell Responses and Immunopathogenesis

IL-15 belongs to the common gamma chain cytokine family and has pleiotropic immunological functions. IL-15 is a homeostatic cytokine essential for the development and maintenance of NK cells and memory CD8+ T cells. In addition, IL-15 plays a critical role in the activation, effector functions, tissue residency, and senescence of CD8+ T cells. IL-15 also activates virtual memory T cells, mucosal-associated invariant T cells and γδ T cells. Recently, IL-15 has been highlighted as a major trigger of TCR-independent activation of T cells. This mechanism is involved in T cell-mediated immunopathogenesis in diverse diseases, including viral infections and chronic inflammatory diseases. Deeper understanding of IL-15-mediated T-cell responses and their underlying mechanisms could optimize therapeutic strategies to ameliorate host injury by T cell-mediated immunopathogenesis. This review highlights recent advancements in comprehending the role of IL-15 in relation to T cell responses and immunopathogenesis under various host conditions.

Signalling mechanisms driving homeostatic and inflammatory effects of interleukin-15 on tissue lymphocytes

There is an intriguing dichotomy in the function of cytokine interleukin-15-at low levels, it is required for the homeostasis of the immune system, yet when it is upregulated in response to pathogenic infections or in autoimmunity, IL-15 drives inflammation. IL-15 associates with the IL-15Rα within both myeloid and non-haematopoietic cells, where IL-15Rα trans-presents IL-15 in a membrane-bound form to neighboring cells. Alongside homeostatic maintenance of select lymphocyte populations such as NK cells and tissue-resident T cells, when upregulated, IL-15 also promotes inflammatory outcomes by driving effector function and cytotoxicity in NK cells and T cells. As chronic over-expression of IL-15 can lead to autoimmunity, IL-15 expression is tightly regulated. Thus, blocking dysregulated IL-15 and its downstream signalling pathways are avenues for immunotherapy. In this review we discuss the molecular pathways involved in IL-15 signalling and how these pathways contribute to both homeostatic and inflammatory functions in IL-15-dependent mature lymphoid populations, focusing on innate, and innate-like lymphocytes in tissues.

OTUB1-mediated inhibition of ubiquitination: a growing list of effectors, multiplex mechanisms, and versatile functions

Protein ubiquitination plays a pivotal role in protein homeostasis. Ubiquitination may regulate the stability, activity, protein-protein interaction, and localization of a protein. Ubiquitination is subject to regulation by two groups of counteracting enzymes, the E3 ubiquitin ligases and deubiquitinases. Consistently, deubiquitinases are involved in essentially all biological processes. OTUB1, an OTU-family deubiquitinase, is a critical regulator of development, cancer, DNA damage response, and immune response. OTUB1 antagonizes the ubiquitination of a wide-spectrum of proteins through at least two different mechanisms. Besides direct deubiquitination, OTUB1 can also inhibit ubiquitination by non-canonically blocking ubiquitin transfer from certain ubiquitin-conjugases (E2). In this review, we start with a general background of protein ubiquitination and deubiquitination. Next, we introduce the basic characteristics of OTUB1 and then elaborate on the updated biological functions of OTUB1. Afterwards, we discuss potential mechanisms underlying the versatility and specificity of OTUB1 functions. In the end, we discuss the perspective that OTUB1 can be a potential therapeutic target for cancer.

NK cell-based tumor immunotherapy

Natural killer (NK) cells display a unique inherent ability to identify and eliminate virus-infected cells and tumor cells. They are particularly powerful for elimination of hematological cancers, and have attracted considerable interests for therapy of solid tumors. However, the treatment of solid tumors with NK cells are less effective, which can be attributed to the very complicated immunosuppressive microenvironment that may lead to the inactivation, insufficient expansion, short life, and the poor tumor infiltration of NK cells. Fortunately, the development of advanced nanotechnology has provided potential solutions to these issues, and could improve the immunotherapy efficacy of NK cells. In this review, we summarize the activation and inhibition mechanisms of NK cells in solid tumors, and the recent advances in NK cell-based tumor immunotherapy boosted by diverse nanomaterials. We also propose the challenges and opportunities for the clinical application of NK cell-based tumor immunotherapy.

OTUB1's role in promoting OSCC development by stabilizing RACK1 involves cell proliferation, migration, invasion, and tumor-associated macrophage M1 polarization

Ovarian tumor domain, ubiquitin aldehyde binding 1 (OTUB1), a deubiquitinating enzyme known to regulate the stability of downstream proteins, has been reported to regulate various cancers tumorigenesis, yet its direct effects on oral squamous cell carcinoma (OSCC) progression are unclear. Bioinformatics analysis was performed to screen for genes of interest, and in vitro and in vivo studies were carried out to investigate the function and mechanism of OTUB1 in OSCC. We found that OTUB1 was abnormally elevated in OSCC tissues and positively associated with the pathological stage and tumor stage. Knockdown of OTUB1 impaired the malignance of OSCC cells - suppressed cell proliferation, invasion, migration, and xenografted tumor growth. OTUB1 silencing also drove tumor-associated macrophage M1 polarization but suppressed M2 polarization, and the induction of M1 polarization inhibited the survival of OSCC cells. However, OTUB1 overexpression exerted the opposite effects. Furthermore, the protein network that interacted with the OTUB1 protein was constructed based on the GeneMANIA website. Receptor for activated C kinase 1 (RACK1), a facilitator of OSCC progression, was identified as a potential target of the OTUB1 protein. We revealed that OTUB1 positively regulated RACK1 expression and inhibited RACK1 ubiquitination. Additionally, RACK1 upregulation reversed the effects of OTUB1 knockdown on OSCC progression. Overall, we demonstrated that OTUB1 might regulate OSCC progression by maintaining the stability of the RACK1 protein. These findings highlight the potential roles of the OTUB1/RACK1 axis as a potential therapeutic target in OSCC.

