1
|
Fahy S, O’Connor JA, Sleator RD, Lucey B. From Species to Genes: A New Diagnostic Paradigm. Antibiotics (Basel) 2024; 13:661. [PMID: 39061343 PMCID: PMC11274079 DOI: 10.3390/antibiotics13070661] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/02/2024] [Revised: 07/05/2024] [Accepted: 07/13/2024] [Indexed: 07/28/2024] Open
Abstract
Molecular diagnostics has the potential to revolutionise the field of clinical microbiology. Microbial identification and nomenclature have, for too long, been restricted to phenotypic characterisation. However, this species-level view fails to wholly account for genetic heterogeneity, a result of lateral gene transfer, mediated primarily by mobile genetic elements. This genetic promiscuity has helped to drive virulence development, stress adaptation, and antimicrobial resistance in several important bacterial pathogens, complicating their detection and frustrating our ability to control them. We argue that, as clinical microbiologists at the front line, we must embrace the molecular technologies that allow us to focus specifically on the genetic elements that cause disease rather than the bacterial species that express them. This review focuses on the evolution of microbial taxonomy since the introduction of molecular sequencing, the role of mobile genetic elements in antimicrobial resistance, the current and emerging assays in clinical laboratories, and the comparison of phenotypic versus genotypic analyses. In essence, it is time now to refocus from species to genes as part of a new diagnostic paradigm.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Sinead Fahy
- Department of Microbiology, Mercy University Hospital, T12 WE28 Cork, Ireland;
- Department of Biological Sciences, Munster Technological University, T12 P928 Cork, Ireland; (J.A.O.); (B.L.)
| | - James A. O’Connor
- Department of Biological Sciences, Munster Technological University, T12 P928 Cork, Ireland; (J.A.O.); (B.L.)
| | - Roy D. Sleator
- Department of Biological Sciences, Munster Technological University, T12 P928 Cork, Ireland; (J.A.O.); (B.L.)
| | - Brigid Lucey
- Department of Biological Sciences, Munster Technological University, T12 P928 Cork, Ireland; (J.A.O.); (B.L.)
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Jabeen K, Bint Ali S, Tufail Z, Mustafa S, Chaudhry M, Tahir MJ, Asghar MS, Ahmed A. Salmonella typhi and endocarditis: a systematic review of case reports. Front Med (Lausanne) 2024; 11:1363899. [PMID: 39005656 PMCID: PMC11239341 DOI: 10.3389/fmed.2024.1363899] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/31/2023] [Accepted: 06/03/2024] [Indexed: 07/16/2024] Open
Abstract
Introduction Salmonella typhi, a gram-negative bacterium responsible for typhoid fever, can infect the inner lining or valves of the heart and cause endocarditis. This systematic review aimed to report cases of S. typhi-associated endocarditis and its clinical features. Methods This systematic review was reported as per the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis (PRISMA) checklist. Only case reports and case series of endocarditis caused by S. typhi, irrespective of age, gender, and demographics, were considered eligible for inclusion. To identify relevant studies, a literature search was conducted using relevant keywords on PubMed, Google Scholar, and the Cochrane Library from inception to 31 December 2023. After selecting the studies, the relevant data were extracted and pooled in terms of frequencies and percentages. A quality assessment was performed using the Joanna Briggs Institute Critical Appraisal Checklist for Case Reports. Results This review included seven case reports, comprising 22.2% female and 77.8% male patients. The mean age of patients was 27.9 + 12.0 years. Regarding past medical history, 33.3% (3/9) of patients had a previous cardiac pathology. Fever remained the most common complaint, occurring in 88.9% of cases. Transthoracic and transesophageal echocardiography were used to diagnose all cases, with 33.3% identifying vegetation on the mitral, aortic, and tricuspid valves. Ceftriaxone, with or without gentamycin, remained the choice of antibiotic for 88.9% of cases, and all patients responded to the offered treatment. Conclusion S. typhi-associated endocarditis, though rare, presents unique challenges and requires timely diagnosis. This systematic review of seven cases highlights a predominantly male population affected, with a mean age in the third decade, suggesting a higher invasiveness than other causes. The findings from this study underscore the importance of early recognition and appropriate management, primarily with antibiotic therapy. Further research with larger cohorts is crucial to refine understanding and guide policymaking for this rare but life-threatening condition.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Kokab Jabeen
- Department of Pathology, Lahore General Hospital, Lahore, Pakistan
| | - Sameen Bint Ali
- Department of Pathology, Punjab Institute of Neurosciences (PINS), Lahore, Pakistan
| | - Zainab Tufail
- Department of Pathology, Lahore General Hospital, Lahore, Pakistan
| | - Sana Mustafa
- Department of Pathology, Lahore General Hospital, Lahore, Pakistan
| | - Mahnoor Chaudhry
- Department of Pathology, Lahore General Hospital, Lahore, Pakistan
| | - Muhammad J. Tahir
- Radiology, Pakistan Kidney and Liver Institute and Research Center, Lahore, Pakistan
| | | | - Ali Ahmed
- Public Health, Riphah International University, Rawalpindi, Pakistan
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Corradini C, De Bene AF, Russini V, Carfora V, Alba P, Cordaro G, Senese M, Terracciano G, Fabbri I, Di Sirio A, Di Giamberardino F, Boria P, De Marchis ML, Bossù T. Detection of Salmonella Reservoirs in Birds of Prey Hosted in an Italian Wildlife Centre: Molecular and Antimicrobial Resistance Characterisation. Microorganisms 2024; 12:1169. [PMID: 38930551 PMCID: PMC11205921 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms12061169] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/18/2024] [Revised: 06/03/2024] [Accepted: 06/05/2024] [Indexed: 06/28/2024] Open
Abstract
In the European Union, salmonellosis is one of the most important zoonoses reported. Poultry meat and egg products are the most common food matrices associated with Salmonella presence. Moreover, wild and domestic animals could represent an important reservoir that could favour the direct and indirect transmission of pathogens to humans. Salmonella spp. can infect carnivorous or omnivorous wild birds that regularly ingest food and water exposed to faecal contamination. Birds kept in captivity can act as reservoirs of Salmonella spp. following ingestion of infected prey or feed. In this paper, we describe the isolation of different Salmonella serovars in several species of raptors hosted in aviaries in an Italian wildlife centre and in the raw chicken necks used as their feed but intended for human consumption. Characterisations of strains were carried out by integrating classical methods and whole genome sequencing analysis. The strains of S. bredeney isolated in poultry meat and birds belonged to the same cluster, with some of them being multidrug-resistant (MDR) and carrying the Col(pHAD28) plasmid-borne qnrB19 (fluoro)quinolone resistance gene, thus confirming the source of infection. Differently, the S. infantis found in feed and raptors were all MDR, carried a plasmid of emerging S. infantis (pESI)-like plasmid and belonged to different clusters, possibly suggesting a long-lasting infection or the presence of additional undetected sources. Due to the high risk of fuelling a reservoir of human pathogens, the control and treatment of feed for captive species are crucial.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Carlo Corradini
- Food Microbiology Unit, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale del Lazio e della Toscana “M. Aleandri”, 00178 Rome, Italy; (C.C.); (A.F.D.B.); (A.D.S.); (F.D.G.); (P.B.); (M.L.D.M.); (T.B.)
| | - Andrea Francesco De Bene
- Food Microbiology Unit, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale del Lazio e della Toscana “M. Aleandri”, 00178 Rome, Italy; (C.C.); (A.F.D.B.); (A.D.S.); (F.D.G.); (P.B.); (M.L.D.M.); (T.B.)
| | - Valeria Russini
- Food Microbiology Unit, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale del Lazio e della Toscana “M. Aleandri”, 00178 Rome, Italy; (C.C.); (A.F.D.B.); (A.D.S.); (F.D.G.); (P.B.); (M.L.D.M.); (T.B.)
| | - Virginia Carfora
- National Reference Laboratory for Antimicrobial Resistance, General Diagnostics Department, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale del Lazio e della Toscana “M. Aleandri”, 00178 Rome, Italy; (V.C.); (P.A.); (G.C.)
| | - Patricia Alba
- National Reference Laboratory for Antimicrobial Resistance, General Diagnostics Department, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale del Lazio e della Toscana “M. Aleandri”, 00178 Rome, Italy; (V.C.); (P.A.); (G.C.)
| | - Gessica Cordaro
- National Reference Laboratory for Antimicrobial Resistance, General Diagnostics Department, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale del Lazio e della Toscana “M. Aleandri”, 00178 Rome, Italy; (V.C.); (P.A.); (G.C.)
| | - Matteo Senese
- UOT Toscana Nord, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale del Lazio e della Toscana “M. Aleandri”, 56123 Pisa, Italy; (M.S.); (G.T.); (I.F.)
| | - Giuliana Terracciano
- UOT Toscana Nord, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale del Lazio e della Toscana “M. Aleandri”, 56123 Pisa, Italy; (M.S.); (G.T.); (I.F.)
| | - Ilaria Fabbri
- UOT Toscana Nord, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale del Lazio e della Toscana “M. Aleandri”, 56123 Pisa, Italy; (M.S.); (G.T.); (I.F.)
| | - Alessandro Di Sirio
- Food Microbiology Unit, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale del Lazio e della Toscana “M. Aleandri”, 00178 Rome, Italy; (C.C.); (A.F.D.B.); (A.D.S.); (F.D.G.); (P.B.); (M.L.D.M.); (T.B.)
| | - Fabiola Di Giamberardino
- Food Microbiology Unit, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale del Lazio e della Toscana “M. Aleandri”, 00178 Rome, Italy; (C.C.); (A.F.D.B.); (A.D.S.); (F.D.G.); (P.B.); (M.L.D.M.); (T.B.)
| | - Pierpaolo Boria
- Food Microbiology Unit, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale del Lazio e della Toscana “M. Aleandri”, 00178 Rome, Italy; (C.C.); (A.F.D.B.); (A.D.S.); (F.D.G.); (P.B.); (M.L.D.M.); (T.B.)
| | - Maria Laura De Marchis
- Food Microbiology Unit, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale del Lazio e della Toscana “M. Aleandri”, 00178 Rome, Italy; (C.C.); (A.F.D.B.); (A.D.S.); (F.D.G.); (P.B.); (M.L.D.M.); (T.B.)
| | - Teresa Bossù
- Food Microbiology Unit, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale del Lazio e della Toscana “M. Aleandri”, 00178 Rome, Italy; (C.C.); (A.F.D.B.); (A.D.S.); (F.D.G.); (P.B.); (M.L.D.M.); (T.B.)
