Placental Dysfunction Underlies Increased Risk of Fetal Growth Restriction and Stillbirth in Advanced Maternal Age Women

Placental quantitative susceptibility mapping and T2* characteristics for predicting birth weight in healthy and high-risk pregnancies

BACKGROUND

The human placenta is critical in supporting fetal development, and placental dysfunction may compromise maternal-fetal health. Early detection of placental dysfunction remains challenging due to the lack of reliable biomarkers. This study compares placental quantitative susceptibility mapping and T2* values between healthy and high-risk pregnancies and investigates their association with maternal and fetal parameters and their ability to predict birth weight (BW).

METHODS

A total of 105 pregnant individuals were included: 68 healthy controls and 37 high-risk due to fetal growth restriction (FGR), chronic or gestational hypertension, and pre-eclampsia. Placental magnetic resonance imaging data were collected using a three-dimensional multi-echo radiofrequency-spoiled gradient-echo, and mean susceptibility and T2* values were calculated. To analyze associations and estimate BW, we employed linear regression and regression forest models.

RESULTS

No significant differences were found in susceptibility between high-risk pregnancies and controls (p = 0.928). T2* values were significantly lower in high-risk pregnancies (p = 0.013), particularly in pre-eclampsia and FGR, emerging as a predictor of BW. The regression forest model showed placental T2* as a promising mode for BW estimation.

CONCLUSION

Our findings underscore the potential of mean placental T2* as a more sensitive marker for detecting placental dysfunction in high-risk pregnancies than mean placental susceptibility. Moreover, the high-risk status emerged as a significant predictor of BW. These results call for further research with larger and more diverse populations to validate these findings and enhance prediction models for improved pregnancy management.

RELEVANCE STATEMENT

This study highlights the potential of placental T2* magnetic resonance imaging measurements as reliable indicators for detecting placental dysfunction in high-risk pregnancies, aiding in improved prenatal care and birth weight prediction.

KEY POINTS

Placental dysfunction in high-risk pregnancies is evaluated using MRI T2* values. Lower T2* values significantly correlate with pre-eclampsia and fetal growth restriction. T2* MRI may predict birth weight, enhancing prenatal care outcomes.

Gestational diabetes mellitus in previous pregnancy associated with the risk of large for gestational age and macrosomia in the second pregnancy

Background

Since the implementation of China's new birth policy, the incidence of large for gestational age (LGA) and macrosomia associated with gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) has increased. It remains unclear whether a history of GDM in a previous pregnancy raises the risk of LGA or macrosomia in Chinese women planning two or more pregnancies.

Aim

To analyze the association between previous GDM and the risk of LGA and macrosomia in second pregnancy.

Method

A retrospective study was conducted on a cohort of 3,131 women who had experienced two consecutive singleton births. The incidences of LGA and macrosomia in the second pregnancy were compared between women with and without previous GDM. The relationship between previous GDM and the occurrence of LGA and macrosomia was analyzed using multivariate logistic regression and stratified analysis.

Results

The incidence of LGA and macrosomia during the second pregnancy was significantly higher in women with previous GDM (22.67% and 10.25%, respectively) compared to those without prior GDM (15.34% and 5.06%, respectively) (P < 0.05). After adjusting for potential confounders, previous GDM was significantly associated with LGA (aOR: 1.511, 95% CI: 1.066-2.143) and macrosomia (aOR: 1.854, 95% CI: 1.118-3.076) in the second pregnancy. Stratified analysis revealed that these associations were present only in women without previous LGA, those with GDM, appropriate gestational weight gain (AGWG), non-advanced maternal age, and male newborns during the second pregnancy (P < 0.05). Compared to excessive GWG (EGWG), AGWG correlated with lower risks for LGA and macrosomia during the second pregnancy in women without prior GDM, an association not observed in those with previous GDM. Among women without previous GDM, if the pre-pregnancy BMI is normal, the risk of LGA and macrosomia is significant lower in AGWG compared with EGWG (P< 0.001), while this difference was no significant among women with prior GDM (P>0.05).

Conclusion

Previous GDM is strongly linked to LGA and macrosomia in subsequent pregnancies. However, this relationship is influenced by GWG, prior LGA history, fetal sex, and maternal age. Managing weight alone may not sufficiently reduce the risk of LGA or macrosomia for women with a history of GDM.

Stillbirth rate trends across 25 European countries between 2010 and 2021: the contribution of maternal age and multiplicity

Stillbirth rates have stalled or increased in some European countries during the last decade. We investigate to what extent time-trends and between-country differences in stillbirth rates are explained by the changing prevalence of advanced maternal age and teenage pregnancies or multiple births. We analysed data on stillbirths and live births by maternal age and multiplicity from 2010 to 2021 in 25 European countries using Kitagawa decomposition to separate rate differences into compositional and rate components. Rates significantly decreased in six countries, but increased in two. Changes in maternal age structure reduced national stillbirth rates by a maximum of 0.04 per 1000 in the Netherlands and increased rates by up to 0.85 in Cyprus. Changes in the prevalence of multiple births decreased rates by up to 0.19 in the Netherlands and increased rates by up to 0.01 across multiple countries. Maternal age differences explained between 0.11 of the below-European average stillbirth rate in Belgium and 0.13 of the above-average rate in Ireland. Excluding Cyprus, differences in multiple births explained between 0.05 of the below-average rate in Malta and 0.03 of the above-average rate in Ireland. For most countries, the increase in advanced-age pregnancies contributed to rising stillbirth rates over time, while reductions in multiples led to decreases in rates. However, large parts of the trends remain unexplained by those factors. By 2021, neither factor explained the differences between countries, due to increased compositional uniformity and declining stillbirth risk for advanced maternal age.

The updated understanding of advanced maternal age

The rising rates of pregnancies associated with advanced maternal age (AMA) have created unique challenges for healthcare systems worldwide. The elevated risk of poor maternal outcomes among AMA pregnancies is only partially understood and hotly debated. Specifically, AMA is associated with reduced fertility and an increased incidence of pregnancy complications. Finding a balance between global fertility policy, socioeconomic development and health care optimization ultimately depends on female fertility. Therefore, there is an urgent need to develop technologies and identify effective interventions. Support strategies should include prepregnancy screening, intervention and postpartum maintenance. Although some reviews have considered the relationship between AMA and adverse pregnancy outcomes, no previous work has comprehensively considered the long-term health effects of AMA on mothers. In this review, we will begin by presenting the current knowledge of global health issues associated with AMA and the effects of advanced age on the female reproductive system, endocrine metabolism, and placental function. We will then discuss physiological alterations, pregnancy complications, and long-term health problems caused by AMA.

Longitudinal associations between urinary biomarkers of phthalates and replacements with novel in vivo measures of placental health

STUDY QUESTION

What is the longitudinal association between gestational phthalate exposure and in vivo placental outcomes?

SUMMARY ANSWER

Phthalates were adversely associated with placental microvasculature, stiffness, and presence of calcification, with different metabolites associated with different outcomes.

WHAT IS KNOWN ALREADY

Phthalate exposure is ubiquitous and implicated as a contributor to adverse pregnancy outcomes, possibly through impacts on the placenta.

STUDY DESIGN, SIZE, DURATION

A total of 303 women were recruited in early pregnancy and prospectively followed for up to eight visits across gestation in the Human Placenta and Phthalates study.

PARTICIPANTS/MATERIALS, SETTING, METHODS

At each visit, women provided urine samples and underwent placental ultrasounds. Urine was analyzed for 18 metabolites of phthalates and replacements. We took the geometric mean of repeated measurements to reflect pregnancy-averaged phthalate or replacement exposure for each participant (n = 303). Placental microvasculature, stiffness, and microcalcification presence were quantified from ultrasounds at each visit. Higher scores reflected worse placental function for all measures. Generalized linear mixed models were created to estimate the association between pregnancy-averaged exposure biomarker concentrations and repeated outcome measurements for microvasculature and stiffness. Gestational age at the time of calcification detection was modeled using Cox proportional hazards models.

MAIN RESULTS AND THE ROLE OF CHANCE

Monocarboxyisononyl phthalate and summed di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate metabolites were associated with impaired microvasculature development, such that an interquartile range increase in concentration was associated with 0.11 standard deviation increase in the microvasculature ratio, indicating poorer vascularization (95% CI: 0.00, 0.22); 0.11 [95% CI: -0.01, 0.22], respectively. Monoethyl phthalate was associated with increased placental stiffness (0.09 [95% CI: -0.01, 0.19]) while summed di-iso-butyl phthalate metabolites and monobenzyl phthalate were associated with increased hazard of calcification detection (hazard ratios: 1.18 [95% CI: 0.98, 1.42]; 1.13 [95% CI: 0.96, 1.34]).

LIMITATIONS, REASONS FOR CAUTION

Outcomes used in this study are novel and further investigation is needed to provide clinical context and relevance.

WIDER IMPLICATIONS OF THE FINDINGS

We found evidence of associations between select phthalate biomarkers and various aspects of in vivo placental health, although we did not observe consistency across placental outcomes. These findings could illustrate heterogeneous effects of phthalate exposure on placental function.

STUDY FUNDING/COMPETING INTEREST(S)

This research was supported in part by the Intramural Research Program of the NIH, National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (ZIA ES103344), and NIEHS T32ES007018. The authors declare that they have no competing interests to disclose. The findings and conclusions in this report are those of the authors and do not necessarily represent the official position of the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Use of trade names is for identification only and does not imply endorsement by the CDC, the Public Health Service, or the US Department of Health and Human Services.

TRIAL REGISTRATION NUMBER

N/A.