Choroid plexus tumors: A spectrum from benign to malignant

Choroid plexus tumors (CPT) are believed to originate from outgrowths of the choroid plexus. Despite their broad spectrum of symptoms, invasive nature, and prognosis, most CPTs typically exhibit similar presentations due to their relationship with the cerebral ventricles, as well as the mechanical obstruction and mass effect associated with their growth. In addition, these tumors mainly affect the pediatric population, further complicating the differentiation between benign and malignant subtypes. The World Health Organization classifies CPTs into three grades, namely, grades I, II, or III, based on their mitotic activity, which determine the benign or malignant nature of the tumors. CPTs classified by the World Health Organization (WHO) include choroid plexus papillomas (CPP), atypical CPPs (aCPP), and malignant choroid plexus carcinomas (CPC). Choroid plexus adenomas represent an additional category of benign CPTs not officially classified by the WHO. Despite the variations in histology, immunohistochemistry, imaging, treatment, and prognosis, CPTs cannot be reliably distinguished based solely on clinical presentation. Therefore, in this review, we aim to provide a comprehensive overview of each tumor subtype, along with the current management approach and emerging treatments.

Post-translational modifications and immune responses in liver cancer

Post-translational modification (PTM) refers to the covalent attachment of functional groups to protein substrates, resulting in structural and functional changes. PTMs not only regulate the development and progression of liver cancer, but also play a crucial role in the immune response against cancer. Cancer immunity encompasses the combined efforts of innate and adaptive immune surveillance against tumor antigens, tumor cells, and tumorigenic microenvironments. Increasing evidence suggests that immunotherapies, which harness the immune system's potential to combat cancer, can effectively improve cancer patient prognosis and prolong the survival. This review presents a comprehensive summary of the current understanding of key PTMs such as phosphorylation, ubiquitination, SUMOylation, and glycosylation in the context of immune cancer surveillance against liver cancer. Additionally, it highlights potential targets associated with these modifications to enhance the response to immunotherapies in the treatment of liver cancer.

The deubiquitinase OTUB1 governs lung cancer cell fitness by modulating proteostasis of OXPHOS proteins

Aerobic glycolysis is a hallmark of cancer development, but this dogma has been challenged by reports showing a key role of oxidative phosphorylation (OXPHOS) in cancer cell survival. It has been proposed that increased levels of intramitochondrial proteins in cancer cells are associated with high OXPHOS activity and increased sensitivity to OXPHOS inhibitors. However, the molecular mechanisms leading to the high expression of OXPHOS proteins in cancer cells remain unknown. Multiple proteomics studies have detected the ubiquitination of intramitochondrial proteins, suggesting the contribution of the ubiquitin system to the proteostatic regulation of OXPHOS proteins. Here, we identified the ubiquitin hydrolase OTUB1 as a regulator of the mitochondrial metabolic machinery essential for lung cancer cell survival. Mitochondria-localized OTUB1 modulates respiration by inhibiting K48-linked ubiquitination and turnover of OXPHOS proteins. An increase in OTUB1 expression is commonly observed in one-third of non-small-cell lung carcinomas and is associated with high OXPHOS signatures. Moreover, OTUB1 expression highly correlates with the sensitivity of lung cancer cells to mitochondrial inhibitors.

SUMOylation and related post-translational modifications in natural killer cell anti-cancer responses

SUMOylation is a reversible modification that involves the covalent attachment of small ubiquitin-like modifier (SUMO) to target proteins, leading to changes in their localization, function, stability, and interactor profile. SUMOylation and additional related post-translational modifications have emerged as important modulators of various biological processes, including regulation of genomic stability and immune responses. Natural killer (NK) cells are innate immune cells that play a critical role in host defense against viral infections and tumors. NK cells can recognize and kill infected or transformed cells without prior sensitization, and their activity is tightly regulated by a balance of activating and inhibitory receptors. Expression of NK cell receptors as well as of their specific ligands on target cells is finely regulated during malignant transformation through the integration of different mechanisms including ubiquitin- and ubiquitin-like post-translational modifications. Our review summarizes the role of SUMOylation and other related pathways in the biology of NK cells with a special emphasis on the regulation of their response against cancer. The development of novel selective inhibitors as useful tools to potentiate NK-cell mediated killing of tumor cells is also briefly discussed.

Complex PK-PD of an engineered IL-15/IL-15Rα-Fc fusion protein in cynomolgus monkeys: QSP modeling of lymphocyte dynamics

XmAb24306 is a lymphoproliferative interleukin (IL)-15/IL-15 receptor α (IL-15Rα) Fc-fusion protein currently under clinical investigation as an immunotherapeutic agent for cancer treatment. XmAb24306 contains mutations in IL-15 that attenuate its affinity to the heterodimeric IL-15 receptor βγ (IL-15R). We observe substantially prolonged pharmacokinetics (PK) (half-life ∼ 2.5 to 4.5 days) in single- and repeat-dose cynomolgus monkey (cyno) studies compared to wild-type IL-15 (half-life ∼ 1 hour), leading to increased exposure and enhanced and durable expansion of NK cells, CD8+ T cells and CD4-CD8- (double negative [DN]) T cells. Drug clearance varied with dose level and time post-dose, and PK exposure decreased upon repeated dosing, which we attribute to increased target-mediated drug disposition (TMDD) resulting from drug-induced lymphocyte expansion (i.e., pharmacodynamic (PD)-enhanced TMDD). We developed a quantitative systems pharmacology (QSP) model to quantify the complex PKPD behaviors due to the interactions of XmAb24306 with multiple cell types (CD8+, CD4+, DN T cells, and NK cells) in the peripheral blood (PB) and lymphoid tissues. The model, which includes nonspecific drug clearance, binding to and TMDD by IL15R differentially expressed on lymphocyte subsets, and resultant lymphocyte margination/migration out of PB, expansion in lymphoid tissues, and redistribution to the blood, successfully describes the systemic PK and lymphocyte kinetics observed in the cyno studies. Results suggest that after 3 doses of every-two-week (Q2W) doses up to 70 days, the relative contributions of each elimination pathway to XmAb24306 clearance are: DN T cells > NK cells > CD8+ T cells > nonspecific clearance > CD4+ T cells. Modeling suggests that observed cellular expansion in blood results from the influx of cells expanded by the drug in lymphoid tissues. The model is used to predict lymphoid tissue expansion and to simulate PK-PD for different dose regimens. Thus, the model provides insight into the mechanisms underlying the observed PK-PD behavior of an engineered cytokine and can serve as a framework for the rapid integration and analysis of data that emerges from ongoing clinical studies in cancer patients as single-agent or given in combination.