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Karodia AB, Shaik T, Qekwana DN. Occurrence of Salmonella spp. in animal patients and the hospital environment at a veterinary academic hospital in South Africa. Vet World 2024; 17:922-932. [PMID: 38798288 PMCID: PMC11111710 DOI: 10.14202/vetworld.2024.922-932] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2023] [Accepted: 03/21/2024] [Indexed: 05/29/2024] Open
Abstract
Background and Aims Nosocomial infections caused by Salmonella spp. are common in veterinary facilities. The early identification of high-risk patients and sources of infection is important for mitigating the spread of infections to animal patients and humans. This study investigated the occurrence of Salmonella spp. among patients at a veterinary academic hospital in South Africa. In addition, this study describes the environmental factors that contribute to the spread of Salmonella spp. in the veterinary facility. Materials and Methods This study used a dataset of Salmonella-positive animals and environmental samples submitted to the bacteriology laboratory between 2012 and 2019. The occurrence of Salmonella isolates at the veterinary hospital was described based on source, month, season, year, and location. Proportions and 95% confidence intervals were calculated for each variable. Results A total of 715 Salmonella isolates were recorded, of which 67.6% (483/715) came from animals and the remainder (32.4%, 232/715) came from environmental samples. The highest proportion (29.2%) of Salmonella isolates was recorded in 2016 and most isolates were reported in November (17.4%). The winter season had the lowest (14.6%) proportion of isolates reported compared to spring (31.3%), summer (27.8%), and autumn (26.4%). Salmonella Typhimurium (20.0%) was the most frequently reported serotype among the samples tested, followed by Salmonella Anatum (11.2%). Among the positive animal cases, most (86.3%) came from equine clinics. Most reported isolates differed based on animal species with S. Typhimurium being common in equines and S. Anatum in bovines. Conclusion In this study, S. Typhimurium emerged as the predominant strain in animal and environmental samples. Equines were the most affected animals; however, Salmonella serotypes were also detected in the production animals. Environmental contamination was also a major source of Salmonella species in this study. To reduce the risk of transmission, strict infection prevention and control measures (biosecurity) must be implemented.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ayesha Bibi Karodia
- Department of Paraclinical Sciences, Section Veterinary Public Health, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, Gauteng, South Africa
| | - Tahiyya Shaik
- Department of Paraclinical Sciences, Section Veterinary Public Health, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, Gauteng, South Africa
| | - Daniel Nenene Qekwana
- Department of Paraclinical Sciences, Section Veterinary Public Health, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, Gauteng, South Africa
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Wu X, Suksawat F, Phuektes P, Siriwong S, Liu H, Li W, Angkititrakul S. Flagella Phenotypic Variations of ST34 Type Salmonella Typhimurium and Variants. Foodborne Pathog Dis 2024. [PMID: 38466980 DOI: 10.1089/fpd.2023.0091] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/13/2024] Open
Abstract
Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium and its variants are the most common serotypes of human salmonellosis cases. Serotyping Salmonella Typhimurium and its variants has always been challenging. Our previous work found that among 14 Salmonella Typhimurium and variant strains, some different antigenic formulas had 100% pulsed-field gel electrophoresis (PFGE) similarity. The 14 strains were sorted into 3 groups; in each group, the different antigenic formulas had the same PFGE patterns. This phenomenon suggested that different antigenic formula identification might originate from a common ancestor subtyped by PFGE. To assess whether the serotyping method on Salmonella Typhimurium and variant strains reflected the genetic relationship, we improved the discrimination for the phylogenetic relationship among the 14 Salmonella Typhimurium and variant strains using Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) and whole-genome multilocus sequence typing (wgMLST). We compared the wgMLST assay of 14 Salmonella Typhimurium and variant strains from this study with 50 public ST34 strain data of Salmonella Typhimurium and variant strains. We also compared flagella (H antigen)-related genes based on the whole genome of 14 strains and the other 293 ST34 public database for further understanding of this question. The phylogenetic results (PFGE) showed no regularity between the antigenic formulas and genotypes. The results of the higher discrimination power assays (FTIR and whole-genome multilocus sequence typing) also showed no regularity between the antigenic formulas and genotypes (or phenotypes). The 58 flagella encoding genes of different antigenic formulas were sorted into 13 patterns. However, a similar phenomenon was found: the same flagella encoding gene patterns could express different antigenic formulas. In conclusion, there is no consistency between the antigenic formulas and phylogenetic relationships among ST34 Salmonella Typhimurium and variant strains, even in flagella antigenic formula and flagella encoding genes.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Xin Wu
- Yunnan Joint International R&D Center of Veterinary Public Health, College of Veterinary Medicine, Yunnan Agricultural University, Kunming, China
| | - Fanan Suksawat
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Khon Kaen University, Khon Kaen, Thailand
| | - Patchara Phuektes
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Khon Kaen University, Khon Kaen, Thailand
| | | | - Hongmei Liu
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Khon Kaen University, Khon Kaen, Thailand
| | - Wengui Li
- Yunnan Joint International R&D Center of Veterinary Public Health, College of Veterinary Medicine, Yunnan Agricultural University, Kunming, China
| | | |
Collapse
|
6
|
Towachiraporn S, Thongwitokomarn H, Salee P. Anti-interferon-gamma autoantibody and salmonellosis: Case report and literature review. IDCases 2024; 35:e01926. [PMID: 38298220 PMCID: PMC10825596 DOI: 10.1016/j.idcr.2024.e01926] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/03/2023] [Revised: 10/31/2023] [Accepted: 01/09/2024] [Indexed: 02/02/2024] Open
Abstract
Adult-onset immunodeficiency syndrome is characterized by the presence of anti-interferon-gamma (IFN-γ) autoantibody and the distribution of infections. Here, we describe Salmonella enterica bacteremia in a Thai woman who also had anti-IFN-γ autoantibody. The patient was also suffering from Salmonella osteomyelitis and a peri-orbital abscess. Her symptoms were completely eradicated after surgical intervention and the administration of appropriate antibiotics.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Saikhuan Towachiraporn
- Division of Infectious Diseases and Tropical Medicine, Department of Internal Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, Chiang Mai University, Thailand
| | - Harit Thongwitokomarn
- Division of Infectious Diseases and Tropical Medicine, Department of Internal Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, Chiang Mai University, Thailand
| | - Parichat Salee
- Division of Infectious Diseases and Tropical Medicine, Department of Internal Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, Chiang Mai University, Thailand
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Tung CW, Julianingsih D, Canagarajah C, Sellers G, Scriba A, Alvarado-Martínez Z, Tabashsum Z, Biswas D. The effectiveness of endolysin ENDO-1252 from Salmonella bacteriophage-1252 against nontyphoidal Salmonella enterica. FEMS Microbiol Lett 2024; 371:fnae051. [PMID: 38970360 DOI: 10.1093/femsle/fnae051] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/26/2024] [Revised: 06/07/2024] [Accepted: 07/03/2024] [Indexed: 07/08/2024] Open
Abstract
Salmonella enterica (S. enterica) is the most common food and waterborne pathogen worldwide. The growing trend of antibiotic-resistant S. enterica poses severe healthcare threats. As an alternative antimicrobial agent, bacteriophage-encoded endolysins (endolysins) are a potential agent in controlling S. enterica infection. Endolysins are enzymes that particularly target the peptidoglycan layer of bacterial cells, leading to their rupture and destruction. However, the application of endolysins against Gram-negative bacteria is limited due to the presence of the outer membrane in the cell wall, which hinders the permeation of externally applied endolysins. This study aimed the prokaryotic expression system to produce the recombinant endolysin ENDO-1252, encoded by the Salmonella bacteriophage-1252 associated with S. Enteritidis. Subsequently, ENDO-1252 had strong lytic activity not only against S. Enteritidis but also against S. Typhimurium. In addition, ENDO-1252 showed optimal thermostability and lytic activity at 25°C with a pH of 7.0. In combination with 0.1 mM EDTA, the effect of 120 µg of ENDO-1252 for 6 hours exhibited the highest lytic activity, resulting in a reduction of 1.15 log or 92.87% on S. Enteritidis. These findings suggest that ENDO-1252 can be used as a potential and innovative antibacterial agent for controlling the growth of S. Enteritidis.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Chuan-Wei Tung
- Department of Animal and Avian Sciences, University of Maryland, College Park, MD 20740, United States
| | - Dita Julianingsih