Placental Element Content Assessed via Synchrotron-Based X-ray Fluorescence Microscopy Identifies Low Molybdenum Concentrations in Foetal Growth Restriction, Postdate Delivery and Stillbirth

Placental health and foetal development are dependent upon element homeostasis. Analytical techniques such as mass spectroscopy can provide quantitative data on element concentrations in placental tissue but do not show spatial distribution or co-localisation of elements that may affect placental function. The present study used synchrotron-based X-ray fluorescence microscopy to elucidate element content and distribution in healthy and pathological placental tissue. The X-ray fluorescence microscopy (XFM) beamline at the Australian Synchrotron was used to image trace metal content of 19 placental sections from healthy term (n = 5, 37-39 weeks), foetal growth-restricted (n = 3, <32 weeks, birth weight <3rd centile), postdate (n = 7, >41 completed weeks), and stillbirth-complicated pregnancies (n = 4, 37-40 weeks). Samples were cryo-sectioned and freeze-dried. The concentration and distribution of fourteen elements were detected in all samples: arsenic, bromine, calcium, chlorine, copper, iron, molybdenum, phosphorous, potassium, rubidium, selenium, strontium, sulphur, and zinc. The elements zinc, calcium, phosphorous, and strontium were significantly increased in stillbirth placental tissue in comparison to healthy-term controls. Strontium, zinc, and calcium were found to co-localise in stillbirth tissue samples, and calcium and strontium concentrations were correlated in all placental groups. Molybdenum was significantly decreased in stillbirth, foetal growth-restricted, and postdate placental tissue in comparison to healthy-term samples (p < 0.0001). Synchrotron-based XFM reveals elemental distribution within biological samples such as the placenta, allowing for the co-localisation of metal deposits that may have a pathological role. Our pilot study further indicates low concentrations of placental molybdenum in pregnancies complicated by foetal growth restriction, postdate delivery, and stillbirth.

Investigating Menstruation and Adverse Pregnancy Outcomes: Oxymoron or New Frontier? A Narrative Review

Not discounting the important foetal or placental contribution, the endometrium is a key determinant of pregnancy outcomes. Given the inherently linked processes of menstruation, pregnancy and parturition with the endometrium, further understanding of menstruation will help to elucidate the maternal contribution to pregnancy. Endometrial health can be assessed via menstrual history and menstrual fluid, a cyclically shed, easily and non-invasively accessible biological sample that represents the distinct, heterogeneous composition of the endometrial environment. Menstrual fluid has been applied to the study of endometriosis, unexplained infertility and early pregnancy loss; however, it is yet to be examined regarding adverse pregnancy outcomes. These adverse outcomes, including preeclampsia, foetal growth restriction (FGR), spontaneous preterm birth and perinatal death (stillbirth and neonatal death), lay on a spectrum of severity and are often attributed to placental dysfunction. The source of this placental dysfunction is largely unknown and may be due to underlying endometrial abnormalities or endometrial interactions during placentation. We present existing evidence for the endometrial contribution to adverse pregnancy outcomes and propose that a more comprehensive understanding of menstruation can provide insight into the endometrial environment, offering great potential value as a diagnostic tool to assess pregnancy risk. As yet, this concept has hardly been explored.

Guidelines for assessing maternal cardiovascular physiology during pregnancy and postpartum

Maternal mortality rates are at an all-time high across the world and are set to increase in subsequent years. Cardiovascular disease is the leading cause of death during pregnancy and postpartum, especially in the United States. Therefore, understanding the physiological changes in the cardiovascular system during normal pregnancy is necessary to understand disease-related pathology. Significant systemic and cardiovascular physiological changes occur during pregnancy that are essential for supporting the maternal-fetal dyad. The physiological impact of pregnancy on the cardiovascular system has been examined in both experimental animal models and in humans. However, there is a continued need in this field of study to provide increased rigor and reproducibility. Therefore, these guidelines aim to provide information regarding best practices and recommendations to accurately and rigorously measure cardiovascular physiology during normal and cardiovascular disease-complicated pregnancies in human and animal models.

Association between maternal blood lipids and neonatal hypoglycaemia in pregnancy with gestational diabetes mellitus: a cohort study

BACKGROUND

Gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) prevalence is on the rise globally. Offspring of diabetic mothers face increased risk of neonatal hypoglycaemia (NH), and women with GDM have abnormal lipid profiles. However, there is no consensus on the link between maternal blood lipids and NH in infants from mothers with GDM. This study aimed to explore how maternal blood lipids affect NH.

METHODS

A retrospective cohort study was conducted at the First Affiliated Hospital of Sun Yat-sen University. Information on participants' baseline characteristics and maternal metabolic profiles of glucose and lipids was collected. Significant variables from the univariate analysis were included in logistic regression, which was used to construct the predictive model for NH. A nomogram was constructed for visualizing the model and assessed using the area under the receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve (AUC).

RESULTS

Neonatal capillary blood glucose (CBG) decreased rapidly in the first hour after birth, increased gradually from the first to the second hour, and then remained stable. In the NH group, 86.11% (502/583) of hypoglycaemia cases occurred within the first two hours after birth. Multivariate logistic regression suggested that the lipid indices of maternal apoprotein B/apoprotein A1 (Apo-B/Apo-A1) (odds ratio (OR) = 1.36, 95% confidence intervals (CIs): 1.049-1.764, P = 0.02) and apoprotein E (Apo-E) (OR = 1.014, 95% CIs: 1.004-1.024, P = 0.004) were positively associated with NH in neonates from mothers with GDM. Triglycerides (TGs) (OR = 0.883, 95% CIs: 0.788-0.986, P = 0.028) were inversely associated with NH. Maternal glycated haemoglobin (HbA1c), age, twin pregnancy and caesarean delivery also had predictive value of NH. The AUC of the nomogram derived from these factors for the prediction model of NH was 0.657 (95% CIs: 0.630-0.684).

CONCLUSIONS

The present study revealed that the Apo-B/Apo-A1 and Apo-E levels were associated with an increased risk of NH. A nomogram was developed to forecast the risk of NH in babies born to mothers with GDM, incorporating maternal blood lipids, HbA1c, age, twin pregnancy, and caesarean section. The trajectory of glycaemia for neonates indicates the need for intensive CBG monitoring within 2 h of birth for neonates from mothers with GDM.

Sociodemographic factor associations with maternal and placental outcomes: A cluster and partial least squares regression analysis

INTRODUCTION

Maternal social disadvantage adversely affects maternal and offspring health, with limited research on placental outcomes. Therefore, we examined maternal sociodemographic factor associations with placental and birth outcomes in general (Lifeways Cross-Generation Cohort) and at-risk (PEARS Study of mothers with overweight or obesity) populations of pregnant women.

METHODS

TwoStep cluster analysis profiled Lifeways mothers (n = 250) based on their age, parity, marital status, household income, private healthcare insurance, homeowner status, and education. Differences in placental and birth outcomes (untrimmed placental weight (PW), birthweight (BW) and BW:PW ratio) between clusters were assessed using one-way ANOVA and chi-square tests. Partial least squares regression analysed individual effects of sociodemographic factors on placental and birth outcomes in Lifeways and PEARS mothers (n = 461).

RESULTS

Clusters were classified as "Married Homeowners" (n = 140, 56 %), "Highest Income" (n = 58, 23.2 %) and "Renters" (n = 52, 20.8 %) in the Lifeways Cohort. Renters were younger, more likely to smoke, have a means-tested medical card and more pro-inflammatory diets compared to other clusters (p < 0.01). Compared to Married Homeowners, renters' offspring had lower BW (-259.26 g, p < 0.01), shorter birth length (-1.31 cm, p < 0.01) and smaller head circumference (-0.59 cm, p = 0.02). PLS regression analyses identified nulliparity as having the greatest negative effect on PW (Lifeways and PEARS) while being a homeowner had the greatest positive effect on PW (Lifeways).

CONCLUSION

Certain combinations of sociodemographic factors (particularly homeownership) were associated with less favourable lifestyle factors, and with birth, but not placental outcomes. When explored individually, parity contributed to the prediction of placental and birth outcomes in both cohorts of pregnant women.

Advanced maternal age-related clustering of metabolic abnormalities is associated with risks of adverse pregnancy outcomes

AIMS

Advanced maternal age (AMA) is correlated with higher risk of adverse pregnancy outcomes while the pathophysiology remains unclear. Our study aimed to investigate whether AMA is linked to the clustering of metabolic abnormalities, which in turn is associated with an increased risk of adverse pregnancy outcomes.

METHOD

A total of 857 pregnant woman were recruited in a prospective cohort at National Taiwan University Hospital, from November 2013 to April 2018. Metabolic abnormalities during pregnancy were defined as following: fasting plasma glucose ≥92 mg/dl, body mass index (BMI) ≥24 kg/m2, plasma high-density lipoprotein cholesterol <50 mg/dl, hyper-triglyceridemia (≥140 mg/dl in the first trimester or ≥220 mg/dl in the second trimester), and blood pressure ≥130/85 mmHg.

RESULT

Incidence of large for gestational age (LGA), primary caesarean section (CS), and the presence of any adverse pregnancy outcome increased with age. The advanced-age group tended to have more metabolic abnormalities in both the first and the second trimesters. There was a significant association between the number of metabolic abnormalities in the first and the second trimesters and the incidence of LGA, gestational hypertension or preeclampsia, primary CS, preterm birth, and the presence of any adverse pregnancy outcome, adjusted for maternal age.

CONCLUSION

AMA is associated with clustering of metabolic abnormalities during pregnancy, and clustering of metabolic abnormalities is correlated with increased risk of adverse pregnancy outcomes.

The Population-Attributable Fractions of Small-for-Gestational-Age Births: Results from the Japan Birth Cohort Consortium

A fetal growth restriction is related to adverse child outcomes. We investigated risk ratios and population-attributable fractions (PAF) of small-for-gestational-age (SGA) infants in the Japanese population. Among 28,838 infants from five ongoing prospective birth cohort studies under the Japan Birth Cohort Consortium, two-stage individual-participant data meta-analyses were conducted to calculate risk ratios and PAFs for SGA in advanced maternal age, pre-pregnancy underweight, and smoking and alcohol consumption during pregnancy. Risk ratio was calculated using modified Poisson analyses with robust variance and PAF was calculated in each cohort, following common analyses protocols. Then, results from each cohort study were combined by meta-analyses using random-effects models to obtain the overall estimate for the Japanese population. In this meta-analysis, an increased risk (risk ratio, [95% confidence interval of SGA]) was significantly associated with pre-pregnancy underweight (1.72 [1.42-2.09]), gestational weight gain (1.95 [1.61-2.38]), and continued smoking during pregnancy (1.59 [1.01-2.50]). PAF of underweight, inadequate gestational weight gain, and continued smoking during pregnancy was 10.0% [4.6-15.1%], 31.4% [22.1-39.6%], and 3.2% [-4.8-10.5%], respectively. In conclusion, maternal weight status was a major contributor to SGA births in Japan. Improving maternal weight status should be prioritized to prevent fetal growth restriction.