SET7 methylates the deubiquitinase OTUB1 at Lys 122 to impair its binding to E2 enzyme UBC13 and relieve its suppressive role on ferroptosis

The deubiquitinating enzyme OTUB1 possesses canonical deubiquitinase (DUB) activity and noncanonical, catalytic-independent activity, which has been identified as an essential regulator of diverse physiological processes. Posttranslational modifications of OTUB1 affect both its DUB activity and its noncanonical activity of binding to the E2 ubiquitin-conjugation enzyme UBC13, but further investigation is needed to characterize the full inventory of modifications to OTUB1. Here, we demonstrate that SET7, a lysine monomethylase, directly interacts with OTUB1 to catalyze OTUB1 methylation at lysine 122. This modification does not affect DUB activity of OTUB1 but impairs its noncanonical activity, binding to UBC13. Moreover, we found using cell viability analysis and intracellular reactive oxygen species assay that SET7-mediated methylation of OTUB1 relieves its suppressive role on ferroptosis. Notably, the methylation-mimic mutant of OTUB1 not only loses the ability to bind to UBC13 but also relieves its suppressive role on Tert-Butyl hydroperoxide-induced cell death and Cystine starvation/Erastin-induced cellular reactive oxygen species. Collectively, our data identify a novel modification of OTUB1 that is critical for inhibiting its noncanonical activity.

Sustained Cytotoxic Response of Peripheral Blood Mononuclear Cells from Unvaccinated Individuals Admitted to the ICU Due to Critical COVID-19 Is Essential to Avoid a Fatal Outcome

The main objective of this study was to determine the influence of the cytotoxic activity of peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) on the outcome of unvaccinated individuals with critical COVID-19 admitted to the ICU. Blood samples from 23 individuals were collected upon admission and then every 2 weeks for 13 weeks until death (Exitus group) (n = 13) or discharge (Survival group) (n = 10). We did not find significant differences between groups in sociodemographic, clinical, or biochemical data that may influence the fatal outcome. However, direct cellular cytotoxicity of PBMCs from individuals of the Exitus group against pseudotyped SARS-CoV-2-infected Vero E6 cells was significantly reduced upon admission (-2.69-fold; p = 0.0234) and after 4 weeks at the ICU (-5.58-fold; p = 0.0290), in comparison with individuals who survived, and it did not improve during hospitalization. In vitro treatment with IL-15 of these cells did not restore an effective cytotoxicity at any time point until the fatal outcome, and an increased expression of immune exhaustion markers was observed in NKT, CD4+, and CD8+ T cells. However, IL-15 treatment of PBMCs from individuals of the Survival group significantly increased cytotoxicity at Week 4 (6.18-fold; p = 0.0303). Consequently, immunomodulatory treatments that may overcome immune exhaustion and induce sustained, efficient cytotoxic activity could be essential for survival during hospitalization due to critical COVID-19.

Natural Killer Cell-Based Immunotherapy against Glioblastoma

Glioblastoma (GBM) is the most aggressive and malignant primary brain tumor in adults. Despite multimodality treatment involving surgical resection, radiation therapy, chemotherapy, and tumor-treating fields, the median overall survival (OS) after diagnosis is approximately 2 years and the 5-year OS is poor. Considering the poor prognosis, novel treatment strategies are needed, such as immunotherapies, which include chimeric antigen receptor T-cell therapy, immune checkpoint inhibitors, vaccine therapy, and oncolytic virus therapy. However, these therapies have not achieved satisfactory outcomes. One reason for this is that these therapies are mainly based on activating T cells and controlling GBM progression. Natural killer (NK) cell-based immunotherapy involves the new feature of recognizing GBM via differing mechanisms from that of T cell-based immunotherapy. In this review, we focused on NK cell-based immunotherapy as a novel GBM treatment strategy.

Partial otubain 1 deficiency compromises fetal well-being in allogeneic pregnancies despite no major changes in the dendritic cell and T cell compartment

Objective

Pregnancy is characterized by well-defined immunological adaptions within the maternal immune cell compartment allowing the survival of a genetically disparate individual in the maternal womb. Phenotype and function of immune cells are largely determined by intracellular processing of external stimuli. Ubiquitinating and deubiquitinating enzymes are known to critically regulate immune signaling either by modulating the stability or the interaction of the signaling molecules. Accordingly, if absent, critical physiological processes may be perturbed such as fetal tolerance induction. Based on previous findings that mice hemizygous for the deubiquitinating enzyme otubain 1 (OTUB1) do not give rise to homozygous progeny, here, we investigated whether partial OTUB1 deficiency influences fetal-wellbeing in a syngeneic or an allogeneic pregnancy context accompanied by changes in the dendritic cell (DC) and T cell compartment.

Results

We observed increased fetal rejection rates in allogeneic pregnant OTUB1 heterozygous dams but not syngeneic pregnant OTUB1 heterozygous dams when compared to OTUB1 wildtype dams. Fetal demise in allogeneic pregnancies was not associated with major changes in maternal peripheral and local DC and T cell frequencies. Thus, our results suggest that OTUB1 confers fetal protection, however, this phenotype is independent of immune responses involving DC and T cells.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s13104-022-06230-w.

Discovery of Potent OTUB1/USP8 Dual Inhibitors Targeting Proteostasis in Non-Small-Cell Lung Cancer

Deubiquitinating enzymes (DUBs) are key regulatory components of the ubiquitination system. Many DUBs have been revealed to play key roles in normal physiology and diseases. However, only very limited DUB members have well-characterized inhibitors. OTUB1 and USP8 are two DUBs reported to promote both immune evasion and tumorigenesis in tumor models, yet their targeted inhibitors are in the early stages of development. Here, we describe the lead identification and optimization of an OTUB1/USP8 dual inhibitor, 61, which exhibits highly potent and selective inhibition of both targets with subnanomolar IC₅₀s in vitro. By inhibiting both DUBs, 61 phenocopies the double knockdown of OTUB1/USP8 and exerts pronounced antiproliferative effects in H1975 and other non-small-cell lung cancer (NSCLC) cell lines. Moreover, 61 efficaciously mitigates tumor growth in vivo. Collectively, our results provide a useful tool for pharmacological perturbation of OTUB1/USP8 and introduce a promising therapeutic strategy of dual DUB inhibition for treating NSCLC.