- Department of Animal and Avian Sciences, University of Maryland, College Park, MD 20740, United States
| | - Christa Canagarajah
- Department of Biology, University of Maryland, College Park, College Park, MD 20740, United States
| | - George Sellers
- Department of Biology, University of Maryland, College Park, College Park, MD 20740, United States
| | - Aaron Scriba
- Department of Biology, University of Maryland, College Park, College Park, MD 20740, United States
| | - Zabdiel Alvarado-Martínez
- Biological Sciences Program-Molecular and Cellular Biology, University of Maryland, College Park, MD 20740, United States
| | - Zajeba Tabashsum
- Biological Sciences Program-Molecular and Cellular Biology, University of Maryland, College Park, MD 20740, United States
| | - Debabrata Biswas
- Department of Animal and Avian Sciences, University of Maryland, College Park, MD 20740, United States
- Biological Sciences Program-Molecular and Cellular Biology, University of Maryland, College Park, MD 20740, United States
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Meiring JE, Khanam F, Basnyat B, Charles RC, Crump JA, Debellut F, Holt KE, Kariuki S, Mugisha E, Neuzil KM, Parry CM, Pitzer VE, Pollard AJ, Qadri F, Gordon MA. Typhoid fever. Nat Rev Dis Primers 2023; 9:71. [PMID: 38097589 DOI: 10.1038/s41572-023-00480-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 11/06/2023] [Indexed: 12/18/2023]
Abstract
Typhoid fever is an invasive bacterial disease associated with bloodstream infection that causes a high burden of disease in Africa and Asia. Typhoid primarily affects individuals ranging from infants through to young adults. The causative organism, Salmonella enterica subsp. enterica serovar Typhi is transmitted via the faecal-oral route, crossing the intestinal epithelium and disseminating to systemic and intracellular sites, causing an undifferentiated febrile illness. Blood culture remains the practical reference standard for diagnosis of typhoid fever, where culture testing is available, but novel diagnostic modalities are an important priority under investigation. Since 2017, remarkable progress has been made in defining the global burden of both typhoid fever and antimicrobial resistance; in understanding disease pathogenesis and immunological protection through the use of controlled human infection; and in advancing effective vaccination programmes through strategic multipartner collaboration and targeted clinical trials in multiple high-incidence priority settings. This Primer thus offers a timely update of progress and perspective on future priorities for the global scientific community.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- James E Meiring
- Division of Clinical Medicine, School of Medicine and Population Health, University of Sheffield, Sheffield, UK
- Malawi-Liverpool-Wellcome Programme, Blantyre, Malawi
| | - Farhana Khanam
- International Centre for Diarrhoel Disease Research, Dhaka, Bangladesh
| | - Buddha Basnyat
- Oxford University Clinical Research Unit, Kathmandu, Nepal
| | - Richelle C Charles
- Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston, MA, USA
| | - John A Crump
- Centre for International Health, University of Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand
| | | | - Kathryn E Holt
- Department of Infection Biology, Faculty of Infectious and Tropical Diseases, London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine, London, UK
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Central Clinical School, Monash University, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - Samuel Kariuki
- Centre for Microbiology Research, Kenya Medical Research Institute, Nairobi, Kenya
| | - Emmanuel Mugisha
- Center for Vaccine Innovation and Access, PATH, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Kathleen M Neuzil
- Center for Vaccine Development and Global Health, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Christopher M Parry
- Department of Clinical Sciences and Education, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Pembroke Place, Liverpool, UK
- Centre for Tropical Medicine and Global Health, Nuffield Department of Medicine, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
| | - Virginia E Pitzer
- Department of Epidemiology of Microbial Diseases and Public Health Modelling Unit, Yale School of Public Health, Yale University, New Haven, CT, USA
| | - Andrew J Pollard
- Oxford Vaccine Group, Department of Paediatrics, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
- NIHR Oxford Biomedical Research Centre, Oxford, UK
| | - Firdausi Qadri
- International Centre for Diarrhoel Disease Research, Dhaka, Bangladesh
| | - Melita A Gordon
- Malawi-Liverpool-Wellcome Programme, Blantyre, Malawi.
- Institute of Infection, Veterinary and Ecological Sciences, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, UK.
| |
Collapse
|
9
|
Dhivahar J, Parthasarathy A, Krishnan K, Kovi BS, Pandian GN. Bat-associated microbes: Opportunities and perils, an overview. Heliyon 2023; 9:e22351. [PMID: 38125540 PMCID: PMC10730444 DOI: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2023.e22351] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/14/2022] [Revised: 09/21/2023] [Accepted: 11/09/2023] [Indexed: 12/23/2023] Open
Abstract
The potential biotechnological uses of bat-associated bacteria are discussed briefly, indicating avenues for biotechnological applications of bat-associated microbes. The uniqueness of bats in terms of their lifestyle, genomes and molecular immunology may predispose bats to act as disease reservoirs. Molecular phylogenetic analysis has shown several instances of bats harbouring the ancestral lineages of bacterial (Bartonella), protozoal (Plasmodium, Trypanosoma cruzi) and viral (SARS-CoV2) pathogens infecting humans. Along with the transmission of viruses from bats, we also discuss the potential roles of bat-associated bacteria, fungi, and protozoan parasites in emerging diseases. Current evidence suggests that environmental changes and interactions between wildlife, livestock, and humans contribute to the spill-over of infectious agents from bats to other hosts. Domestic animals including livestock may act as intermediate amplifying hosts for bat-origin pathogens to transmit to humans. An increasing number of studies investigating bat pathogen diversity and infection dynamics have been published. However, whether or how these infectious agents are transmitted both within bat populations and to other hosts, including humans, often remains unknown. Metagenomic approaches are uncovering the dynamics and distribution of potential pathogens in bat microbiomes, which might improve the understanding of disease emergence and transmission. Here, we summarize the current knowledge on bat zoonoses of public health concern and flag the gaps in the knowledge to enable further research and allocation of resources for tackling future outbreaks.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- J. Dhivahar
- Research Department of Zoology, St. Johns College, Palayamkottai, 627002, India
- Department of Plant Biology and Biotechnology, Laboratory of Microbial Ecology, Loyola College, Chennai, 600034, India
- Department of Biotechnology, Laboratory of Virology, University of Madras, Chennai, 600025, India
| | - Anutthaman Parthasarathy
- Department of Chemistry and Biosciences, Richmond Building, University of Bradford, Bradford, West Yorkshire, BD7 1DP, United Kingdom
| | - Kathiravan Krishnan
- Department of Biotechnology, Laboratory of Virology, University of Madras, Chennai, 600025, India
| | - Basavaraj S. Kovi
- Institute for Integrated Cell-Material Sciences (WPI-iCeMS), Yoshida Ushinomiyacho, 69, Sakyo Ward, 606-8501, Kyoto, Japan
| | - Ganesh N. Pandian
- Institute for Integrated Cell-Material Sciences (WPI-iCeMS), Yoshida Ushinomiyacho, 69, Sakyo Ward, 606-8501, Kyoto, Japan
| |
Collapse
|
10
|
Shaji S, Selvaraj RK, Shanmugasundaram R. Salmonella Infection in Poultry: A Review on the Pathogen and Control Strategies. Microorganisms 2023; 11:2814. [PMID: 38004824 PMCID: PMC10672927 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms11112814] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/20/2023] [Revised: 11/08/2023] [Accepted: 11/11/2023] [Indexed: 11/26/2023] Open
Abstract
Salmonella is the leading cause of food-borne zoonotic disease worldwide. Non-typhoidal Salmonella serotypes are the primary etiological agents associated with salmonellosis in poultry. Contaminated poultry eggs and meat products are the major sources of human Salmonella infection. Horizontal and vertical transmission are the primary routes of infection in chickens. The principal virulence genes linked to Salmonella pathogenesis in poultry are located in Salmonella pathogenicity islands 1 and 2 (SPI-1 and SPI-2). Cell-mediated and humoral immune responses are involved in the defense against Salmonella invasion in poultry. Vaccination of chickens and supplementation of feed additives like prebiotics, probiotics, postbiotics, synbiotics, and bacteriophages are currently being used to mitigate the Salmonella load in poultry. Despite the existence of various control measures, there is still a need for a broad, safe, and well-defined strategy that can confer long-term protection from Salmonella in poultry flocks. This review examines the current knowledge on the etiology, transmission, cell wall structure, nomenclature, pathogenesis, immune response, and efficacy of preventative approaches to Salmonella.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Syamily Shaji
- Department of Poultry Science, The University of Georgia, Athens, GA 30602, USA; (S.S.); (R.K.S.)
| | - Ramesh K. Selvaraj
- Department of Poultry Science, The University of Georgia, Athens, GA 30602, USA; (S.S.); (R.K.S.)