The mediation of the placenta on the association between maternal ambient temperature exposure and birth weight

Studies have indicated that exposure to low and high temperatures during pregnancy negatively affects fetal development. The placenta plays vital functions in fetal development and could also be impacted by suboptimal temperatures. However, whether the placenta mediates the association between suboptimal temperature and birth weight is unknown. Our study aims to evaluate the association between ambient temperature and birth weight as well as the mediation effect of the placenta. A prospective birth cohort study was conducted during 2017-2020 in Guangzhou, China (n = 3349 participants). We defined extreme temperature exposure during the whole pregnancy by using different thresholds, including low temperatures (< 25th, < 15th, < 10th, < 5th percentiles), and high temperatures (> 75th, > 85th, > 90th, > 95th percentiles). Three different approaches (generalized linear model, inverse probability weighting, and doubly robust model) were applied to estimate the effects of low/high temperatures on birth weight and placental indicators, including placental weight, placental volume, and placental-to-birth weight ratio (PFR), respectively. We observed that both low and high ambient temperatures during the whole pregnancy were associated with lower birth weight and negative changes in placental indicators. The estimated lower mean birth weight ranged from -158 g (95 % CI: -192 g, -123 g) to -363 g (95 % CI: -424 g, -301 g) for low temperatures and from -97 g (95 % CI: -135 g, -59 g) to -664 g (95 % CI: -742 g, -585 g) for high temperatures. In mediation analyses, placental weight mediated 28.79 % to 40.47 % and 48.22 % to 54.38 % of the association of low and high temperatures with birth weight, respectively. The findings suggest that placental weight may mediate the association between ambient temperature exposure and birth weight.

Fetal abdominal obesity and the ensuing adverse perinatal outcomes in older obese pregnant women with or without obesity and with normal glucose tolerance

To investigate whether the increased risk of fetal abdominal obesity (FAO) is present in the older (≥ 35 years) and/or obese (≥ body mass index 25 kg/m2) women with normal glucose tolerance, we reviewed medical record of 6721 singleton pregnancy. At 24-28 gestational weeks (GW), fetal abdominal overgrowth was assessed by the fetal abdominal overgrowth ratios (FAORs) of the ultrasonographically estimated gestational age (GA) of abdominal circumference per actual GA by the last menstruation period, estimated GA of biparietal diameter or femur length, respectively. FAO was defined as FAOR ≥ 90th percentile. Compared to young and non-obese women, older women showed significantly higher FAORs irrespective of obesity and the prevalence of FAO in older and non-obese women was significantly higher (11.8% vs. 8.6%, p < 0.05). The odds ratio for large for gestational age at birth were 3.06(1.96-4.77, p < 0.005), 1.47(1.16-1.86, p < 0.005) and 2.82(1.64-4.84, p < 0.005) in young and obese, older and non-obese, and older and obese women, respectively. The odds ratio for primary cesarean delivery in older and non-obese women was 1.33 (1.18-1.51, p < 0.005). An increased risk of FAO at 24-28 GW and subsequent adverse perinatal outcomes have been observed in the older women with or without obesity, compared to younger and non-obese women, despite normal glucose tolerance.

A Balancing Act: Navigating Hypertensive Disorders of Pregnancy at Very Advanced Maternal Age, from Preconception to Postpartum

The decision to postpone parenting has gained momentum in recent years, a shift driven by evolving social dynamics and improved access to fertility treatments. Despite their increasing prevalence, pregnancies at advanced maternal ages are associated with increased risks of adverse maternal and neonatal outcomes. This article addresses the association between advanced maternal age and hypertensive disorders of pregnancies (HDPs), which are more prevalent and a significant cause of maternal morbidity and mortality in this population. This review explores the biological mechanisms and age-related risk factors that underpin this increased susceptibility and offers practical management strategies that can be implemented prior to, as well as during, each stage of pregnancy to mitigate the incidence and severity of HDPs in this group. Lastly, this review acknowledges both the short-term and long-term postpartum implications of HDPs in women of advanced maternal age.

Unveiling uterine aging: Much more to learn

Uterine aging is an important factor that impacts fertility, reproductive health, and uterus-related diseases; however, it remains poorly explored. Functionally, these disturbances have been associated with an abnormal hormonal response in the endometrium and decreased endometrial receptivity. Based on emerging evidence, these alterations are mediated via the senescence of endometrial stem cells and impaired decidualization of endometrial stromal cells. Multiple molecular activities may participate in uterine aging, including oxidative stress, inflammation, fibrosis, DNA damage response, and cellular senescence. Over the past decade, several protective strategies targeting these biological processes have afforded promising results, including stem cell therapy, anti-aging drugs, and herbal medicines. However, the currently available evidence is fragmented and scattered. Here, we summarize the most recent findings regarding uterine aging, including functional and structural alterations and potential cellular and molecular mechanisms, and discuss potential protective interventions against uterine aging. Thereby, we hope to provide a comprehensive understanding of the pathophysiological processes and underlying mechanisms associated with uterine aging, as well as improve fecundity and reproductive outcomes in females of advanced reproductive age.

Elevated Maternal Folate Status and Changes in Maternal Prolactin, Placental Lactogen and Placental Growth Hormone Following Folic Acid Food Fortification: Evidence from Two Prospective Pregnancy Cohorts

Folic acid (FA) food fortification in Australia has resulted in a higher-than-expected intake of FA during pregnancy. High FA intake is associated with increased insulin resistance and gestational diabetes. We aimed to establish whether maternal one-carbon metabolism and hormones that regulate glucose homeostasis change in healthy pregnancies post-FA food fortification. Circulating folate, B12, homocysteine, prolactin (PRL), human placental lactogen (hPL) and placental growth hormone (GH2) were measured in early pregnancy maternal blood in women with uncomplicated pregnancies prior to (SCOPE: N = 604) and post (STOP: N = 711)-FA food fortification. FA food fortification resulted in 63% higher maternal folate. STOP women had lower hPL (33%) and GH2 (43%) after 10 weeks of gestation, but they had higher PRL (29%) and hPL (28%) after 16 weeks. FA supplementation during pregnancy increased maternal folate and reduced homocysteine but only in the SCOPE group, and it was associated with 54% higher PRL in SCOPE but 28% lower PRL in STOP. FA food fortification increased maternal folate status, but supplements no longer had an effect, thereby calling into question their utility. An altered secretion of hormones that regulate glucose homeostasis in pregnancy could place women post-fortification at an increased risk of insulin resistance and gestational diabetes, particularly for older women and those with obesity.

DNA methylation abnormalities induced by advanced maternal age in villi prime a high-risk state for spontaneous abortion

BACKGROUND

Advanced maternal age (AMA) has increased in many high-income countries in recent decades. AMA is generally associated with a higher risk of various pregnancy complications, and the underlying molecular mechanisms are largely unknown. In the current study, we profiled the DNA methylome of 24 human chorionic villi samples (CVSs) from early pregnancies in AMA and young maternal age (YMA), 11 CVSs from early spontaneous abortion (SA) cases using reduced representation bisulfite sequencing (RRBS), and the transcriptome of 10 CVSs from AMA and YMA pregnancies with mRNA sequencing(mRNA-seq). Single-cell villous transcriptional atlas presented expression patterns of targeted AMA-/SA-related genes. Trophoblast cellular impairment was investigated through the knockdown of GNE expression in HTR8-S/Vneo cells.

RESULTS

AMA-induced local DNA methylation changes, defined as AMA-related differentially methylated regions (DMRs), may be derived from the abnormal expression of genes involved in DNA demethylation, such as GADD45B. These DNA methylation changes were significantly enriched in the processes involved in NOTCH signaling and extracellular matrix organization and were reflected in the transcriptional alterations in the corresponding biological processes and specific genes. Furthermore, the DNA methylation level of special AMA-related DMRs not only significantly changed in AMA but also showed more excessive defects in CVS from spontaneous abortion (SA), including four AMA-related DMRs whose nearby genes overlapped with AMA-related differentially expressed genes (DEGs) (CDK11A, C19orf71, COL5A1, and GNE). The decreased DNA methylation level of DMR near GNE was positively correlated with the downregulated expression of GNE in AMA. Single-cell atlas further revealed comparatively high expression of GNE in the trophoblast lineage, and knockdown of GNE in HTR8-S/Vneo cells significantly impaired cellular proliferation and migration.

CONCLUSION

Our study provides valuable resources for investigating AMA-induced epigenetic abnormalities and provides new insights for explaining the increased risks of pregnancy complications in AMA pregnancies.

Placental adaptations supporting fetal growth during normal and adverse gestational environments

NEW FINDINGS

What is the topic of this review? How the placenta, which transports nutrients and oxygen to the fetus, may alter its support of fetal growth developmentally and with adverse gestational conditions. What advances does it highlight? Placental formation and function alter with the needs of the fetus for substrates for growth during normal gestation and when there is enhanced competition for substrates in species with multiple gestations or adverse gestational environments, and this is mediated by imprinted genes, signalling pathways, mitochondria and fetal sexomes.