Harnessing IL-15 signaling to potentiate NK cell-mediated cancer immunotherapy

Natural killer (NK) cells, a crucial component of the innate immune system, have long been of clinical interest for their antitumor properties. Almost every aspect of NK cell immunity is regulated by interleukin-15 (IL-15), a cytokine in the common γ-chain family. Several current clinical trials are using IL-15 or its analogs to treat various cancers. Moreover, NK cells are being genetically modified to produce membrane-bound or secretory IL-15. Here, we discuss the key role of IL-15 signaling in NK cell immunity and provide an up-to-date overview of IL-15 in NK cell therapy.

Identification of OTUD6B as a new biomarker for prognosis and immunotherapy by pan-cancer analysis

Background

Ovarian-tumor (OTU) domain-containing protein 6B (OTUD6B), one of newly identified OTU deubiquitylating enzyme families, is proved to be associated with tumor progression. However, whether it plays a key role in pan-cancer still remains unknown.

Methods

The profiles of OTUD6B expression in multiple cancers were analyzed using The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) database. Information of protein expression was performed based on the HPA, GeneCards, and String databases. K-M plotter and survival data analysis were used to analyze the prognostic value of OTUD6B expression, including overall survival (OS), disease-specific survival (DSS), disease-free interval (DFI), and progression-free interval (PFI). R package “clusterProfiler” was used for enrichment analysis of OTUD6B. Furthermore, we analyzed the correlation between the expression of OTUD6B, immune infiltration, and immune-related genes. Additionally, we preliminarily validated its tumorigenic effect in lung cancer cell lines.

Findings

OTUD6B expression was upregulated in most cancers, such as COAD, CHOL, and LUAD, and predicted poor prognosis in most cancers in TCGA. Results showed that OTUD6B expression was positively correlated with memory CD4⁺ T cells, Th1 CD4⁺ T cells, and CD8⁺ T cells. In terms of the immune-related genes, OTUD6B was found to be associated with most types of genes, such as immunostimulatory genes KDR, TGFBR1, and IL-10. Moreover, for most types of tumors, the immune score was found to be negatively correlated with OTUD6B expression. In addition, lung cancer cell lines with OTUD6B knockdown significantly inhibited proliferation and invasion ability of lung cancer cells.

Conclusions

The study indicated that OTUD6B is an oncogene and may serve as a new potential biomarker in various tumors. OTUD6B may play a part in TIME, which could be applied as a new target for cancer therapy.

Clinical significance and immune landscape of KIR2DL4 and the senescence-based signature in cutaneous melanoma

Senescence is an effective barrier to tumor progression. Mutations that inhibit senescence and promote cell division are mandatory for the development of cancer. Therefore, it is particularly important to explore the differences between cutaneous melanoma (CM) patients with severe and mild degrees of senescence. We clustered all the patients with CM in the Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) database based on all the genes of the senescence pathway in the cellAge and MSigDB database. The prognosis, immunotherapy effect, tumor microenvironment score, NRAS mutation rate, expression of CD274, CTLA4, and PDCD1, and abundance of CD8+ T and NK cell infiltration in the younger group of patients (YG) were higher than those in the older group (OG). Compared with the American Joint Committee on Cancer (AJCC) stage, the risk scoring system stratified the risk of CM patients and guided immunotherapy more accurately. The nomogram model, which combined the AJCC stage and risk score, greatly improved the ability and accuracy of prognosis prediction. As KIR2DL4 is the core molecule in the risk scoring system (RSS), knocking down the KIR2DL4 of human NK cells in vitro can inhibit the cytotoxicity of NK cells and can also inhibit the secretion of tumor necrosis factor-α and interferon-γ by NK cells. In contrast, upregulation of KIR2DL4 can activate the MEK/ERK signaling pathway, which is the activation pathway of NK cells. OurRSS and nomogram model can accurately stratify the risk of CM patients and effectively predict the effect of immunotherapy and prognosis in CM patients.

Dapl1 controls NFATc2 activation to regulate CD8+ T cell exhaustion and responses in chronic infection and cancer

CD8⁺ T cells are central mediators of immune responses against infections and cancer. Here we identified Dapl1 as a crucial regulator of CD8⁺ T cell responses to cancer and infections. Dapl1 deficiency promotes the expansion of tumour-infiltrating effector memory-like CD8⁺ T cells and prevents their functional exhaustion, coupled with increased antitumour immunity and improved efficacy of adoptive T cell therapy. Dapl1 controls activation of NFATc2, a transcription factor required for the effector function of CD8⁺ T cells. Although NFATc2 mediates induction of the immune checkpoint receptor Tim3, competent NFATc2 activation prevents functional exhaustion of CD8⁺ T cells. Interestingly, exhausted CD8⁺ T cells display attenuated NFATc2 activation due to Tim3-mediated feedback inhibition; Dapl1 deletion rescues NFATc2 activation and thereby prevents dysfunction of exhausted CD8⁺ T cells in chronic infection and cancer. These findings establish Dapl1 as a crucial regulator of CD8⁺ T cell immunity and a potential target for cancer immunotherapy.

OTUB1 augments hypoxia signaling via its non-canonical ubiquitination inhibition of HIF-1α during hypoxia adaptation

As a main regulator of cellular responses to hypoxia, the protein stability of hypoxia-inducible factor (HIF)-1α is strictly controlled by oxygen tension dependent of PHDs-catalyzed protein hydroxylation and pVHL complex-mediated proteasomal degradation. Whether HIF-1α protein stability as well as its activity can be further regulated under hypoxia is not well understood. In this study, we found that OTUB1 augments hypoxia signaling independent of PHDs/VHL and FIH. OTUB1 binds to HIF-1α and depletion of OTUB1 reduces endogenous HIF-1α protein under hypoxia. In addition, OTUB1 inhibits K48-linked polyubiquitination of HIF-1α via its non-canonical inhibition of ubiquitination activity. Furthermore, OTUB1 promotes hypoxia-induced glycolytic reprogramming for cellular metabolic adaptation. These findings define a novel regulation of HIF-1α under hypoxia and demonstrate that OTUB1-mediated HIF-1α stabilization positively regulates HIF-1α transcriptional activity and benefits cellular hypoxia adaptation.