| | - Revathi Shanmugasundaram
- Toxicology and Mycotoxin Research Unit, US National Poultry Research Center, Athens, GA 30605, USA
| |
Collapse
|
11
|
Khoo E, Roslee R, Zakaria Z, Ahmad NI. Virulence gene profiles and antimicrobial susceptibility of Salmonella Brancaster from chicken. J Vet Sci 2023; 24:e82. [PMID: 38031519 PMCID: PMC10694367 DOI: 10.4142/jvs.23053] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/07/2023] [Revised: 08/17/2023] [Accepted: 09/25/2023] [Indexed: 12/01/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The current conventional serotyping based on antigen-antisera agglutination could not provide a better understanding of the potential pathogenicity of Salmonella enterica subsp. enterica serovar Brancaster. Surveillance data from Malaysian poultry farms indicated an increase in its presence over the years. OBJECTIVE This study aims to investigate the virulence determinants and antimicrobial resistance in S. Brancaster isolated from chickens in Malaysia. METHODS One hundred strains of archived S. Brancaster isolated from chicken cloacal swabs and raw chicken meat from 2017 to 2022 were studied. Two sets of multiplex polymerase chain reaction (PCR) were conducted to identify eight virulence genes associated with pathogenicity in Salmonella (invasion protein gene [invA], Salmonella invasion protein gene [sipB], Salmonella-induced filament gene [sifA], cytolethal-distending toxin B gene [cdtB], Salmonella iron transporter gene [sitC], Salmonella pathogenicity islands gene [spiA], Salmonella plasmid virulence gene [spvB], and inositol phosphate phosphatase gene [sopB]). Antimicrobial susceptibility assessment was conducted by disc diffusion method on nine selected antibiotics for the S. Brancaster isolates. S. Brancaster, with the phenotypic ACSSuT-resistance pattern (ampicillin, chloramphenicol, streptomycin, sulphonamides, and tetracycline), was subjected to PCR to detect the corresponding resistance gene(s). RESULTS Virulence genes detected in S. Brancaster in this study were invA, sitC, spiA, sipB, sopB, sifA, cdtB, and spvB. A total of 36 antibiogram patterns of S. Brancaster with a high level of multidrug resistance were observed, with ampicillin exhibiting the highest resistance. Over a third of the isolates displayed ACSSuT-resistance, and seven resistance genes (β-lactamase temoneira [blaTEM], florfenicol/chloramphenicol resistance gene [floR], streptomycin resistance gene [strA], aminoglycoside nucleotidyltransferase gene [ant(3″)-Ia], sulfonamides resistance gene [sul-1, sul-2], and tetracycline resistance gene [tetA]) were detected. CONCLUSION Multidrug-resistant S. Brancaster from chickens harbored an array of virulence-associated genes similar to other clinically significant and invasive non-typhoidal Salmonella serovars, placing it as another significant foodborne zoonosis.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Evie Khoo
- Department of Veterinary Pathology and Microbiology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400 Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia
- Bacteriology Section, Veterinary Research Institute, 31400 Ipoh, Perak, Malaysia
| | - Roseliza Roslee
- Bacteriology Section, Veterinary Research Institute, 31400 Ipoh, Perak, Malaysia
| | - Zunita Zakaria
- Department of Veterinary Pathology and Microbiology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400 Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia
- Institute of Bioscience, Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400 Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia
| | - Nur Indah Ahmad
- Department of Veterinary Pathology and Microbiology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400 Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia.
| |
Collapse
|
12
|
Worley MJ. Salmonella Bloodstream Infections. Trop Med Infect Dis 2023; 8:487. [PMID: 37999606 PMCID: PMC10675298 DOI: 10.3390/tropicalmed8110487] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/19/2023] [Revised: 10/23/2023] [Accepted: 10/24/2023] [Indexed: 11/25/2023] Open
Abstract
Salmonella is a major foodborne pathogen of both animals and humans. This bacterium is responsible for considerable morbidity and mortality world-wide. Different serovars of this genus cause diseases ranging from self-limiting gastroenteritis to a potentially fatal systemic disease known as enteric fever. Gastrointestinal infections with Salmonella are usually self-limiting and rarely require medical intervention. Bloodstream infections, on the other hand, are often fatal even with hospitalization. This review describes the routes and underlying mechanisms of the extraintestinal dissemination of Salmonella and the chronic infections that sometimes result. It includes information on the pathogenicity islands and individual virulence factors involved in systemic dissemination as well as a discussion of the host factors that mediate susceptibility. Also, the major outbreaks of invasive Salmonella disease in the tropics are described.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Micah J Worley
- Department of Biology, University of Louisville, Louisville, KY 40292, USA
| |
Collapse
|
13
|
Bianchi DM, Barzanti P, Adriano D, Martucci F, Pitti M, Ferraris C, Floris I, La Brasca R, Ligotti C, Morello S, Scardino G, Musolino N, Tramuta C, Maurella C, Decastelli L. Food Safety Monitoring of Salmonella spp. in Northern Italy 2019-2021. Pathogens 2023; 12:963. [PMID: 37513810 PMCID: PMC10383695 DOI: 10.3390/pathogens12070963] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/21/2023] [Revised: 07/05/2023] [Accepted: 07/12/2023] [Indexed: 07/30/2023] Open
Abstract
Salmonella is the second most frequent bacterial pathogen involved in human gastrointestinal outbreaks in the European Union; it can enter the food-production chain from animal or environmental sources or from asymptomatic food operators. European food legislation has established microbiological criteria to ensure consumer protection. Salmonella is listed under both process hygiene criteria and food safety criteria. Each EU member state designates an agency to organize or perform controls and other official activities. This paper describes the official control plans performed by competent authorities in Northern Italy in the three-year period 2019-2021. A total of 4413 food samples were delivered to the IZS Food Safety laboratories for Salmonella detection, of which 36 (0.8%) tested positive. Salmonella was most frequently detected in poultry meat samples (25/36 positive samples) followed by other meat products and pork products. The official controls for the protection of consumer health apply the EU's farm-to-fork approach: the samples were collected during production (food production plants), from products on the market, and from collective catering (restaurants, cafeterias, canteens). This manuscript will provide information about the presence of Salmonella in foodstuffs that can help competent authorities to set control plans based on risk assessments.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Daniela Manila Bianchi
- SC Sicurezza e Qualità degli Alimenti, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale del Piemonte, Liguria e Valle d'Aosta, Via Bologna 148, 10154 Turin, Italy
| | - Paola Barzanti
- SC Epidemiologia e Analisi del Rischio, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale del Piemonte, Liguria e Valle d'Aosta, Via Bologna 148, 10154 Turin, Italy
| | - Daniela Adriano
- SC Sicurezza e Qualità degli Alimenti, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale del Piemonte, Liguria e Valle d'Aosta, Via Bologna 148, 10154 Turin, Italy
- Centro di Riferimento per la Tipizzazione delle Salmonelle (CeRTiS), Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale del Piemonte, Liguria e Valle d'Aosta, Via Bologna 148, 10154 Turin, Italy
| | - Francesca Martucci
- SC Sicurezza e Qualità degli Alimenti, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale del Piemonte, Liguria e Valle d'Aosta, Via Bologna 148, 10154 Turin, Italy
| | - Monica Pitti
- SC Sicurezza e Qualità degli Alimenti, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale del Piemonte, Liguria e Valle d'Aosta, Via Bologna 148, 10154 Turin, Italy
- Centro di Riferimento per la Tipizzazione delle Salmonelle (CeRTiS), Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale del Piemonte, Liguria e Valle d'Aosta, Via Bologna 148, 10154 Turin, Italy
| | - Carla Ferraris
- SC Sicurezza e Qualità degli Alimenti, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale del Piemonte, Liguria e Valle d'Aosta, Via Bologna 148, 10154 Turin, Italy
| | - Irene Floris
- SC Sicurezza e Qualità degli Alimenti, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale del Piemonte, Liguria e Valle d'Aosta, Via Bologna 148, 10154 Turin, Italy
| | - Roberta La Brasca
- SC Sicurezza e Qualità degli Alimenti, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale del Piemonte, Liguria e Valle d'Aosta, Via Bologna 148, 10154 Turin, Italy
| | - Carmela Ligotti
- SC Sicurezza e Qualità degli Alimenti, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale del Piemonte, Liguria e Valle d'Aosta, Via Bologna 148, 10154 Turin, Italy
| | - Sara Morello
- SC Sicurezza e Qualità degli Alimenti, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale del Piemonte, Liguria e Valle d'Aosta, Via Bologna 148, 10154 Turin, Italy
| | - Giulia Scardino
- SC Sicurezza e Qualità degli Alimenti, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale del Piemonte, Liguria e Valle d'Aosta, Via Bologna 148, 10154 Turin, Italy
| | - Noemi Musolino
- SC Sicurezza e Qualità degli Alimenti, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale del Piemonte, Liguria e Valle d'Aosta, Via Bologna 148, 10154 Turin, Italy
| | - Clara Tramuta
- SC Sicurezza e Qualità degli Alimenti, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale del Piemonte, Liguria e Valle d'Aosta, Via Bologna 148, 10154 Turin, Italy
| | - Cristiana Maurella
- SC Epidemiologia e Analisi del Rischio, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale del Piemonte, Liguria e Valle d'Aosta, Via Bologna 148, 10154 Turin, Italy
| | - Lucia Decastelli
- SC Sicurezza e Qualità degli Alimenti, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale del Piemonte, Liguria e Valle d'Aosta, Via Bologna 148, 10154 Turin, Italy
- Centro di Riferimento per la Tipizzazione delle Salmonelle (CeRTiS), Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale del Piemonte, Liguria e Valle d'Aosta, Via Bologna 148, 10154 Turin, Italy
| |
Collapse
|
14
|