ABSTRACT

The placenta is vital for mammalian development and a key determinant of life-long health. It is the interface between the mother and fetus and is responsible for transporting the nutrients and oxygen a fetus needs to develop and grow. Alterations in placental formation and function, therefore, have consequences for fetal growth and birthweight, which in turn determine perinatal survival and risk of non-communicable diseases for the offspring in later postnatal life. However, the placenta is not a static organ. As this review summarizes, research from multiple species has demonstrated that placental formation and function alter developmentally to the needs of the fetus for substrates for growth during normal gestation, as well as when there is greater competition for substrates in polytocous species and monotocous species with multiple gestations. The placenta also adapts in response to the gestational environment, integrating information about the ability of the mother to provide nutrients and oxygen with the needs of the fetus in that prevailing environment. In particular, placental structure (e.g. vascularity, surface area, blood flow, diffusion distance) and transport capacity (e.g. nutrient transporter levels and activity) respond to suboptimal gestational environments, namely malnutrition, obesity, hypoxia and maternal ageing. Mechanisms mediating developmentally and environmentally induced homeostatic responses of the placenta that help support normal fetal growth include imprinted genes, signalling pathways, subcellular constituents and fetal sexomes. Identification of these placental strategies may inform the development of therapies for complicated human pregnancies and advance understanding of the pathways underlying poor fetal outcomes and their consequences for health and disease risk.

Cellular senescence in normal and adverse pregnancy

Cellular senescence (CS) is defined as a state of terminal proliferation arrest accompanied by morphological alterations, pro-inflammatory phenotype, and metabolic changes. In recent years, the implications of senescence in numerous physiological and pathological conditions such as development, tissue repair, aging, or cancer have been evident. Some inductors of senescence are tissue repair pathways, telomere shortening, DNA damage, degenerative disorders, and wound healing. Lately, it has been demonstrated that CS plays a decisive role in the development and progression of healthy pregnancy and labor. Premature maternal-fetal tissues senescence (placenta, choriamniotic membranes, and endothelium) is implicated in many adverse pregnancy outcomes, including fetal growth restriction, preeclampsia, preterm birth, and intrauterine fetal death. Here we discuss cellular senescence and its association with normal pregnancy development and adverse pregnancy outcomes. Current evidence allows us to establish the relevance of CS in processes associated with the appropriate development of placentation, the progression of pregnancy, and the onset of labor; likewise, it allows us to understand the undeniable participation of CS deregulation in pathological processes associated with pregnancy.

A comparative study on third trimester fetal biometric parameters with maternal age

Background

Advanced maternal age is an important parameter associated with increased risk of feto-maternal complications and it is an evolving trend in society for women planning for pregnancy in late ages. However there are no studies done whether advanced maternal age has its effects on expression of growth pattern in the fetus. So this study was done to compare the maternal age with the third trimester fetal biometric parameters.

Methods

This study was done in 100 antenatal women and divided into two groups: Group 1: optimal maternal age group between 21-29 years of age and Group 2: advanced maternal age 30 and above. The pre-pregnant maternal weight, gestational age and third trimester fetal biometrics using ultrasound are noted and compared between the groups.

Results

The maternal weight gain between the groups was optimal but the third trimester fetal parameters were significantly less in advanced maternal age. The abdominal circumference in optimal age group and head circumference in advanced maternal age group was closer to calculated estimated date of delivery (EDD) and would be specific in calculating the gestational age.

Conclusions

Though there is no significant difference in maternal weight gain, there are fetal growth restrictions in advanced maternal age group due to which the third trimester fetal parameters are lesser than the optimal age group. Head circumference would be specific in calculating the estimated date of delivery in advanced maternal age group.

Prediction of pre-eclampsia complicated by fetal growth restriction and its perinatal outcome based on an artificial neural network model

Objective: Pre-eclampsia (PE) complicated by fetal growth restriction (FGR) increases both perinatal mortality and the incidence of preterm birth and neonatal asphyxia. Because ultrasound measurements are bone markers, soft tissues, such as fetal fat and muscle, are ignored, and the selection of section surface and the influence of fetal position can lead to estimation errors. The early detection of FGR is not easy, resulting in a relative delay in intervention. It is assumed that FGR complicated with PE can be predicted by laboratory and clinical indicators. The present study adopts an artificial neural network (ANN) to assess the effect and predictive value of changes in maternal peripheral blood parameters and clinical indicators on the perinatal outcomes in patients with PE complicated by FGR.

Methods: This study used a retrospective case-control approach. The correlation between maternal peripheral blood parameters and perinatal outcomes in pregnant patients with PE complicated by FGR was retrospectively analyzed, and an ANN was constructed to assess the value of the changes in maternal blood parameters in predicting the occurrence of PE complicated by FGR and adverse perinatal outcomes.

Results: A total of 15 factors—maternal age, pre-pregnancy body mass index, inflammatory markers (neutrophil-to-lymphocyte ratio and platelet-to-lymphocyte ratio), coagulation parameters (prothrombin time and thrombin time), lipid parameters (high-density lipoprotein, low-density lipoprotein, and triglyceride counts), platelet parameters (mean platelet volume and plateletcrit), uric acid, lactate dehydrogenase, and total bile acids—were correlated with PE complicated by FGR. A total of six ANNs were constructed with the adoption of these parameters. The accuracy, sensitivity, and specificity of predicting the occurrence of the following diseases and adverse outcomes were respectively as follows: 84.3%, 97.7%, and 78% for PE complicated by FGR; 76.3%, 97.3%, and 68% for provider-initiated preterm births,; 81.9%, 97.2%, and 51% for predicting the severity of FGR; 80.3%, 92.9%, and 79% for premature rupture of membranes; 80.1%, 92.3%, and 79% for postpartum hemorrhage; and 77.6%, 92.3%, and 76% for fetal distress.

Conclusion: An ANN model based on maternal peripheral blood parameters has a good predictive value for the occurrence of PE complicated by FGR and its adverse perinatal outcomes, such as the severity of FGR and preterm births in these patients.

Bias in the association between advanced maternal age and stillbirth using left truncated data

Restriction to analysis of births that survive past a specified gestational age (typically 20 weeks gestation) leads to biased exposure-outcome associations. This bias occurs when the cause of restriction (early pregnancy loss) is influenced by both the exposure and unmeasured factors that also affect the outcome. The aim of this study is to estimate the magnitude of bias resulting from left truncated data in the association between advanced maternal age and stillbirth. We simulated data for the causal pathway under a collider-stratification mechanism. Simulation parameters were based on an observed birth cohort from Western Australia and a range of plausible values for the prevalence of early pregnancy loss, unmeasured factor U and the odds ratios for the selection effects. Selection effects included the effects of maternal age on early pregnancy loss, U on early pregnancy loss, and U on stillbirth. We compared the simulation scenarios to the observed birth cohort that was truncated to pregnancies that survived beyond 20 gestational weeks. We found evidence of marginal downward bias, which was most prominent for women aged 40 + years. Overall, we conclude that the magnitude of bias due to left truncation is minimal in the association between advanced maternal age and stillbirth.

Impact of Chronic Exposure to Endometriosis on Perinatal Outcomes: Establishment of a Mouse Model

The purpose of this study was to establish a new mouse model of endometriosis that mimics real-world women’s health problems, in which women continue to be affected by endometriosis long before they wish to become pregnant, and to evaluate the impact of “chronic exposure to endometriosis” on perinatal outcome. Endometriosis was established by the intraperitoneal injection of homologous minced mouse uteri. Vehicle was injected for the control. Mating was initiated either 1 or 43 days after disease establishment (Young or Aged studies, respectively). Mice were sacrificed on 18 dpc. The number pups and resorptions were counted and pups’ body weights (BW) were measured, and the endometriosis lesion was identified and weighted. In the Young study, the number of resorptions and BW were comparable between the groups. In the Aged study, the number of resorptions was significantly higher and BW was significantly lower in endometriosis than that in control. The total weight of endometriosis lesion per dam was significantly lower in the Aged compared to the Young endometriosis group; however, not a single mouse was found to have any lesions at all. These results suggest that in addition to the presence of endometriosis per se, “chronic exposure to endometriosis” prior to pregnancy affect perinatal outcomes.

Development, validation and clinical utility of a risk prediction model for adverse pregnancy outcomes in women with gestational diabetes: The PeRSonal GDM model

BACKGROUND

The ability to calculate the absolute risk of adverse pregnancy outcomes for an individual woman with gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) would allow preventative and therapeutic interventions to be delivered to women at high-risk, sparing women at low-risk from unnecessary care. We aimed to develop, validate and evaluate the clinical utility of a prediction model for adverse pregnancy outcomes in women with GDM.

METHODS

A prediction model development and validation study was conducted on data from a observational cohort. Participants included all women with GDM from three metropolitan tertiary teaching hospitals in Melbourne, Australia. The development cohort comprised those who delivered between 1 July 2017 to 30 June 2018 and the validation cohort those who delivered between 1 July 2018 to 31 December 2018. The main outcome was a composite of critically important maternal and perinatal complications (hypertensive disorders of pregnancy, large-for-gestational age neonate, neonatal hypoglycaemia requiring intravenous therapy, shoulder dystocia, perinatal death, neonatal bone fracture and nerve palsy). Model performance was measured in terms of discrimination and calibration and clinical utility evaluated using decision curve analysis.

FINDINGS

The final PeRSonal (Prediction for Risk Stratified care for women with GDM) model included body mass index, maternal age, fasting and 1-hour glucose values (75-g oral glucose tolerance test), gestational age at GDM diagnosis, Southern and Central Asian ethnicity, East Asian ethnicity, nulliparity, past delivery of an large-for-gestational age neonate, past pre-eclampsia, GWG until GDM diagnosis, and family history of diabetes. The composite adverse pregnancy outcome occurred in 27% (476/1747) of women in the development (1747 women) and in 26% (244/955) in the validation (955 women) cohorts. The model showed excellent calibration with slope of 0.99 (95% CI 0.75 to 1.23) and acceptable discrimination (c-statistic 0.68; 95% CI 0.64 to 0.72) when temporally validated. Decision curve analysis demonstrated that the model was useful across a range of predicted probability thresholds between 0.15 and 0.85 for adverse pregnancy outcomes compared to the alternatives of managing all women with GDM as if they will or will not have an adverse pregnancy outcome.

INTERPRETATION

The PeRSonal GDM model comprising of routinely available clinical data shows compelling performance, is transportable across time, and has clinical utility across a range of predicted probabilities. Further external validation of the model to a more disparate population is now needed to assess the generalisability to different centres, community based care and low resource settings, other healthcare systems and to different GDM diagnostic criteria.