Pathogenesis and Treatment of T-Large Granular Lymphocytic Leukemia (T-LGLL) in the Setting of Rheumatic Disease

A complex relationship exists between rheumatic diseases and cancer. This delicate balance between chronic inflammation and malignant cell transformation in hematologic neoplasms has been observed, but is not well defined. Large Granular Lymphocyte (LGL) leukemia is at the intersection of a clonal lymphoproliferative disease, chronic inflammation, and autoimmunity. The association between rheumatoid arthritis (RA) and the spectrum of Felty’s Syndrome is well-known. Other rheumatic disorders have been reported including systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE), Sjogren’s Syndrome (SS), vasculitis, Behcet’s Disease (BD) and systemic sclerosis. The association between T-LGLL and rheumatic disease pathogenesis has been hypothesized, but has not yet been fully understood. Components of a shared pathogenesis includes chronic antigen stimulation, JAK-STAT pathway activation and overlap of various cytokines. We will summarize current knowledge on the molecular understanding between T-LGLL and rheumatic disease. There are many potential areas of research to help meet this need and lead to development of targeted therapeutic options.

The perception and response of T cells to a changing environment are based on the law of initial value

αβ T cells are critical components of the adaptive immune system and are capable of inducing sterilizing immunity after pathogen infection and eliminating transformed tumor cells. The development and function of T cells are controlled through the T cell antigen receptor, which recognizes peptides displayed on major histocompatibility complex (MHC) molecules. Here, we review how T cells generate the ability to recognize self-peptide-bound MHC molecules and use signals derived from these interactions to instruct cellular development, activation thresholds, and functional specialization in the steady state and during immune responses. We argue that the basic tenants of T cell development and function follow Weber-Fetcher's law of just noticeable differences and Wilder's law of initial value. Together, these laws argue that the ability of a system to respond and the quality of that response are scalable to the basal state of that system. Manifestation of these laws in T cells generates clone-specific activation thresholds that are based on perceivable differences between homeostasis and pathogen encounter (self versus nonself discrimination), as well as poised states for subsequent differentiation into specific effector cell lineages.

Roles of ubiquitination in the crosstalk between tumors and the tumor microenvironment (Review)

The interaction between a tumor and the tumor microenvironment (TME) plays a key role in tumorigenesis and tumor progression. Ubiquitination, a crucial post-translational modification for regulating protein degradation and turnover, plays a role in regulating the crosstalk between a tumor and the TME. Thus, identifying the roles of ubiquitination in the process may assist researchers to investigate the mechanisms underlying tumorigenesis and tumor progression. In the present review article, new insights into the substrates for ubiquitination that are involved in the regulation of hypoxic environments, angiogenesis, chronic inflammation-mediated tumor formation, and the function of cancer-associated fibroblasts and infiltrating immune cells (tumor-associated macrophages, T-cells, myeloid-derived suppressor cells, dendritic cells, and natural killer cells) are summarized. In addition, the potential targets of the ubiquitination proteasome system within the TME for cancer therapy and their therapeutic effects are reviewed and discussed.

CD4+ T cells are required to improve the efficacy of CIK therapy in non-small cell lung cancer

As a widely studied adoptive treatment method, CIK (cytokine-induced killer cells) treatment has shown clinical benefits in many clinical trials on non-small cell lung cancer. As a heterogeneous cell population, however, CIK cells have a strong instability and individual differences in their efficacies, which are collaboratively regulated by the tumor microenvironment and CIK subpopulations. Among them, CD4⁺ T cells belong to a crucial subgroup of the CIK cell population, and their influence on CIK therapy is still unclear. Herein, we show how CD4⁺ T cells positively regulate the functions of CD3⁺CD56⁺ T and CD3⁺CD8⁺ T cells. During this process, we found that Th1/Th17 CD4⁺ subgroups can induce the phosphorylation of the AKT pathway by secreting IL-17A, and upregulate the expression of T-bet/Eomes transcription factors, thereby restoring the function of CD8⁺/CD3⁺CD56⁺ T cells and reversing the exhaustion of PD-1⁺Tim-3⁺ T cells. These findings will provide guidance for the clinical screening of suitable populations for CIK treatment and formulation of strategies for CIK therapy plus immune checkpoint treatment. Based on these findings, we are conducting an open-label phase II study (NCT04836728) is to evaluate the effects of autologous CIKs in combination with PD-1 inhibitor in the first-line treatment of IV NSCLC, and hope to observe patients' benefits in this clinical trial.

Deubiquitinating enzyme OTUB1 in immunity and cancer: Good player or bad actor?

OTU domain-containing ubiquitin aldehyde-binding proteins 1 (OTUB1) is the most important element of the deubiquitinase OTU superfamily, which has been identified as an essential regulator of diverse physiological processes, such as DNA damage repair and cytokines secretion. Recently, we found that the pro-carcinogenesis role of OTUB1 and the relationship between OTUB1 and immune response have gradually become the research hot-spot. OTUB1 regulates NK/CD8 T cell activation, autoimmune diseases, PD-L1 mediated immune evasion, viral or bacterial infection related immune response and the occurrence and progression of various cancers via deubiquitinating and stabilizing related proteins. This review provides a comprehensive description about the role and regulatory axis of OTUB1. We can explore the balance between immune response and defense via regulating the level of OTUB1, and targeting OTUB1 might restrain the progression of cancers. This review highlights the experimental evidence that OTUB1 is a feasible and potential therapeutic target against various cancers progression and immune diseases or disorder.