Félix B, Capitaine K, Te S, Felten A, Gillot G, Feurer C, van den Bosch T, Torresi M, Sréterné Lancz Z, Delannoy S, Brauge T, Midelet G, Leblanc JC, Roussel S. Identification by High-Throughput Real-Time PCR of 30 Major Circulating Listeria monocytogenes Clonal Complexes in Europe. Microbiol Spectr 2023; 11:e0395422. [PMID: 37158749 PMCID: PMC10269651 DOI: 10.1128/spectrum.03954-22] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/03/2022] [Accepted: 04/14/2023] [Indexed: 05/10/2023] Open
Abstract
Listeria monocytogenes is a ubiquitous bacterium that causes a foodborne illness, listeriosis. Most strains can be classified into major clonal complexes (CCs) that account for the majority of outbreaks and sporadic cases in Europe. In addition to the 20 CCs known to account for the majority of human and animal clinical cases, 10 CCs are frequently reported in food production, thereby posing a serious challenge for the agrifood industry. Therefore, there is a need for a rapid and reliable method to identify these 30 major CCs. The high-throughput real-time PCR assay presented here provides accurate identification of these 30 CCs and eight genetic subdivisions within four CCs, splitting each CC into two distinct subpopulations, along with the molecular serogroup of a strain. Based on the BioMark high-throughput real-time PCR system, our assay analyzes 46 strains against 40 real-time PCR arrays in a single experiment. This European study (i) designed the assay from a broad panel of 3,342 L. monocytogenes genomes, (ii) tested its sensitivity and specificity on 597 sequenced strains collected from 24 European countries, and (iii) evaluated its performance in the typing of 526 strains collected during surveillance activities. The assay was then optimized for conventional multiplex real-time PCR for easy implementation in food laboratories. It has already been used for outbreak investigations. It represents a key tool for assisting food laboratories to establish strain relatedness with human clinical strains during outbreak investigations and for helping food business operators by improving their microbiological management plans. IMPORTANCE Multilocus sequence typing (MLST) is the reference method for Listeria monocytogenes typing but is expensive and takes time to perform, from 3 to 5 days for laboratories that outsource sequencing. Thirty major MLST clonal complexes (CCs) are circulating in the food chain and are currently identifiable only by sequencing. Therefore, there is a need for a rapid and reliable method to identify these CCs. The method presented here enables the rapid identification, by real-time PCR, of 30 CCs and eight genetic subdivisions within four CCs, splitting each CC into two distinct subpopulations. The assay was then optimized on different conventional multiplex real-time PCR systems for easy implementation in food laboratories. The two assays will be used for frontline identification of L. monocytogenes isolates prior to whole-genome sequencing. Such assays are of great interest for all food industry stakeholders and public agencies for tracking L. monocytogenes food contamination.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Benjamin Félix
- ANSES, European Union Reference Laboratory for Listeria monocytogenes, Laboratory for Food Safety, Salmonella and Listeria Unit, University of Paris-Est, Maisons-Alfort, France
| | - Karine Capitaine
- ANSES, European Union Reference Laboratory for Listeria monocytogenes, Laboratory for Food Safety, Salmonella and Listeria Unit, University of Paris-Est, Maisons-Alfort, France
| | - Sandrine Te
- ANSES, European Union Reference Laboratory for Listeria monocytogenes, Laboratory for Food Safety, Salmonella and Listeria Unit, University of Paris-Est, Maisons-Alfort, France
| | - Arnaud Felten
- ANSES, Ploufragan/Plouzané/Niort Laboratory, Viral Genetics and Bio-Security Unit, Université Européenne de Bretagne, Ploufragan, France
| | | | - Carole Feurer
- IFIP–The French Pig and Pork Institute, Department of Fresh and Processed Meat, Le Rheu, France
| | - Tijs van den Bosch
- Wageningen Food Safety Research, Department of Bacteriology, Molecular Technology and Antimicrobial Resistance, Wageningen, The Netherlands
| | - Marina Torresi
- National Reference Laboratory for Listeria monocytogenes, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale dell'Abruzzo e Molise “G. Caporale” Via Campo Boario, Teramo, Italy
| | - Zsuzsanna Sréterné Lancz
- Microbiological National Reference Laboratory, National Food Chain Safety Office, Food Chain Safety Laboratory Directorate, Budapest, Hungary
| | - Sabine Delannoy
- ANSES, Laboratory for Food Safety, IdentyPath Platform, Maisons-Alfort, France
| | - Thomas Brauge
- ANSES, Laboratory for Food Safety, Bacteriology and Parasitology of Fishery and Aquaculture Products Unit, Boulogne-sur-Mer, France
| | - Graziella Midelet
- ANSES, Laboratory for Food Safety, Bacteriology and Parasitology of Fishery and Aquaculture Products Unit, Boulogne-sur-Mer, France
| | - Jean-Charles Leblanc
- ANSES, European Union Reference Laboratory for Listeria monocytogenes, Laboratory for Food Safety, Salmonella and Listeria Unit, University of Paris-Est, Maisons-Alfort, France
| | - Sophie Roussel
- ANSES, European Union Reference Laboratory for Listeria monocytogenes, Laboratory for Food Safety, Salmonella and Listeria Unit, University of Paris-Est, Maisons-Alfort, France
| |
Collapse
|
15
|
Boss S, Stephan R, Horlbog JA, Magouras I, Colon VA, Lugsomya K, Stevens MJA, Nüesch-Inderbinen M. Serotypes, Antimicrobial Resistance Profiles, and Virulence Factors of Salmonella Isolates in Chinese Edible Frogs ( Hoplobatrachus rugulosus) Collected from Wet Markets in Hong Kong. Foods 2023; 12:foods12112245. [PMID: 37297489 DOI: 10.3390/foods12112245] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/04/2023] [Revised: 05/27/2023] [Accepted: 05/30/2023] [Indexed: 06/12/2023] Open
Abstract
Salmonella is an important agent of gastrointestinal disease in humans. While livestock, such as cattle, poultry, and pigs, are well-recognised animal reservoirs of Salmonella, there is a lack of data on Salmonella in edible frogs, even though frog meat is a popular food worldwide. In this study, 103 live edible Chinese frogs (Hoplobatrachus rugulosus) were collected from wet markets throughout Hong Kong. After euthanasia, faeces or cloacal swabs were examined for Salmonella. Overall, Salmonella spp. were isolated from 67 (65%, CI: 0.554-0.736) of the samples. The serotypes included S. Saintpaul (33%), S. Newport (24%), S. Bareilly (7%), S. Braenderup (4%), S. Hvittingfoss (4%), S. Stanley (10%), and S. Wandsworth (16%). Many isolates were phylogenetically related. A high number of genes encoding for resistance to clinically relevant antimicrobials, and a high number of virulence determinants, were identified. Antimicrobial susceptibility testing (AST) identified multidrug resistance (MDR) in 21% of the isolates. Resistance to ampicillin, ciprofloxacin, nalidixic acid, and tetracycline was common. These results demonstrate that a high percentage of live frogs sold for human consumption in wet markets are carriers of multidrug-resistant Salmonella. Public health recommendations for handling edible frogs should be considered, to mitigate the risk of Salmonella transmission to humans.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Sara Boss
- Institute for Food Safety and Hygiene, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Zurich, 8057 Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Roger Stephan
- Institute for Food Safety and Hygiene, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Zurich, 8057 Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Jule Anna Horlbog
- Institute for Food Safety and Hygiene, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Zurich, 8057 Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Ioannis Magouras
- Department of Infectious Diseases and Public Health, Jockey Club College of Veterinary Medicine and Life Sciences, City University of Hong Kong, Kowloon, Hong Kong SAR, China
- Centre for Applied One Health Research and Policy Advice, Jockey Club College of Veterinary Medicine and Life Sciences, City University of Hong Kong, Kowloon, Hong Kong SAR, China
| | - Violaine Albane Colon
- Department of Infectious Diseases and Public Health, Jockey Club College of Veterinary Medicine and Life Sciences, City University of Hong Kong, Kowloon, Hong Kong SAR, China
| | - Kittitat Lugsomya
- Department of Infectious Diseases and Public Health, Jockey Club College of Veterinary Medicine and Life Sciences, City University of Hong Kong, Kowloon, Hong Kong SAR, China
| | - Marc J A Stevens
- Institute for Food Safety and Hygiene, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Zurich, 8057 Zurich, Switzerland
| | | |
Collapse
|
16
|
Teklemariam AD, Al-Hindi RR, Albiheyri RS, Alharbi MG, Alghamdi MA, Filimban AAR, Al Mutiri AS, Al-Alyani AM, Alseghayer MS, Almaneea AM, Albar AH, Khormi MA, Bhunia AK. Human Salmonellosis: A Continuous Global Threat in the Farm-to-Fork Food Safety Continuum. Foods 2023; 12:foods12091756. [PMID: 37174295 PMCID: PMC10178548 DOI: 10.3390/foods12091756] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/24/2023] [Revised: 04/18/2023] [Accepted: 04/20/2023] [Indexed: 05/15/2023] Open
Abstract
Salmonella is one of the most common zoonotic foodborne pathogens and a worldwide public health threat. Salmonella enterica is the most pathogenic among Salmonella species, comprising over 2500 serovars. It causes typhoid fever and gastroenteritis, and the serovars responsible for the later disease are known as non-typhoidal Salmonella (NTS). Salmonella transmission to humans happens along the farm-to-fork continuum via contaminated animal- and plant-derived foods, including poultry, eggs, fish, pork, beef, vegetables, fruits, nuts, and flour. Several virulence factors have been recognized to play a vital role in attaching, invading, and evading the host defense system. These factors include capsule, adhesion proteins, flagella, plasmids, and type III secretion systems that are encoded on the Salmonella pathogenicity islands. The increased global prevalence of NTS serovars in recent years indicates that the control approaches centered on alleviating the food animals' contamination along the food chain have been unsuccessful. Moreover, the emergence of antibiotic-resistant Salmonella variants suggests a potential food safety crisis. This review summarizes the current state of the knowledge on the nomenclature, microbiological features, virulence factors, and the mechanism of antimicrobial resistance of Salmonella. Furthermore, it provides insights into the pathogenesis and epidemiology of Salmonella infections. The recent outbreaks of salmonellosis reported in different clinical settings and geographical regions, including Africa, the Middle East and North Africa, Latin America, Europe, and the USA in the farm-to-fork continuum, are also highlighted.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Addisu D Teklemariam