FUNDING

This work is supported by the Mothers and Gestational Diabetes in Australia 2 NHMRC funded project #1170847.

Associations between maternal mid-pregnancy apolipoprotein A-1, apolipoprotein B, apolipoprotein B/apolipoprotein A-1 ratio and preterm birth

BACKGROUND AND AIMS

Elevated lipid levels during pregnancy have been shown to be related to the risk of preterm birth. Despite the importance of apolipoprotein (Apo) in lipid metabolism and transportation, evidence regarding apolipoprotein levels during pregnancy and preterm birth is still limited. Therefore, we aim to investigate the associations between maternal ApoA-1, ApoB, ApoB/ApoA-1 ratio and preterm birth.

MATERIALS AND METH

Data were extracted from the information system of Guangdong Women and Children Hospital. Lipoprotein levels were tested using Beckman Coulter AU5800 in mid-pregnancy at a median gestational age of 18 w. Maternal serum ApoB, ApoA-1 and ApoB/ApoA-1 ratio were categorized into tertiles. Logistic regression models were performed to evaluate the odds ratios and 95% confidence intervals for preterm birth.

RESULTS

A total of 5,986 maternal-newborn pairs were included in this study. The rate of preterm birth was 5.7% (n = 344). The multivariate-adjusted ORs (95% CI) of preterm birth were 1.51 (1.06, 2.10) for individuals with high ApoB (>90th), 0.63 (0.38, 0.99) for those with low ApoB (<10th), and 1.64 (1.18, 2.24) for those with high ApoB/ApoA-1 (>90th). Subgroup analyses showed that the association of ApoB and preterm birth was only significant among women with pre-pregnancy BMI 18.5-24 kg/m² (OR = 1.36, 95% CI: 1.12-1.65), age at delivery ≥ 35 years (OR = 1.43, 95% CI: 1.12-1.83).

CONCLUSION

Elevated maternal ApoB level and ApoB/ApoA-1 ratio during mid-pregnancy were related to increased risk of preterm birth. Monitoring maternal serum apolipoprotein levels may help to identify the high-risk population of preterm birth.

Effect of advanced parental age on pregnancy outcome and offspring health

PURPOSE

Fertility at advanced age has become increasingly common, but the aging of parents may adversely affect the maturation of gametes and the development of embryos, and therefore the effects of aging are likely to be transmitted to the next generation. This article reviewed the studies in this field in recent years.

METHODS

We searched the relevant literature in recent years with the keywords of "advanced maternal/paternal age" combined with "adverse pregnancy outcome" or "birth defect" in the PubMed database and classified the effects of parental advanced age on pregnancy outcomes and birth defects. Related studies on the effect of advanced age on birth defects were classified as chromosomal abnormalities, neurological and psychiatric disorders, and other systemic diseases. The effect of assisted reproduction technology (ART) on fertility in advanced age was also discussed.

RESULTS

Differences in the definition of the range of advanced age and other confounding factors among studies were excluded, most studies believed that advanced parental age would affect pregnancy outcomes and birth defects in offspring.

CONCLUSION

To some extent, advanced parental age caused adverse pregnancy outcomes and birth defects. The occurrence of these results was related to the molecular genetic changes caused by aging, such as gene mutations, epigenetic variations, etc. Any etiology of adverse pregnancy outcomes and birth defects related to aging might be more than one. The detrimental effect of advanced age can be corrected to some extent by ART.

Processed Dietary Patterns during Pregnancy Are Associated with Low Birth Weight at Term among Women of Advanced and Non-Advanced Age

Inappropriate dietary intake during pregnancy is a key factor in low birth weight (LBW). This study compares LBW between healthy and processed dietary patterns by focusing on women of advanced maternal age. A cross-sectional survey was conducted with 327 postpartum women in Taiwan. The participants were assigned to two groups according to their age (≥35 years, n = 151; and 20−34 years, n = 176). An online questionnaire asked women how often they consumed 27 food items during their pregnancy. The prevalence of LBW was higher in the processed dietary pattern (79.3%) than in the healthy pattern (13.78%, p < 0.001). LBW was positively correlated with advanced maternal age (≥35 ages), low pre-pregnancy weight (BMI less than 18.5 kg/m2), insufficient gestational weight gain (GWG), and processed dietary patterns. Older mothers were 5.8 times more likely to have infants with LBW (odds ratio = 5.8; 95% confidence interval 2.0−16.6). A processed dietary pattern was 9.4 times more likely to result in LBW. Insufficient GWG was significantly positively associated with LBW (OR = 4.0; 95%CI 1.4−11.6). Maternal diet during pregnancy is an important modifiable factor for LBW. Prenatal advice should emphasize optimal nutrition, especially in older and underweight women.

Association of fetal sex with angiogenic factors in normotensive and hypertensive pregnancy states

OBJECTIVES

With the incorporation of angiogenic biomarkers into clinical practice, identification of potential modifiers of the angiogenic profile, including fetal sex, is essential.

STUDY DESIGN

In this retrospective cohort analysis, patients with hypertensive disorders of pregnancy (HDP) and normotensive pregnancies were enrolled upon admission to Labor and Delivery. Blood samples for angiogenic factors were assessed using an automated platform. Clinical and demographic information was abstracted from each patient's medical records.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES

Soluble fms-like tyrosine kinase-1 (sFlt1) and placental growth factor (PlGF) levels and their ratio in relation to fetal sex in patients with normotensive pregnancies compared to those with HDP were evaluated.

RESULTS

A total of 617 patients were analyzed (299 normotensive, 113 gestational hypertensive, 71 chronic hypertensive, and 134 preeclamptic patients). There was no difference between the number of patients who had a male fetus among preeclampsia and normotensive parturients (56.0 % vs 50.2 %, p = 0.26). Normotensive patients carrying a male fetus had significantly higher sFlt1 (pg/ml) (3168 [IQR: 2160-4945] vs 2678 [IQR: 1752-4271]; p = 0.01) and sFlt1/PlGF ratios (18 [IQR: 7-44] vs 12 [IQR: 5-30]; p = 0.01) in comparison to pregnant patients carrying a female fetus. This difference between fetal sexes was not observed in the angiogenic profile of patients with HDP.

CONCLUSIONS

Our study of primarily Black, obese patients demonstrates that normotensive patients carrying a male fetus have a significantly higher sFlt1 and sFlt1/PlGF ratio as compared to those carrying a female fetus at term gestation. Fetal sex should be considered as a covariate when studying angiogenic factors in normotensive pregnant patients.

The Effect of Tauroursodeoxycholic Acid (TUDCA) Treatment on Pregnancy Outcomes and Vascular Function in a Rat Model of Advanced Maternal Age

Advanced maternal age (≥35 years) increases the risk of vascular complications in pregnancy that can result in fetal growth restriction and preeclampsia. Endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress has been linked to adverse pregnancy outcomes in these complicated pregnancies. However, the role of ER stress in advanced maternal age is not known. We hypothesize that increased ER stress contributes to altered vascular function and poor pregnancy outcomes, and that treatment with the ER-stress inhibitor TUDCA will improve pregnancy outcomes. First, young and aged non-pregnant/pregnant rats were used to assess ER stress markers in mesenteric arteries; mesenteric artery phospho-eIF2α and CHOP expression were increased in aged dams compared to young dams. In a second study, young and aged control and TUDCA-treated dams were studied on gestational day (GD) 20 (term = 22 days). TUDCA treatment was provided via the drinking water throughout pregnancy (GD0-GD20; calculated dose of 150 mg/kg/day TUDCA). ER stress markers were quantified in mesenteric arteries, blood pressure was measured, pregnancy outcomes were recorded, mesenteric and main uterine arteries were isolated and vascular function was assessed by wire myography. Aged dams had increased phospho-eIF2α and CHOP expression, reduced fetal weight, reduced litter size, and impaired uterine artery relaxation. In the aged dams, TUDCA treatment reduced phospho-eIF2α and CHOP expression, reduced blood pressure, improved fetal body weight, and tended to improve uterine artery function compared to control-treated aged dams. In conclusion, our data illustrate the role of ER stress, as well as TUDCA as a potential therapeutic that may benefit pregnancy outcomes in advanced maternal age.

Pregnancy After Sleeve Gastrectomy: Time Matters?

PURPOSE

Obesity has an especial implication for women of childbearing age because of a higher risk of adverse outcomes during pregnancy and labor. This report aimed to analyze complications of pregnancy after sleeve gastrectomy (SG) concerning the time after surgery.

METHODS

A retrospective descriptive-analytical study was conducted including women of childbearing age who underwent sleeve gastrectomy (SG) from 2006 to 2017. Patients were divided into two groups regarding the time elapsed from SG to pregnancy: less than and greater than one year (group A /group B, respectively).

RESULTS

During the studied time, 51 pregnancies with complete clinical records were found. The mean weight and gestational age (GA) of the newborn (NB) were normal. The mean time from surgery to pregnancy was 30.4 ± 21 months. Patients from Group A and B presented 28.6% and 16.7% respectively of preterm NB (p = 0.5). Group A registered no low birth weight (LBW) babies (3.0 ± 0.4 kg) with a GA of 37.2 ± 2.1 weeks, while in Group B, 8.6% of NB were at LBW 2.1 ± 0.1 kg and GA of 33.3 ± 3.8 weeks (p = NS).

CONCLUSION

After SG, no differences in terms of maternal and neonatal complications were found concerning the time between surgery and pregnancy.

The effects of gestational diabetes mellitus with maternal age between 35 and 40 years on the metabolite profiles of plasma and urine

Background

Gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) is defined as impaired glucose tolerance in pregnancy and without a history of diabetes mellitus. While there are limited metabolomic studies involving advanced maternal age in China, we aim to investigate the metabolomic profiling of plasma and urine in pregnancies complicated with GDM aged at 35–40 years at early and late gestation.

Methods

Twenty normal and 20 GDM pregnant participants (≥ 35 years old) were enlisted from the Complex Lipids in Mothers and Babies (CLIMB) study. Maternal plasma and urine collected at the first and third trimester were detected using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS).