Interleukins and Ischemic Stroke

Ischemic stroke after cerebral artery occlusion is one of the major causes of chronic disability worldwide. Interleukins (ILs) play a bidirectional role in ischemic stroke through information transmission, activation and regulation of immune cells, mediating the activation, multiplication and differentiation of T and B cells and in the inflammatory reaction. Crosstalk between different ILs in different immune cells also impact the outcome of ischemic stroke. This overview is aimed to roughly discuss the multiple roles of ILs after ischemic stroke. The roles of IL-1, IL-2, IL-4, IL-5, IL-6, IL-8, IL-9, IL-10, IL-12, IL-13, IL-15, IL-16, IL-17, IL-18, IL-19, IL-21, IL-22, IL-23, IL-32, IL-33, IL-34, IL-37, and IL-38 in ischemic stroke were discussed in this review.

The Deubiquitinase OTUB1 Is a Key Regulator of Energy Metabolism

Dysregulated energy metabolism is a major contributor to a multitude of pathologies, including obesity and diabetes. Understanding the regulation of metabolic homeostasis is of utmost importance for the identification of therapeutic targets for the treatment of metabolically driven diseases. We previously identified the deubiquitinase OTUB1 as substrate for the cellular oxygen sensor factor-inhibiting HIF (FIH) with regulatory effects on cellular energy metabolism, but the physiological relevance of OTUB1 is unclear. Here, we report that the induced global deletion of OTUB1 in adult mice (Otub1 iKO) elevated energy expenditure, reduced age-dependent body weight gain, facilitated blood glucose clearance and lowered basal plasma insulin levels. The respiratory exchange ratio was maintained, indicating an unaltered nutrient oxidation. In addition, Otub1 deletion in cells enhanced AKT activity, leading to a larger cell size, higher ATP levels and reduced AMPK phosphorylation. AKT is an integral part of insulin-mediated signaling and Otub1 iKO mice presented with increased AKT phosphorylation following acute insulin administration combined with insulin hypersensitivity. We conclude that OTUB1 is an important regulator of metabolic homeostasis.

Myeloid cell TBK1 restricts inflammatory responses

Proinflammatory cytokine production by innate immune cells plays a crucial role in inflammatory diseases, but the molecular mechanisms controlling the inflammatory responses are poorly understood. Here, we show that TANK-binding kinase 1 (TBK1) serves as a vital regulator of proinflammatory macrophage function and protects against tissue inflammation. Myeloid cell-conditional Tbk1 knockout (MKO) mice spontaneously developed adipose hypertrophy and metabolic disorders at old ages, associated with increased adipose tissue M1 macrophage infiltration and proinflammatory cytokine expression. When fed with a high-fat diet, the Tbk1-MKO mice also displayed exacerbated hepatic inflammation and insulin resistance, developing symptoms of nonalcoholic steatohepatitis. Furthermore, myeloid cell-specific TBK1 ablation exacerbates inflammation in experimental colitis. Mechanistically, TBK1 functions in macrophages to suppress the NF-κB and MAP kinase signaling pathways and thus attenuate induction of proinflammatory cytokines, particularly IL-1β. Ablation of IL-1 receptor 1 (IL-1R1) eliminates the inflammatory symptoms of Tbk1-MKO mice. These results establish TBK1 as a pivotal anti-inflammatory mediator that restricts inflammation in different disease models.

RNA Sequencing Analysis of Gene Expression by Electroacupuncture in Guinea Pig Gallstone Models

BACKGROUND

Clinical studies have shown that electroacupuncture (EA) promotes gallbladder motility and alleviates gallstone. However, the mechanism underlying the effects of EA on gallstone is poorly understood. In this study, the mRNA transcriptome analysis was used to study the possible therapeutic targets of EA.

METHODS

Hartley SPF guinea pigs were employed for the gallstone models. Illumina NovaSeq 6000 platform was used for the RNA sequencing of guinea pig gallbladders in the normal group (Normal), gallstone model group (Model), and EA-treated group (EA). Differently expressed genes (DEGs) were examined separately in Model vs. Normal and EA vs. Model. DEGs reversed by EA were selected by comparing the DEGs of Model vs. Normal and EA vs. Model. Biological functions were enriched by gene ontology (GO) analysis. The protein-protein interaction (PPI) network was analyzed.

RESULTS

After 2 weeks of EA, 257 DEGs in Model vs. Normal and 1704 DEGs in EA vs. Model were identified. 94 DEGs reversed by EA were identified among these DEGs, including 28 reversed upregulated DEGs and 66 reversed downregulated DEGs. By PPI network analysis, 10 hub genes were found by Cytohubba plugin of Cytoscape. Quantitative real-time PCR (qRT-PCR) verified the changes.

CONCLUSION

We identified a few GOs and genes that might play key roles in the treatment of gallstone. This study may help understand the therapeutic mechanism of EA for gallstone.

The Immune Barrier of Porcine Uterine Mucosa Differs Dramatically at Proliferative and Secretory Phases and Could Be Positively Modulated by Colonizing Microbiota

Endometrial immune response is highly associated with the homeostatic balance of the uterus and embryo development; however, the underlying molecular regulatory mechanisms are not fully elucidated. Herein, the porcine endometrium showed significant variation in mucosal immunity in proliferative and secretory phases by single-cell RNA sequencing. The loose arrangement and high motility of the uterine epithelium in the proliferative phase gave opportunities for epithelial cells and dendritic cells to cross talk with colonizing microbial community, guiding lymphocyte migration into the mucosal and glandular epithelium. The migrating lymphocytes were primarily NK and CD8⁺ T cells, which were robustly modulated by the chemokine signaling. In the secretory phase, the significantly strengthened mechanical mucosal barrier and increased immunoglobulin A alleviated the migration of lymphocytes into the epithelium when the neuro-modulation, mineral uptake, and amino acid metabolism were strongly upregulated. The noticeably increased intraepithelial lymphocytes were positively modulated by the bacteria in the uterine cavity. Our findings illustrated that significant mucosal immunity variation in the endometrium in the proliferative and secretory phases was closely related to intraepithelial lymphocyte migration, which could be modulated by the colonizing bacteria after cross talk with epithelial cells with higher expressions of chemokine.