- Department of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Science, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah 21589, Saudi Arabia
| | - Rashad R Al-Hindi
- Department of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Science, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah 21589, Saudi Arabia
| | - Raed S Albiheyri
- Department of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Science, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah 21589, Saudi Arabia
- Centre of Excellence in Bionanoscience Research, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah 21589, Saudi Arabia
| | - Mona G Alharbi
- Department of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Science, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah 21589, Saudi Arabia
| | - Mashail A Alghamdi
- Department of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Science, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah 21589, Saudi Arabia
| | - Amani A R Filimban
- Department of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Science, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah 21589, Saudi Arabia
| | - Abdullah S Al Mutiri
- Laboratory Department, Saudi Food and Drug Authority, Riyadh 12843, Saudi Arabia
| | - Abdullah M Al-Alyani
- Laboratory Department, Saudi Food and Drug Authority, Jeddah 22311, Saudi Arabia
| | - Mazen S Alseghayer
- Department of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Science, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah 21589, Saudi Arabia
- Monitoring and Risk Assessment Department, Saudi Food and Drug Authority, Riyadh 13513, Saudi Arabia
| | - Abdulaziz M Almaneea
- Department of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Science, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah 21589, Saudi Arabia
- Monitoring and Risk Assessment Department, Saudi Food and Drug Authority, Riyadh 13513, Saudi Arabia
| | - Abdulgader H Albar
- Department of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Science, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah 21589, Saudi Arabia
- Department of Microbiology and Medical Parasitology, Faculty of Medicine, Jeddah University, Jeddah 23218, Saudi Arabia
| | - Mohsen A Khormi
- Department of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Sciences, Jazan University, Jazan 82817, Saudi Arabia
| | - Arun K Bhunia
- Molecular Food Microbiology Laboratory, Department of Food Science, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN 47907, USA
- Purdue Institute of Inflammation, Immunology, and Infectious Disease, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN 47907, USA
- Purdue University Interdisciplinary Life Science Program (PULSe), West Lafayette, IN 47907, USA
- Department of Comparative Pathobiology, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN 47907, USA
| |
Collapse
|
17
|
Evaluation of Genomic Typing Methods in the Salmonella Reference Laboratory in Public Health, England, 2012-2020. Pathogens 2023; 12:pathogens12020223. [PMID: 36839496 PMCID: PMC9966477 DOI: 10.3390/pathogens12020223] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/08/2022] [Revised: 01/12/2023] [Accepted: 01/27/2023] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
We aim to provide an evidence-based evaluation of whole genome sequence (WGS) methods, employed at the Salmonella reference laboratory in England, in terms of its impact on public health and whether these methods remain a fit for purpose test under UKAS ISO 15189. The evaluation of the genomic methods were mapped against the value of detecting microbiological clusters to support the investigation of food-borne outbreaks of Salmonella in England between 2012-2020. The analysis of WGS with both SNP- and allelic-based methods provided an unprecedented level of strain discrimination and detection of additional clusters when comparing to all of the previous typing methods. The robustness of the routine genomic sequencing at the reference laboratory ensured confidence in the microbiological identifications, even in large outbreaks with complex international food distribution networks. There was evidence that the phylogeny derived from the WGS data can be used to inform the provenance of strains and support discrimination between domestic and non-domestic transmission events. Further insight on the evolutionary context of the emerging pathogenic strains was enabled with a deep dive of the phylogenetic data, including the detection of nested clusters. The public availability of the WGS data linked to the clinical, epidemiological and environmental context of the sequenced strains has improved the trace-back investigations during outbreaks. The global expansion in the use of WGS-based typing in reference laboratories has shown that the WGS methods are a fit for purpose test in public health as it has ensured the rapid implementation of interventions to protect public health, informed risk assessment and has facilitated the management of national and international food-borne outbreaks of Salmonella.
Collapse
|
18
|
Liu CC, Hsiao WWL. Large-scale comparative genomics to refine the organization of the global Salmonella enterica population structure. Microb Genom 2022; 8:mgen000906. [PMID: 36748524 PMCID: PMC9837569 DOI: 10.1099/mgen.0.000906] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
The White-Kauffmann-Le Minor (WKL) scheme is the most widely used Salmonella typing scheme for reporting the disease prevalence of the enteric pathogen. With the advent of whole-genome sequencing (WGS), in silico methods have increasingly replaced traditional serotyping due to reproducibility, speed and coverage. However, despite integrating genomic-based typing by in silico serotyping tools such as SISTR, in silico serotyping in certain contexts remains ambiguous and insufficiently informative. Specifically, in silico serotyping does not attempt to resolve polyphyly. Furthermore, in spite of the widespread acknowledgement of polyphyly from genomic studies, the prevalence of polyphyletic serovars is not well characterized. Here, we applied a genomics approach to acquire the necessary resolution to classify genetically discordant serovars and propose an alternative typing scheme that consistently reflect natural Salmonella populations. By accessing the unprecedented volume of bacterial genomic data publicly available in GenomeTrakr and PubMLST databases (>180 000 genomes representing 723 serovars), we characterized the global Salmonella population structure and systematically identified putative non-monophyletic serovars. The proportion of putative non-monophyletic serovars was estimated higher than previous reports, reinforcing the inability of antigenic determinants to depict the complexity of Salmonella evolutionary history. We explored the extent of genetic diversity masked by serotyping labels and found significant intra-serovar molecular differences across many clinically important serovars. To avoid false discovery due to incorrect in silico serotyping calls, we cross-referenced reported serovar labels and concluded a low error rate in in silico serotyping. The combined application of clustering statistics and genome-wide association methods demonstrated effective characterization of stable bacterial populations and explained functional differences. The collective methods adopted in our study have practical values in establishing genomic-based typing nomenclatures for an entire microbial species or closely related subpopulations. Ultimately, we foresee an improved typing scheme to be a hybrid that integrates both genomic and antigenic information such that the resolution from WGS is leveraged to improve the precision of subpopulation classification while preserving the common names defined by the WKL scheme.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Chao Chun Liu
- Department of Molecular Biology and Biochemistry, Simon Fraser University, Burnaby, British Columbia, Canada,Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
| | - William W. L. Hsiao
- Department of Molecular Biology and Biochemistry, Simon Fraser University, Burnaby, British Columbia, Canada,Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada,Faculty of Health Sciences, Simon Fraser University, Burnaby, British Columbia, Canada,*Correspondence: William W. L. Hsiao,
| |
Collapse
|
19
|
Cherchame E, Ilango G, Noël V, Cadel-Six S. Polyphyly in widespread Salmonella enterica serovars and using genomic proximity to choose the best reference genome for bioinformatics analyses. Front Public Health 2022; 10:963188. [PMID: 36159272 PMCID: PMC9493441 DOI: 10.3389/fpubh.2022.963188] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/07/2022] [Accepted: 08/02/2022] [Indexed: 01/24/2023] Open
Abstract
Salmonella is the most common cause of gastroenteritis in the world. Over the past 5 years, whole-genome analysis has led to the high-resolution characterization of clinical and foodborne Salmonella responsible for typhoid fever, foodborne illness or contamination of the agro-food chain. Whole-genome analyses are simplified by the availability of high-quality, complete genomes for mapping analysis and for calculating the pairwise distance between genomes, but unfortunately some difficulties may still remain. For some serovars, the complete genome is not available, or some serovars are polyphyletic and knowing the serovar alone is not sufficient for choosing the most appropriate reference genome. For these serovars, it is essential to identify the genetically closest complete genome to be able to carry out precise genome analyses. In this study, we explored the genomic proximity of 650 genomes of the 58 Salmonella enterica subsp. enterica serovars most frequently isolated in humans and from the food chain in the United States (US) and in Europe (EU), with a special focus on France. For each serovar, to take into account their genomic diversity, we included all the multilocus sequence type (MLST) profiles represented in EnteroBase with 10 or more genomes (on 19 July 2021). A phylogenetic analysis using both core- and pan-genome approaches was carried out to identify the genomic proximity of all the Salmonella studied and 20 polyphyletic serovars that have not yet been described in the literature. This study determined the genetic proximity between all 58 serovars studied and revealed polyphyletic serovars, their genomic lineages and MLST profiles. Finally, we enhanced the open-access databases with 73 new genomes and produced a list of high-quality complete reference genomes for 48 S. enterica subsp. enterica serovars among the most isolated in the US, EU, and France.