Results

One hundred sixty-five metabolites and 192 metabolites were found in plasma and urine respectively. Urine metabolomic profiles were incapable to distinguish GDM from controls, in comparison, there were 14 and 39 significantly different plasma metabolites between the two groups in first and third trimester respectively. Especially, by integrating seven metabolites including cysteine, malonic acid, alanine, 11,14-eicosadienoic acid, stearic acid, arachidic acid, and 2-methyloctadecanoic acid using multivariant receiver operating characteristic models, we were capable of discriminating GDM from normal pregnancies with an area under curve of 0.928 at first trimester.

Conclusion

This study explores metabolomic profiles between GDM and normal pregnancies at the age of 35–40 years longitudinally. Several compounds have the potential to be biomarkers to predict GDM with advanced maternal age. Moreover, the discordant metabolome profiles between the two groups could be useful to understand the etiology of GDM with advanced maternal age.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12884-022-04416-5.

The Pivotal Role of the Placenta in Normal and Pathological Pregnancies: A Focus on Preeclampsia, Fetal Growth Restriction, and Maternal Chronic Venous Disease

The placenta is a central structure in pregnancy and has pleiotropic functions. This organ grows incredibly rapidly during this period, acting as a mastermind behind different fetal and maternal processes. The relevance of the placenta extends far beyond the pregnancy, being crucial for fetal programming before birth. Having integrative knowledge of this maternofetal structure helps significantly in understanding the development of pregnancy either in a proper or pathophysiological context. Thus, the aim of this review is to summarize the main features of the placenta, with a special focus on its early development, cytoarchitecture, immunology, and functions in non-pathological conditions. In contraposition, the role of the placenta is examined in preeclampsia, a worrisome hypertensive disorder of pregnancy, in order to describe the pathophysiological implications of the placenta in this disease. Likewise, dysfunction of the placenta in fetal growth restriction, a major consequence of preeclampsia, is also discussed, emphasizing the potential clinical strategies derived. Finally, the emerging role of the placenta in maternal chronic venous disease either as a causative agent or as a consequence of the disease is equally treated.

Inequalities in Birth Weight in Relation to Maternal Factors: A Population-Based Study of 3,813,757 Live Births

Background: Despite numerous studies of women having children later in life, evidence of the relationship between maternal factors and newborn outcomes in Central and Eastern European countries is limited. This study aimed to examine the association between maternal age, biological determinants, including parity and sex of the newborn, demographic and social background, and birth weight in 3.8 million singleton live births in Poland. Methods: The effect of maternal age on birth weight (in grams and Z-scores) adjusted for confounders was assessed using Generalized Linear Models. Results: The mean (±SD) birth weights of neonates born to primiparous women and multiparous women were 3356.3 ± 524.9 g and 3422.7 ± 538.6 g, respectively, which corresponded to a Z-score of −0.07 ± 0.96 and 0.14 ± 1.00, respectively (p ≤ 0.001). After controlling for biological, demographic, and social factors, a significant decrease in birth weight was found for primiparous women of the age group ≥30 years and multiparous women aged ≥35 years compared to the age group of 25–29 years. The lowest neonatal birth weight was observed in the case of women aged ≥45 years. Confounders did not affect birth weight Z-scores among primiparous women, whereas among multiparous women, together with educational factors, they reversed Z-scores from positive to negative values. The lower birth weight of neonates was overall associated with lower maternal education. Conclusions: Regardless of parity, advanced maternal age is strongly associated with a decreased neonatal birth weight, implying complications in early pregnancy and the antenatal period as well as obstetric complications. Counseling to support women’s family planning decisions and improving women’s education during their reproductive age may help to alleviate unfavorable newborn outcomes.

The Impact of Maternal Age on the Neonatal Electrocardiogram

BACKGROUND

Previous studies have suggested an increased prevalence of congenital heart disease among children born to women aged ≥35 years. In recent decades, the mother's age at childbirth has increased dramatically in industrialized countries. It has not been investigated if increasing maternal age affects the neonatal cardiac electrical system.

METHODS

The Copenhagen Baby Heart Study is a prospective general population study that performed cardiac evaluation in newborns. Electrocardiograms were analyzed with a computerized algorithm.

RESULTS

We included 16,518 newborns with normal echocardiograms (median age 11 days; range 0-30 days; 52% boys). Median maternal age at delivery was 31 years; 790 newborns were born to mothers aged between 16 and 24 years, 11,403 between 25 and 34 years, 4,279 between 35 and 44 years, and 46 newborns had mothers aged between 45 and 54 years. The QRS axis and maximum R-wave amplitude in V1 (R-V1) differed across the four maternal age groups (both p < 0.01), with absolute differences of 3.5% (114 vs. 110°) and 12% (1,152 vs. 1,015 µV), respectively, between newborns with the youngest and oldest mothers. Associations between maternal age and the QRS axis and R-V1 remained significant after multifactorial adjustment. Heart rate, PR interval, QRS duration, uncorrected QT interval, QTcBazett, and maximum amplitudes of S-V1, R-V6, and S-V6 were not associated with maternal age (all p > 0.05).

CONCLUSION

We observed a significant association between maternal age and the neonatal QRS axis and R-V1. However, the absolute differences were relatively small and maternal age is unlikely to have a clinically significant effect on the neonatal cardiac electrical system.

Risk of Recurrent Stillbirth in Subsequent Pregnancies

OBJECTIVE

To compare the prospective risk of stillbirth between women with and without a stillbirth in their first pregnancy.

METHODS

We conducted a cohort study using perinatal data from Finland, Malta, and Scotland. Women who had at least two singleton deliveries were included. The exposed and unexposed cohorts comprised women with a stillbirth and live birth in their first pregnancy, respectively. The risk of stillbirth in any subsequent pregnancy was assessed using a Cox proportional hazards model. Time-to-event analyses were conducted to investigate whether first pregnancy outcome had an effect on time to or the number of pregnancies preceding subsequent stillbirth.

RESULTS

The pooled data set included 1,064,564 women, 6,288 (0.59%) with a stillbirth and 1,058,276 with a live birth in a first pregnancy. Compared with women with a live birth, women with a stillbirth in the first pregnancy were more likely to have a subsequent stillbirth (adjusted hazard ratio [aHR] 2.25, 95% CI 1.86-2.72). For women with more than two pregnancies, the difference in risk of subsequent stillbirth between the two groups increased with the number of subsequent pregnancies. Maternal age younger than 25 years or 40 years and older, smoking, low socioeconomic status, not having a partner, pre-existing diabetes, preeclampsia, placental abruption, or delivery of a growth-restricted neonate in a first pregnancy were independently associated with subsequent stillbirth. Compared with women with a live birth in the first pregnancy, women with a stillbirth were more likely to have another pregnancy within 1 year. The absolute risk of stillbirth in a subsequent pregnancy for women with stillbirth and live birth in a first pregnancy were 2.5% and 0.5%, respectively.

CONCLUSION

Compared with women with a live birth in a first pregnancy, women with a stillbirth have a higher risk of subsequent stillbirth irrespective of the number and sequence of the pregnancies. Despite high relative risk, the absolute risk of recurrence was low.

A prospective cohort study providing insights for markers of adverse pregnancy outcome in older mothers

Background

Advanced maternal age (≥35 years) is associated with increased rates of adverse pregnancy outcome. Better understanding of underlying pathophysiological processes may improve identification of older mothers who are at greatest risk. This study aimed to investigate changes in oxidative stress and inflammation in older women and identify clinical and biochemical predictors of adverse pregnancy outcome in older women.

Methods

The Manchester Advanced Maternal Age Study (MAMAS) was a multicentre, observational, prospective cohort study of 528 mothers. Participants were divided into three age groups for comparison 20–30 years (n = 154), 35–39 years (n = 222) and ≥ 40 years (n = 152). Demographic and medical data were collected along with maternal blood samples at 28 and 36 weeks’ gestation. Multivariable analysis was conducted to identify variables associated with adverse outcome, defined as one or more of: small for gestational age (< 10th centile), FGR (<5th centile), stillbirth, NICU admission, preterm birth < 37 weeks’ gestation or Apgar score < 7 at 5 min. Biomarkers of inflammation, oxidative stress and placental dysfunction were quantified in maternal serum. Univariate and multivariable logistic regression was used to identify associations with adverse fetal outcome.

Results

Maternal smoking was associated with adverse outcome irrespective of maternal age (Adjusted Odds Ratio (AOR) 4.22, 95% Confidence Interval (95%CI) 1.83, 9.75), whereas multiparity reduced the odds (AOR 0.54, 95% CI 0.33, 0.89). In uncomplicated pregnancies in older women, lower circulating anti-inflammatory IL-10, IL-RA and increased antioxidant capacity (TAC) were seen. In older mothers with adverse outcome, TAC and oxidative stress markers were increased and levels of maternal circulating placental hormones (hPL, PlGF and sFlt-1) were reduced (p < 0.05). However, these biomarkers only had modest predictive accuracy, with the largest area under the receiver operator characteristic (AUROC) of 0.74 for placental growth factor followed by TAC (AUROC = 0.69).

Conclusions

This study identified alterations in circulating inflammatory and oxidative stress markers in older women with adverse outcome providing preliminary evidence of mechanistic links. Further, larger studies are required to determine if these markers can be developed into a predictive model of an individual older woman’s risk of adverse pregnancy outcome, enabling a reduction in stillbirth rates whilst minimising unnecessary intervention.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12884-021-04178-6.

Evidence around early induction of labor in women of advanced maternal age and those using assisted reproductive technology

Worldwide, there has been a trend toward later motherhood. Concurrently, the incidence of subfertility has been on the rise, necessitating conception using assisted reproductive technologies (ARTs). These pregnancies are considered high risk due to fetal complications such as antepartum stillbirth and growth restriction and maternal complications such as increase in maternal morbidity and mortality. Early induction of labor can help to mitigate these risks. However, this has to be balanced against the iatrogenic harms of earlier delivery to both the baby, including respiratory distress and NICU stay, and the mother who might experience longer labor and other complications such as uterine hyperstimulation. Induction of labor at 39 weeks is the optimal timing for preventing antepartum stillbirth and avoiding iatrogenic harm. Delivery by elective cesarean section is not advocated as its benefits in these patients are unclear compared with the short- and long-term complications of a major abdominal surgery.