OTUB1 regulates lung development, adult lung tissue homeostasis, and respiratory control

OTUB1 is one of the most highly expressed deubiquitinases, counter-regulating the two most abundant ubiquitin chain types. OTUB1 expression is linked to the development and progression of lung cancer and idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis in humans. However, the physiological function of OTUB1 is unknown. Here, we show that constitutive whole-body Otub1 deletion in mice leads to perinatal lethality by asphyxiation. Analysis of (single-cell) RNA sequencing and proteome data demonstrated that OTUB1 is expressed in all lung cell types with a particularly high expression during late-stage lung development (E16.5, E18.5). At E18.5, the lungs of animals with Otub1 deletion presented with increased cell proliferation that decreased saccular air space and prevented inhalation. Flow cytometry-based analysis of E18.5 lung tissue revealed that Otub1 deletion increased proliferation of major lung parenchymal and mesenchymal/other non-hematopoietic cell types. Adult mice with conditional whole-body Otub1 deletion (wbOtub1^del/del ) also displayed increased lung cell proliferation in addition to hyperventilation and failure to adapt the respiratory pattern to hypoxia. On the molecular level, Otub1 deletion enhanced mTOR signaling in embryonic and adult lung tissues. Based on these results, we propose that OTUB1 is a negative regulator of mTOR signaling with essential functions for lung cell proliferation, lung development, adult lung tissue homeostasis, and respiratory regulation.

USP12 promotes CD4+ T cell responses through deubiquitinating and stabilizing BCL10

Deubiquitinases (DUBs) regulate diverse biological processes and represent a novel class of drug targets. However, the biological function of only a small fraction of DUBs, especially in adaptive immune response regulation, is well-defined. In this study, we identified DUB ubiquitin-specific peptidase 12 (USP12) as a critical regulator of CD4⁺ T cell activation. USP12 plays an intrinsic role in promoting the CD4⁺ T cell phenotype, including differentiation, activation, and proliferation. Although USP12-deficient CD4⁺ T cells protected mice from autoimmune diseases, the immune response against bacterial infection was subdued. USP12 stabilized B cell lymphoma/leukemia 10 (BCL10) by deubiquitinating, and thereby activated the NF-κB signaling pathway. Interestingly, this USP12 regulatory mechanism was identified in CD4⁺ T cells, but not in CD8⁺ T cells. Our study results showed that USP12 activated CD4⁺ T cell signaling, and targeting USP12 might help develop therapeutic interventions for treating inflammatory diseases or pathogen infections.

METTL3-mediated m6A RNA methylation promotes the anti-tumour immunity of natural killer cells

Natural killer (NK) cells exert critical roles in anti-tumor immunity but how their functions are regulated by epitranscriptional modification (e.g., N6-methyladenosine (m6A) methylation) is unclear. Here we report decreased expression of the m6A "writer" METTL3 in tumor-infiltrating NK cells, and a positive correlation between protein expression levels of METTL3 and effector molecules in NK cells. Deletion of Mettl3 in NK cells alters the homeostasis of NK cells and inhibits NK cell infiltration and function in the tumor microenvironment, leading to accelerated tumor development and shortened survival in mice. The gene encoding SHP-2 is m6A modified, and its protein expression is decreased in METTL3-deficient NK cells. Reduced SHP-2 activity renders NK cells hyporesponsive to IL-15, which is associated with suppressed activation of the AKT and MAPK signaling pathway in METTL3-deficient NK cells. These findings show that m6A methylation safeguards the homeostasis and tumor immunosurveillance function of NK cells.

Protective heterologous T cell immunity in COVID-19 induced by the trivalent MMR and Tdap vaccine antigens

BACKGROUND

T cells control viral infection, promote vaccine durability, and in coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) associate with mild disease. We investigated whether prior measles-mumps-rubella (MMR) or tetanus-diphtheria-pertussis (Tdap) vaccination elicits cross-reactive T cells that mitigate COVID-19.

METHODS

Antigen-presenting cells (APC) loaded ex vivo with severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), MMR, or Tdap antigens and autologous T cells from COVID-19-convalescent participants, uninfected individuals, and COVID-19 mRNA-vaccinated donors were co-cultured. T cell activation and phenotype were detected by interferon-γ (IFN-γ) enzyme-linked immunospot (ELISpot) assays and flow cytometry. ELISAs (enzyme-linked immunosorbant assays) and validation studies identified the APC-derived cytokine(s) driving T cell activation. TCR clonotyping and single-cell RNA sequencing (scRNA-seq) identified cross-reactive T cells and their transcriptional profile. A propensity-weighted analysis of COVID-19 patients estimated the effects of MMR and Tdap vaccination on COVID-19 outcomes.

FINDINGS

High correlation was observed between T cell responses to SARS-CoV-2 (spike-S1 and nucleocapsid) and MMR and Tdap proteins in COVID-19-convalescent and -vaccinated individuals. The overlapping T cell population contained an effector memory T cell subset (effector memory re-expressing CD45RA on T cells [TEMRA]) implicated in protective, anti-viral immunity, and their detection required APC-derived IL-15, known to sensitize T cells to activation. Cross-reactive TCR repertoires detected in antigen-experienced T cells recognizing SARS-CoV-2, MMR, and Tdap epitopes had TEMRA features. Indices of disease severity were reduced in MMR- or Tdap-vaccinated individuals by 32%-38% and 20%-23%, respectively, among COVID-19 patients.

CONCLUSIONS

Tdap and MMR memory T cells reactivated by SARS-CoV-2 may provide protection against severe COVID-19.

FUNDING

This study was supported by a National Institutes of Health (R01HL065095, R01AI152522, R01NS097719) donation from Barbara and Amos Hostetter and the Chleck Foundation.

Deubiquitinating enzymes (DUBs): Regulation, homeostasis, and oxidative stress response

Ubiquitin signaling is a conserved, widespread, and dynamic process in which protein substrates are rapidly modified by ubiquitin to impact protein activity, localization, or stability. To regulate this process, deubiquitinating enzymes (DUBs) counter the signal induced by ubiquitin conjugases and ligases by removing ubiquitin from these substrates. Many DUBs selectively regulate physiological pathways employing conserved mechanisms of ubiquitin bond cleavage. DUB activity is highly regulated in dynamic environments through protein-protein interaction, posttranslational modification, and relocalization. The largest family of DUBs, cysteine proteases, are also sensitive to regulation by oxidative stress, as reactive oxygen species (ROS) directly modify the catalytic cysteine required for their enzymatic activity. Current research has implicated DUB activity in human diseases, including various cancers and neurodegenerative disorders. Due to their selectivity and functional roles, DUBs have become important targets for therapeutic development to treat these conditions. This review will discuss the main classes of DUBs and their regulatory mechanisms with a particular focus on DUB redox regulation and its physiological impact during oxidative stress.