Collapse
|
20
|
Lagrada ML, Argimón S, Borlasa JB, Abad JP, Gayeta JM, Masim ML, Olorosa AM, Cohen V, Jeffrey B, Abudahab K, Sia SB, Hufano CM, Stelling J, Holden MTG, Aanensen DM, Carlos CC. Genomic surveillance of Salmonella spp. in the Philippines during 2013-2014. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 2022; 116:1202-1213. [PMID: 35999186 PMCID: PMC9717386 DOI: 10.1093/trstmh/trac080] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/04/2022] [Revised: 07/08/2022] [Accepted: 08/04/2022] [Indexed: 01/19/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Increasing antimicrobial resistance (AMR) in Salmonella has been observed in the Philippines. We aimed to characterise the population and AMR mechanisms of Salmonella with whole genome sequencing (WGS) and compare it with laboratory surveillance methods. METHODS The serotype, multilocus sequence type, AMR genes and relatedness between isolates were determined from the genomes of 148 Salmonella Typhi (S. Typhi) and 65 non-typhoidal Salmonella (NTS) collected by the Antimicrobial Resistance Surveillance Program during 2013-2014. Genotypic serotypes and AMR prediction were compared with phenotypic data. RESULTS AMR rates in S. Typhi were low, with sparse acquisition of mutations associated with reduced susceptibility to fluoroquinolones or extended-spectrum beta-lactamases (ESBL) genes. By contrast, 75% of NTS isolates were insusceptible to at least one antimicrobial, with more than half carrying mutations and/or genes linked to fluoroquinolone resistance. ESBL genes were detected in five genomes, which also carried other AMR determinants. The population of S. Typhi was dominated by likely endemic genotype 3.0, which caused a putative local outbreak. The main NTS clades were global epidemic S. Enteritidis ST11 and S. Typhimurium monophasic variant (I,4,[5],12: i: -) ST34. CONCLUSION We provide the first genomic characterisation of Salmonella from the Philippines and evidence of WGS utility for ongoing surveillance.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | - Silvia Argimón
- Centre for Genomic Pathogen Surveillance, Big Data Institute, University of Oxford, Oxford OX3 7FZ, UK
| | - Janice B Borlasa
- Department of Health, Antimicrobial Resistance Surveillance Reference Laboratory, Research Institute for Tropical Medicine, Muntinlupa 1781, Philippines
| | - Jaywardeen P Abad
- Department of Health, Antimicrobial Resistance Surveillance Reference Laboratory, Research Institute for Tropical Medicine, Muntinlupa 1781, Philippines
| | - June M Gayeta
- Department of Health, Antimicrobial Resistance Surveillance Reference Laboratory, Research Institute for Tropical Medicine, Muntinlupa 1781, Philippines
| | - Melissa L Masim
- Department of Health, Antimicrobial Resistance Surveillance Reference Laboratory, Research Institute for Tropical Medicine, Muntinlupa 1781, Philippines
| | - Agnettah M Olorosa
- Department of Health, Antimicrobial Resistance Surveillance Reference Laboratory, Research Institute for Tropical Medicine, Muntinlupa 1781, Philippines
| | - Victoria Cohen
- Centre for Genomic Pathogen Surveillance, Big Data Institute, University of Oxford, Oxford OX3 7FZ, UK
| | - Benjamin Jeffrey
- Centre for Genomic Pathogen Surveillance, Big Data Institute, University of Oxford, Oxford OX3 7FZ, UK
| | - Khalil Abudahab
- Centre for Genomic Pathogen Surveillance, Big Data Institute, University of Oxford, Oxford OX3 7FZ, UK
| | - Sonia B Sia
- Department of Health, Antimicrobial Resistance Surveillance Reference Laboratory, Research Institute for Tropical Medicine, Muntinlupa 1781, Philippines
| | - Charmian M Hufano
- Department of Health, Antimicrobial Resistance Surveillance Reference Laboratory, Research Institute for Tropical Medicine, Muntinlupa 1781, Philippines
| | - John Stelling
- Department of Medicine, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Boston, MA 02115, USA
| | | | - David M Aanensen
- Centre for Genomic Pathogen Surveillance, Big Data Institute, University of Oxford, Oxford OX3 7FZ, UK
| | - Celia C Carlos
- Department of Health, Antimicrobial Resistance Surveillance Reference Laboratory, Research Institute for Tropical Medicine, Muntinlupa 1781, Philippines
| |
Collapse
|
21
|
Kipper D, Mascitti AK, De Carli S, Carneiro AM, Streck AF, Fonseca ASK, Ikuta N, Lunge VR. Emergence, Dissemination and Antimicrobial Resistance of the Main Poultry-Associated Salmonella Serovars in Brazil. Vet Sci 2022; 9:vetsci9080405. [PMID: 36006320 PMCID: PMC9415136 DOI: 10.3390/vetsci9080405] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/10/2022] [Revised: 07/22/2022] [Accepted: 07/30/2022] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Simple Summary Salmonellosis is a human and animal disease caused by Salmonella, a bacterial genus classified into different species, subspecies, and serological variants (serovars) according to adaptation to one or more different hosts (animals and humans), pathogenicity profiles, and antigenic properties. Some specific Salmonella serovars can spread more easily in the enteric microbiota of avian species, often causing disease in birds and/or being transmitted to humans through food (such as chicken and eggs). Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) has also been reported in poultry-associated Salmonella isolates due to the widespread use of antimicrobials on farms. The availability of comprehensive data on the emergence and spread of Salmonella serovars, as well as their AMR profiles in farms and food products in Brazil (a major producer of poultry in the World), is necessary to understand their relevance in all avian production chains and also occurrence in poultry-derived foods. This article aims to provide an overview of the genus Salmonella and the main serovars that emerged in Brazilian poultry over time (Gallinarum, Typhimurium, Enteritidis, Heidelberg, and Minnesota), reviewing the scientific literature and suggesting more effective prevention and control for the future. Abstract Salmonella infects poultry, and it is also a human foodborne pathogen. This bacterial genus is classified into several serovars/lineages, some of them showing high antimicrobial resistance (AMR). The ease of Salmonella transmission in farms, slaughterhouses, and eggs industries has made controlling it a real challenge in the poultry-production chains. This review describes the emergence, dissemination, and AMR of the main Salmonella serovars and lineages detected in Brazilian poultry. It is reported that few serovars emerged and have been more widely disseminated in breeders, broilers, and layers in the last 70 years. Salmonella Gallinarum was the first to spread on the farms, remaining as a concerning poultry pathogen. Salmonella Typhimurium and Enteritidis were also largely detected in poultry and foods (eggs, chicken, turkey), being associated with several human foodborne outbreaks. Salmonella Heidelberg and Minnesota have been more widely spread in recent years, resulting in frequent chicken/turkey meat contamination. A few more serovars (Infantis, Newport, Hadar, Senftenberg, Schwarzengrund, and Mbandaka, among others) were also detected, but less frequently and usually in specific poultry-production regions. AMR has been identified in most isolates, highlighting multi-drug resistance in specific poultry lineages from the serovars Typhimurium, Heidelberg, and Minnesota. Epidemiological studies are necessary to trace and control this pathogen in Brazilian commercial poultry production chains.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Diéssy Kipper
- Institute of Biotechnology, University of Caxias do Sul (UCS), Caxias do Sul 95070-560, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil; (D.K.); (A.K.M.); (A.M.C.); (A.F.S.)
| | - Andréa Karoline Mascitti
- Institute of Biotechnology, University of Caxias do Sul (UCS), Caxias do Sul 95070-560, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil; (D.K.); (A.K.M.); (A.M.C.); (A.F.S.)
| | - Silvia De Carli
- Molecular Diagnostics Laboratory, Lutheran University of Brazil (ULBRA), Canoas 92425-350, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil;
| | - Andressa Matos Carneiro
- Institute of Biotechnology, University of Caxias do Sul (UCS), Caxias do Sul 95070-560, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil; (D.K.); (A.K.M.); (A.M.C.); (A.F.S.)
| | - André Felipe Streck
- Institute of Biotechnology, University of Caxias do Sul (UCS), Caxias do Sul 95070-560, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil; (D.K.); (A.K.M.); (A.M.C.); (A.F.S.)
| | | | - Nilo Ikuta
- Simbios Biotecnologia, Cachoeirinha 94940-030, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil; (A.S.K.F.); (N.I.)
| | - Vagner Ricardo Lunge
- Institute of Biotechnology, University of Caxias do Sul (UCS), Caxias do Sul 95070-560, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil; (D.K.); (A.K.M.); (A.M.C.); (A.F.S.)
- Molecular Diagnostics Laboratory, Lutheran University of Brazil (ULBRA), Canoas 92425-350, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil;
- Simbios Biotecnologia, Cachoeirinha 94940-030, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil; (A.S.K.F.); (N.I.)