APPLAUSE: Automatic Prediction of PLAcental health via U-net Segmentation and statistical Evaluation

PURPOSE

Artificial-intelligence population-based automated quantification of placental maturation and health from a rapid functional Magnetic Resonance scan. The placenta plays a crucial role for any successful human pregnancy. Deviations from the normal dynamic maturation throughout gestation are closely linked to major pregnancy complications. Antenatal assessment in-vivo using T2* relaxometry has shown great promise to inform management and possible interventions but clinical translation is hampered by time consuming manual segmentation and analysis techniques based on comparison against normative curves over gestation.

METHODS

This study proposes a fully automatic pipeline to predict the biological age and health of the placenta based on a free-breathing rapid (sub-30 second) T2* scan in two steps: Automatic segmentation using a U-Net and a Gaussian process regression model to characterize placental maturation and health. These are trained and evaluated on 108 3T MRI placental data sets, the evaluation included 20 high-risk pregnancies diagnosed with pre-eclampsia and/or fetal growth restriction. An independent cohort imaged at 1.5 T is used to assess the generalization of the training and evaluation pipeline.

RESULTS

Across low- and high-risk groups, automatic segmentation performs worse than inter-rater performance (mean Dice coefficients of 0.58 and 0.68, respectively) but is sufficient for estimating placental mean T2* (0.986 Pearson Correlation Coefficient). The placental health prediction achieves an excellent ability to differentiate cases of placental insufficiency between 27 and 33 weeks. High abnormality scores correlate with low birth weight, premature birth and histopathological findings. Retrospective application on a different cohort imaged at 1.5 T illustrates the ability for direct clinical translation.

CONCLUSION

The presented automatic pipeline facilitates a fast, robust and reliable prediction of placental maturation. It yields human-interpretable and verifiable intermediate results and quantifies uncertainties on the cohort-level and for individual predictions. The proposed machine-learning pipeline runs in close to real-time and, deployed in clinical settings, has the potential to become a cornerstone of diagnosis and intervention of placental insufficiency. APPLAUSE generalizes to an independent cohort imaged at 1.5 T, demonstrating robustness to different operational and clinical environments.

Altered Vascular Adaptations to Pregnancy in a Rat Model of Advanced Maternal Age

Advanced maternal age (≥35 years old) increases the risk of pregnancy complications such as preeclampsia and fetal growth restriction. We previously demonstrated vascular dysfunction and abnormal pregnancy outcomes in a rat model of advanced maternal age. However, vascular adaptations to pregnancy in aging were not studied. We hypothesize that advanced maternal age is associated with a more vasoconstrictive phenotype due to reduced nitric oxide (NO) and increased activity of matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs), contributing to impaired vascular adaptations to pregnancy. A rat model of advanced maternal age was used: young (4 months) and aged (9.5 months; ∼35 years in humans) non-pregnant and pregnant rats. On gestational day 20 (term = 22 days; non-pregnant rats were aged-matched), blood pressure and heart rate were measured (tail cuff plethysmography) and vascular function was assessed in mesenteric arteries (wire myography). Endothelium-dependent relaxation to methylcholine (MCh) was assessed in the presence/absence of nitric oxide synthase inhibitor (L-NAME), or inhibitors of endothelium-dependent hyperpolarization (EDH; apamin and TRAM-34). Vasoconstriction responses to big endothelin-1 (bigET-1), in the presence/absence of MMPs-inhibitor (GM6001) or endothelin converting enzyme (ECE-1) inhibitor (CGS35066), in addition, ET-1 responsiveness, were measured. Blood pressure was elevated only in aged non-pregnant rats (p < 0.001) compared to all other groups. MCh responses were not different, however, L-NAME decreased maximum vasodilation in young (p < 0.01) and aged pregnant rats (p < 0.001), and decreased MCh sensitivity in young non-pregnant rats (p < 0.01), without effects in aged non-pregnant rats. EDH contribution to relaxation was similar in young non-pregnant, and aged non-pregnant and pregnant rats, while EDH-mediated relaxation was absent in young pregnant rats (p < 0.001). BigET-1 responses were enhanced in aged non-pregnant (p < 0.01) and pregnant rats (p < 0.05). No significant changes in bigET-1 conversion occurred in the presence of MMP-inhibitor, whereas ECE-1 inhibition reduced bigET-1 constriction in aged rats (p < 0.01). No differences in ET-1 sensitivity were observed. In conclusion, contrary to our hypothesis, reduced blood pressure, and an increased EDH-dependent contribution to vasodilation suggest a compensatory mechanism that may reflect beneficial adaptations in these aged rats that were able to maintain pregnancy. These data increase our understanding of how the vascular adaptive pathways in pregnancy compensate for advanced maternal age.

Advanced maternal age induces fetal growth restriction through decreased placental inflammatory cytokine expression and immune cell accumulation in mice

Advanced maternal age is a risk factor for female infertility, and placental dysfunction is considered one of the causes of pregnancy complications. We investigated the effects of advanced maternal aging on pregnancy outcomes and placental senescence. Female pregnant mice were separated into three groups: young (3 months old), middle (8–9 months old), and aged (11–13 months old). Although the body weights of young and middle dams gradually increased during pregnancy, the body weight of aged dams only increased slightly. The placental weight and resorption rate were significantly higher, and live fetal weights were reduced in a maternal age-dependent manner. Although mRNA expression of senescence regulatory factors (p16 and p21) increased in the spleen of aged dams, mRNA expression of p16 did not change and that of p21 was reduced in the placenta of aged dams. Using a cytokine array of proteins extracted from placental tissues, the expression of various types of senescence-associated secretory phenotype (SASP) factors was decreased in aged dams compared with young and middle dams. The aged maternal placenta showed reduced immune cell accumulation compared with the young placenta. Our present results suggest that models using pregnant mice older than 8 months are more suitable for verifying older human pregnancies. These findings suggest that general cellular senescence programs may not be included in the placenta and that placental functions, including SASP production and immune cell accumulation, gradually decrease in a maternal age-dependent manner, resulting in a higher rate of pregnancy complications.

Senescent Changes and Endoplasmic Reticulum Stress May Be Involved in the Pathogenesis of Missed Miscarriage

Background

Senescence is involved in many complications of pregnancy. However, whether senescent changes are also associated with missed miscarriage has not been fully investigated.

Methods

The levels of p16, p21, and γH2AX, markers of senescence, were measured in placentas collected from women with missed miscarriage by immunohistochemistry and Western blotting. Levels of misfolded proteins in missed miscarriage placentas or normal first-trimester placenta that had been treated with H₂O₂ (100 μM) or extracellular vesicles (EVs) collected from missed miscarriage placental explant culture were measured by fluorescent compound, thioflavin-T. The production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) by missed miscarriage placentas was measured by CellROX^® Deep Red.

Results

Increased levels of p16, p21, and γH2AX were presented in missed miscarriage placentas compared to controls. Increased levels of misfolded proteins were shown in missed miscarriage placentas, but not in EVs that were collected from missed miscarriage placentas. The ROS production was significantly increased in missed miscarriage placental explant cultures. Increased levels of misfolded proteins were seen in the normal first-trimester placenta that had been treated with H₂O₂ compared to untreated.

Conclusion

Our data demonstrate that there are increases in senescence and endoplasmic reticulum stress and ROS production in missed miscarriage placenta. Oxidative stress and an accumulation of misfolded proteins in missed miscarriage placentas may contribute to the changes of senescence and endoplasmic reticulum stress seen in missed miscarriage placentas.

Current approaches and developments in transcript profiling of the human placenta

BACKGROUND

The placenta is the active interface between mother and foetus, bearing the molecular marks of rapid development and exposures in utero. The placenta is routinely discarded at delivery, providing a valuable resource to explore maternal-offspring health and disease in pregnancy. Genome-wide profiling of the human placental transcriptome provides an unbiased approach to study normal maternal–placental–foetal physiology and pathologies.

OBJECTIVE AND RATIONALE

To date, many studies have examined the human placental transcriptome, but often within a narrow focus. This review aims to provide a comprehensive overview of human placental transcriptome studies, encompassing those from the cellular to tissue levels and contextualize current findings from a broader perspective. We have consolidated studies into overarching themes, summarized key research findings and addressed important considerations in study design, as a means to promote wider data sharing and support larger meta-analysis of already available data and greater collaboration between researchers in order to fully capitalize on the potential of transcript profiling in future studies.

SEARCH METHODS

The PubMed database, National Center for Biotechnology Information and European Bioinformatics Institute dataset repositories were searched, to identify all relevant human studies using ‘placenta’, ‘decidua’, ‘trophoblast’, ‘transcriptome’, ‘microarray’ and ‘RNA sequencing’ as search terms until May 2019. Additional studies were found from bibliographies of identified studies.

OUTCOMES

The 179 identified studies were classifiable into four broad themes: healthy placental development, pregnancy complications, exposures during pregnancy and in vitro placental cultures. The median sample size was 13 (interquartile range 8–29). Transcriptome studies prior to 2015 were predominantly performed using microarrays, while RNA sequencing became the preferred choice in more recent studies. Development of fluidics technology, combined with RNA sequencing, has enabled transcript profiles to be generated of single cells throughout pregnancy, in contrast to previous studies relying on isolated cells. There are several key study aspects, such as sample selection criteria, sample processing and data analysis methods that may represent pitfalls and limitations, which need to be carefully considered as they influence interpretation of findings and conclusions. Furthermore, several areas of growing importance, such as maternal mental health and maternal obesity are understudied and the profiling of placentas from these conditions should be prioritized.