Interleukins in cancer: from biology to therapy

Interleukins and associated cytokines serve as the means of communication for innate and adaptive immune cells as well as non-immune cells and tissues. Thus, interleukins have a critical role in cancer development, progression and control. Interleukins can nurture an environment enabling and favouring cancer growth while simultaneously being essential for a productive tumour-directed immune response. These properties of interleukins can be exploited to improve immunotherapies to promote effectiveness as well as to limit side effects. This Review aims to unravel some of these complex interactions.

FAT10: Function and Relationship with Cancer

Posttranslational protein modifications are known to be extensively involved in cancer, and a growing number of studies have revealed that the ubiquitin-like modifier FAT10 is directly involved in cancer development. FAT10 was found to be highly upregulated in various cancer types, such as glioma, hepatocellular carcinoma, breast cancer and gastrointestinal cancer. Protein FAT10ylation and interactions with FAT10 lead to the functional change of proteins, including proteasomal degradation, subcellular delocalization and stabilization, eventually having significant effects on cancer cell proliferation, invasion, metastasis and even tumorigenesis. In this review, we summarized the current knowledge on FAT10 and discussed its biological functions in cancer, as well as potential therapeutic strategies based on the FAT10 pathway.

The deubiquitinase OTUB1 augments NF-κB-dependent immune responses in dendritic cells in infection and inflammation by stabilizing UBC13

Dendritic cells (DCs) are indispensable for defense against pathogens but may also contribute to immunopathology. Activation of DCs upon the sensing of pathogens by Toll-like receptors (TLRs) is largely mediated by pattern recognition receptor/nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) signaling and depends on the appropriate ubiquitination of the respective signaling molecules. However, the ubiquitinating and deubiquitinating enzymes involved and their interactions are only incompletely understood. Here, we reveal that the deubiquitinase OTU domain, ubiquitin aldehyde binding 1 (OTUB1) is upregulated in DCs upon murine Toxoplasma gondii infection and lipopolysaccharide challenge. Stimulation of DCs with the TLR11/12 ligand T. gondii profilin and the TLR4 ligand lipopolysaccharide induced an increase in NF-κB activation in OTUB1-competent cells, resulting in elevated interleukin-6 (IL-6), IL-12, and tumor necrosis factor (TNF) production, which was also observed upon the specific stimulation of TLR2, TLR3, TLR7, and TLR9. Mechanistically, OTUB1 promoted NF-κB activity in DCs by K48-linked deubiquitination and stabilization of the E2-conjugating enzyme UBC13, resulting in increased K63-linked ubiquitination of IRAK1 (IL-1 receptor-associated kinase 1) and TRAF6 (TNF receptor-associated factor 6). Consequently, DC-specific deletion of OTUB1 impaired the production of cytokines, in particular IL-12, by DCs over the first 2 days of T. gondii infection, resulting in the diminished production of protective interferon-γ (IFN-γ) by natural killer cells, impaired control of parasite replication, and, finally, death from chronic T. encephalitis, all of which could be prevented by low-dose IL-12 treatment in the first 3 days of infection. In contrast, impaired OTUB1-deficient DC activation and cytokine production by OTUB1-deficient DCs protected mice from lipopolysaccharide-induced immunopathology. Collectively, these findings identify OTUB1 as a potent novel regulator of DCs during infectious and inflammatory diseases.

Protective heterologous T cell immunity in COVID-19 induced by MMR and Tdap vaccine antigens

T cells are critical for control of viral infection and effective vaccination. We investigated whether prior Measles-Mumps-Rubella (MMR) or Tetanus-Diphtheria-pertussis (Tdap) vaccination elicit cross-reactive T cells that mitigate COVID-19. Using co-cultures of antigen presenting cells (APC) loaded with antigens and autologous T cells, we found a high correlation between responses to SARS-CoV-2 (Spike-S1 and Nucleocapsid) and MMR and Tdap vaccine proteins in both SARS-CoV-2 infected individuals and individuals immunized with mRNA-based SARS-CoV-2 vaccines. The overlapping T cell population contained effector memory T cells (TEMRA) previously implicated in anti-viral immunity and their activation required APC-derived IL-15. TCR- and scRNA-sequencing detected cross-reactive clones with TEMRA features among the cells recognizing SARS-CoV-2, MMR and Tdap epitopes. A propensity-weighted analysis of 73,582 COVID-19 patients revealed that severe disease outcomes (hospitalization and transfer to intensive care unit or death) were reduced in MMR or Tdap vaccinated individuals by 38-32% and 23-20% respectively. In summary, SARS-CoV-2 re-activates memory T cells generated by Tdap and MMR vaccines, which may reduce disease severity.

The functions and regulation of Otubains in protein homeostasis and diseases

OTU domain-containing ubiquitin aldehyde-binding proteins Otubain1 (OTUB1) and Otubain2 (OTUB2) were initially identified as OTU deubiquitinases (DUBs). Recently, Otubains have emerged as essential regulators of diverse physiological processes, such as immune signaling and DNA damage response. Dysregulation of those processes is likely to increase the risk in multiple aspects of aging-related diseases, including cancers, neurodegenerative disorders, chronic kidney diseases, bone dysplasia and pulmonary fibrosis. Consistently, Otubains are aberrantly expressed in cancers and have been identified to be both tumor suppressors and tumor promoters in different types of cancers. Therefore, the regulatory mechanism of the activity and expression of Otubains is very important for better understanding of Otubains-associated biological networks and human diseases. This review provides a comprehensive description of functions and regulatory axis of Otubains, highlighting experimental evidences indicating Otubains as potential therapeutic targets against aging-related disorders.