WIDER IMPLICATIONS

Integrative analysis of placental transcriptomics with other ‘omics’ (methylome, proteome and metabolome) and linkage with future outcomes from longitudinal studies is crucial in enhancing knowledge of healthy placental development and function, and in enabling the underlying causal mechanisms of pregnancy complications to be identified. Such understanding could help in predicting risk of future adversity and in designing interventions that can improve the health outcomes of both mothers and their offspring. Wider collaboration and sharing of placental transcriptome data, overcoming the challenges in obtaining sufficient numbers of quality samples with well-defined clinical characteristics, and dedication of resources to understudied areas of pregnancy will undoubtedly help drive the field forward.

The cumulative impact of parity on the body mass index (BMI) in a non-selected Lower Saxony population

OBJECTIVES

During the last decade obesity has been continuously rising in adults in industrial countries. The increased occurrence of perinatal complications caused by maternal obesity poses a major challenge for obstetricians during pregnancy and childbirth. This study aims to examine the association between parity, pregnancy, birth risks, and body mass index (BMI) of women from Lower Saxony, Germany.

METHODS

This retrospective cohort study examined pseudonymized data of a non-selected singleton cohort from Lower Saxony's statewide quality assurance initiative. Mothers were categorized according to BMI as normal weight (18.5 to <25 kg/m²) or obese (≥30 kg/m²).

RESULTS

Most of the mothers in this study population were either in their first (33.9%) or second pregnancy (43.4%). The mean age of women giving birth for the first time was 28.3 years. Maternal age increased with increasing parity. The proportion of pregnant women with a BMI over 30 was 11% in primiparous women, 14.3% in second para, 17.3% in third para and 24.1% in fourth para or more women. Increasing parity was positively correlated with the incidence of classical diseases related to obesity, namely diabetes mellitus, gestational diabetes, hypertension, pregnancy-related hypertension and urinary protein excretion. An increased risk of primary or secondary cesarean section was observed in the obese women, particularly during the first deliveries.

CONCLUSIONS

There is a positive and significant correlation between parity and increased maternal BMI. The highest weight gain happens during the first pregnancy. The rate of operative deliveries and complications during delivery is increased in obese pregnant women.

A retrospective review of clinical and non-clinical factors associated with unscheduled cesarean deliveries at one urban medical center

OBJECTIVE

To investigate factors associated with unscheduled cesarean delivery at one urban tertiary medical center.

METHODS

A retrospective chart review was performed on 11 162 deliveries between 2009 and 2019. The dependent variable was unscheduled cesarean delivery. Covariates examined included time of delivery, as well as several maternal and pregnancy-related factors.

RESULTS

There were a total of 7037 (63.1%) vaginal, 1133 (10.1%) elective cesarean, and 2992 (26.8%) unscheduled cesarean deliveries. Independent factors associated with increased odds for unscheduled cesarean delivery included daytime delivery (odds ratio [OR] 1.29, 95% confidence interval [CI] 1.18-1.42, P < 0.001); advanced maternal age (OR 1.40, 95% CI 1.26-1.56, P < 0.001); obesity (OR 1.04, 95% CI 1.03-1.05, P < 0.001); history of previous cesarean delivery (OR 2.77, 95% CI 1.91-4.01, P < 0.001); hypertension (OR 1.72, 95% CI 1.27-2.32, P < 0.001); multiparity (OR 3.99, 95% CI 2.82-5.64, P < 0.001); pre-eclampsia (OR 1.96, 95% CI 1.33-2.89, P = 0.001); and HELLP (hemolysis, elevated liver enzymes and low platelet count) syndrome (OR 5.45, 95% CI 1.13-26.28, P = 0.035).

CONCLUSION

Factors associated with unscheduled cesarean delivery in this study cohort included daytime delivery, advanced maternal age, obesity, hypertension, previous cesarean delivery, multiparity, preterm labor, pre-eclampsia, and HELLP syndrome.

Differential impact of antiretroviral therapy initiated before or during pregnancy on placenta pathology in HIV-positive women

OBJECTIVE

To examine the association between timing of antiretroviral treatment (ART) initiation in HIV-infected women and placental histopathology.

DESIGN

A nested substudy in a larger cohort of HIV-infected women which examined the association between ART status and birth outcomes.

METHODS

Placentas (n = 130) were examined for histopathology from two ART groups: stable (n = 53), who initiated ART before conception and initiating (n = 77), who started ART during pregnancy [median (interquartile range) 15 weeks gestation (11-18)]. Using binomial regression we quantified associations between ART initiation timing with placental histopathology and pregnancy outcomes.

RESULTS

One-third of all placentas were less than 10th percentile weight-for-gestation and there was no significant difference between ART groups. Placental diameter, thickness, cord insertion position and foetal-placental weight ratio were also similar by group. However, placentas from the stable group showed increased maternal vascular malperfusion (MVM) (39.6 vs. 19.4%), and decreased weight (392 vs. 422 g, P = 0.09). MVM risk was twice as high [risk ratios 2.03 (95% confidence interval: 1.16-3.57); P = 0.01] in the stable group; the increased risk remaining significant when adjusting for maternal age [risk ratios 2.04 (95% confidence interval: 1.12-3.72); P = 0.02]. Furthermore, MVM was significantly associated with preterm delivery and low birth weight (P = 0.002 and <0.0001, respectively).

CONCLUSION

Preconception initiation of ART was associated with an increased MVM risk, and may contribute to placental dysfunction. The association between MVM with preterm delivery and low birth weight suggests that a placenta-mediated mechanism likely links the putative association between long-term use of ART and adverse birth outcomes.

Hypoxia and oxidative stress induce sterile placental inflammation in vitro

Fetal growth restriction (FGR) and stillbirth are associated with placental dysfunction and inflammation and hypoxia, oxidative and nitrative stress are implicated in placental damage. Damage-associated molecular patterns (DAMPs) are elevated in pregnancies at increased risk of FGR and stillbirth and are associated with increase in pro-inflammatory placental cytokines. We hypothesised that placental insults lead to release of DAMPs, promoting placental inflammation. Placental tissue from uncomplicated pregnancies was exposed in vitro to hypoxia, oxidative or nitrative stress. Tissue production and release of DAMPs and cytokines was determined. Oxidative stress and hypoxia caused differential release of DAMPs including uric acid, HMGB1, S100A8, cell-free fetal DNA, S100A12 and HSP70. After oxidative stress pro-inflammatory cytokines (IL-1α, IL-1β, IL-6, IL-8, TNFα, CCL2) were increased both within explants and in conditioned culture medium. Hypoxia increased tissue IL-1α/β, IL-6, IL-8 and TNFα levels, and release of IL-1α, IL-6 and IL-8, whereas CCL2 and IL-10 were reduced. IL1 receptor antagonist (IL1Ra) treatment prevented hypoxia- and oxidative stress-induced IL-6 and IL-8 release. These findings provide evidence that relevant stressors induce a sterile inflammatory profile in placental tissue which can be partially blocked by IL1Ra suggesting this agent has translational potential to prevent placental inflammation evident in FGR and stillbirth.

The impact of advanced maternal age on pregnancy and offspring health: A mechanistic role for placental angiogenic growth mediators

The birth rates among women of advanced maternal age (AMA) have risen over the last two decades; yet, pregnancies with AMA are considered high-risk and are associated with a significant increase in pregnancy complications. Although the mechanisms leading to pregnancy complications in women with AMA are not fully understood, it has been well established in the literature that offspring exposed to unfavorable environmental conditions in utero, such as gestational diabetes, preeclampsia, and/or intrauterine growth restriction during the early stages of development are subject to long-term health consequences. Additionally, angiogenic growth mediators, which drive vascular development of the placenta, are imbalanced in pregnancies with AMA. These same imbalances also occur in pregnancies complicated by preeclampsia, gestational diabetes, and obesity. This review discusses the impact of AMA on pregnancy and offspring health, and the potential mechanistic role of placental angiogenic growth mediators in the development of pregnancy complications at AMA.

Risk of Selected Fetal Adverse Pregnancy Outcomes at Advanced Maternal Age: A Retrospective Cohort Study in Debre Markos Referral Hospital, Northwest Ethiopia

Introduction

Pregnancy at an advanced maternal age is defined as pregnancy at 35 years or older. Today, women postpone pregnancy due to different socioeconomic and personal reasons. However, there was limited evidence on fetal adverse outcomes' association with pregnancy at an advanced maternal age in Ethiopia and particularly in the study area. This study was aimed at assessing the effect of pregnancy at an advanced age on selected neonatal adverse pregnancy outcomes in Debre Markos Referral Hospital, Ethiopia, 2019.

Methods

Institution-based retrospective cohort study was conducted on 303 exposed (35 years and older) and 604 nonexposed (20–34 years old) immediate postpartum women who delivered at Debre Markos Referral Hospital after 28 weeks of gestation. All exposed women who fulfilled the inclusion criteria were sampled, and systematic random sampling was employed for those in the nonexposed group. The data were collected from 1st of July to 30th of December, 2019, by face-to-face interview and extraction from maternal chart using a structured questionnaire and data extraction checklist, respectively. Binary logistic regression (bivariate and multivariable) model was fitted, and wealth index was analyzed by principal component analysis. Adjusted relative risk with respect to 95% confidence interval was employed for the strength and directions of association between advanced maternal age and selected adverse pregnancy outcomes, respectively. P-value of <0.05 was used to declare statistical significance.

Results

The incidence of adverse neonatal outcomes including stillbirth, preterm birth, and low birth weight in the advanced maternal age group was 13.2%, 19.8%, and 16.5%, respectively. The incidence of stillbirth, preterm birth, and low birth weight in the nonexposed group was 3.1%, 8.4%, and 12.4%, respectively. The advanced maternal age group had three times the risk of stillbirth compared with the nonexposed group (ARR = 3.14 95% CI (1.30–7.00)). The advanced maternal age group had 2.66 times the risk of delivering preterm fetus (ARR = 2.66 95% CI (1.81–3.77)) compared with the younger counterparts. Low birth weight was not significantly associated with pregnancy at an advanced maternal age.

Conclusion

Fetal adverse outcomes including stillbirth and preterm birth were significantly associated with pregnancy at an advanced maternal age.