- Correspondence: or or
| |
Collapse
|
22
|
Rocha MD, Chaves RD, Freire L, Pia AKR, Furtado MM, Alvarenga VO, Crucello A, Lopes LS, Santos AFM, Rodrigues DP, Sant'Ana AS. Salmonella enterica in soybean production chain: Occurrence, characterization, and survival during soybean storage. Int J Food Microbiol 2022; 372:109695. [PMID: 35509145 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijfoodmicro.2022.109695] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/04/2022] [Revised: 04/19/2022] [Accepted: 04/26/2022] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
This study aimed to determine Salmonella enterica occurrence along the soybean meal production chain (raw material, in-processing samples, final products, and in the environment of five processing plants), characterize the isolates, and assess the survival of Salmonella Senftenberg 775W in soybeans stored under different temperature conditions. Among 713 samples analyzed, 12.9% (n = 92) were positive for Salmonella enterica. Dust collected inside and outside processing plants (n = 148) comprised the samples with the highest positivity for Salmonella enterica, 47.3%. The occurrence of Salmonella enterica varied among the different processing plants. Twenty-nine (n = 29) Salmonella serotypes were isolated, with S. Mbandaka as the most frequent serotype, whereas S. Typhimurium was mainly linked to final product samples (soybean meal). S. Senftenberg 775W did not survive for a long time in soybean stored at 20-37 °C, but at 20 °C, cells were viable for more than 60 days. This study suggests that soybean meal may harbor Salmonella serotypes related to foodborne disease outbreaks in humans and can be responsible for Salmonella introduction into livestock and, consequently, in foods of animal origin. This study provides crucial data on contamination pathways of Salmonella in the soybean production chain, contributing to the understanding of Salmonella epidemiology which is strategic for the development of preventive and control measures to reduce the burden of salmonellosis linked to products of animal origin.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Monyca D Rocha
- Department of Food Science and Nutrition, Faculty of Food Engineering, University of Campinas. Campinas, SP, Brazil
| | - Rafael D Chaves
- Department of Food Science and Nutrition, Faculty of Food Engineering, University of Campinas. Campinas, SP, Brazil
| | - Luísa Freire
- Department of Food Science and Nutrition, Faculty of Food Engineering, University of Campinas. Campinas, SP, Brazil; Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Food and Nutrition, Federal University of Mato Grosso do Sul, Campo Grande, MS - Brazil
| | - Arthur K R Pia
- Department of Food Science and Nutrition, Faculty of Food Engineering, University of Campinas. Campinas, SP, Brazil
| | - Marianna M Furtado
- Department of Food Science and Nutrition, Faculty of Food Engineering, University of Campinas. Campinas, SP, Brazil
| | - Verônica O Alvarenga
- Department of Food Science and Nutrition, Faculty of Food Engineering, University of Campinas. Campinas, SP, Brazil; Department of Food, Faculty of Pharmacy, Federal University of Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, MG, Brazil
| | - Aline Crucello
- Department of Food Science and Nutrition, Faculty of Food Engineering, University of Campinas. Campinas, SP, Brazil
| | - Leticia S Lopes
- Department of Food Science and Nutrition, Faculty of Food Engineering, University of Campinas. Campinas, SP, Brazil; Embrapa Swine and Poultry, Concórdia, SC, Brazil
| | - André F M Santos
- National Reference Laboratory for Cholera and Enteric Diseases, Instituto Oswaldo Cruz, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil
| | - Dália P Rodrigues
- National Reference Laboratory for Cholera and Enteric Diseases, Instituto Oswaldo Cruz, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil
| | - Anderson S Sant'Ana
- Department of Food Science and Nutrition, Faculty of Food Engineering, University of Campinas. Campinas, SP, Brazil.
| |
Collapse
|
23
|
Rubio Granda A, Fernández Miaja M, Delgado Nicolás S, Fernández Ibáñez A, Llaneza Velasco ME, Alonso Álvarez MA. [Clinical and epidemiologic description of a severe outbreak of Salmonellosis in an urban nursery school]. REVISTA ESPANOLA DE QUIMIOTERAPIA : PUBLICACION OFICIAL DE LA SOCIEDAD ESPANOLA DE QUIMIOTERAPIA 2022; 35:265-272. [PMID: 35429965 PMCID: PMC9134884 DOI: 10.37201/req/134.2021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/17/2021] [Revised: 01/14/2022] [Accepted: 02/02/2022] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE We describe clinically and epidemiologically an outbreak of gastrointestinal infection by Salmonella enterica ser. (serotype) Enteritidis in an urban infant school, which led to high morbidity and significant social alarm. The immediate communication, as well as the adequate study of the outbreak, in both aspects, allowed identifying the pathogen and establishing control measures in a reasonable period of time. Controversial aspects such as the indication of antibiotherapy or the moment of closing the center are discussed. METHODS We retrospectively collected clinical, analytical and epidemiological information and we reviewed the methodology of the outbreak study and its results. RESULTS A total of 57 children (3-45 months), were affected and had microbiological confirmation. Diarrhea and fever were the main symptoms. 74% went to the hospital and 37% were admitted (mean stay 3.3 days). Factors associated with admission were: dehydration, significant elevation of acute phase reactants and coagulopathy. Twelve patients received parenteral cefotaxime. There were 2 complications: 1 bacteremia and 1 readmission. The initial suspicion of the origin of the outbreak was food, but the analysis of the control samples was negative. Five workers were positive (2 symptomatic). Epidemiologic Surveillance concluded that the probable origin of the outbreak was an asymptomatic carrier and improper diapers handling. The center was closed for 8 days. Cleaning and disinfection measures were carried out, as well as instruction on diaper changing, and the carriers were followed. CONCLUSIONS Clustering in time and space of cases should be reported immediately for early control of the outbreak. Children may present severe forms of Salmonella gastroenteritis.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | - M Fernández Miaja
- María Fernández Miaja. Área de Gestión Clínica de Pediatría, Hospital Universitario Central de Asturias. Avenida de Roma, s/n 33011. Oviedo. Asturias. Spain.
| | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
24
|
Antibacterial Mechanisms of Zinc Oxide Nanoparticle against Bacterial Food Pathogens Resistant to Beta-Lactam Antibiotics. Molecules 2022; 27:molecules27082489. [PMID: 35458685 PMCID: PMC9032754 DOI: 10.3390/molecules27082489] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/20/2022] [Revised: 03/24/2022] [Accepted: 04/08/2022] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
The increase in β-lactam-resistant Gram-negative bacteria is a severe recurrent problem in the food industry for both producers and consumers. The development of nanotechnology and nanomaterial applications has transformed many features in food science. The antibacterial activity of zinc oxide nanoparticles (ZnO NPs) and their mechanism of action on β-lactam-resistant Gram-negative food pathogens, such as Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Salmonella typhi, Serratia marcescens, Klebsiella pneumoniae, and Proteus mirabilis, are investigated in the present paper. The study results demonstrate that ZnO NPs possesses broad-spectrum action against these β-lactamase-producing strains. The minimal inhibitory and minimal bactericidal concentrations vary from 0.04 to 0.08 and 0.12 to 0.24 mg/mL, respectively. The ZnO NPs elevate the level of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and malondialdehyde in the bacterial cells as membrane lipid peroxidation. It has been confirmed from the transmission electron microscopy image of the treated bacterial cells that ZnO NPs diminish the permeable membrane, denature the intracellular proteins, cause DNA damage, and cause membrane leakage. Based on these findings, the action of ZnO NPs has been attributed to the fact that broad-spectrum antibacterial action against β-lactam-resistant Gram-negative food pathogens is mediated by Zn2+ ion-induced oxidative stress, actions via lipid peroxidation and membrane damage, subsequently resulting in depletion, leading to β-lactamase enzyme inhibition, intracellular protein inactivation, DNA damage, and eventually cell death. Based on the findings of the present study, ZnO NPs can be recommended as potent broad-spectrum antibacterial agents against β-lactam-resistant Gram-negative pathogenic strains.
Collapse
|
25
|
Holohan N, Wallat M, Hai Yen Luu T, Clark E, Truong DTQ, Xuan SD, Vu HTK, Van Truong D, Tran Huy H, Nguyen-Viet H, Unger F, Thi Thanh Dang S, Stabler RA. Analysis of Antimicrobial Resistance in Non-typhoidal Salmonella Collected From Pork Retail Outlets and Slaughterhouses in Vietnam Using Whole Genome Sequencing. Front Vet Sci 2022; 9:816279. [PMID: 35425826 PMCID: PMC9002014 DOI: 10.3389/fvets.2022.816279] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/16/2021] [Accepted: 02/09/2022] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Abstract
Non-typhoidal salmonella (TS) remains a significant health burden worldwide. In Vietnam, pork accounts for 70% of the total meat consumed, and contamination with Salmonella is high. High levels of antimicrobial resistance (AMR) have emerged among porcine NTS and of particular concern is the emergence of colistin resistance, a “last defense” antibioic against multi-drug resistant (MDR) Gram-negative pathogens. This study aimed to investigate the antibiotic susceptibility of 69 NTS isolates collected from the pork retail outlets and slaughterhouses in Vietnam during 2014 a nd 2018/19. Phenotypic testing and whole genome sequencing was used to assess the serotype and AMR gene profiles of the 69 NTS isolates. Seventeen different serotypes were identified, of which S. enterica subsp enterica serotype Typhimurium was the most common followed by S. ser. Rissen, S. ser. London, S. ser. Anatum, and S. ser. Derby. Phenotype AMR was common with 41 (59.4%) isolates deemed MDR. MDR strains were most common in slaughterhouses (83%) and supermarkets (75%) and lowest in traditional markets (38%) and convenience stores (40%). Colistin resistance was identified in 18 strains (15 resistant, three intermediate) with mcr-1 identified in seven isolates (S. ser. Meleagridis, S. Rissen, S. Derby) and mcr-3 in two isolates (S. Typhimurium). This includes the first mcr positive S. Meleagridis to our knowledge. Surprisingly, boutique stores had high levels (60%) of MDR isolates including 5/20 isolates with mcr-1. This study demonstrates that pork from modern retail stores classed as supermarkets or boutique (with pork claiming to be high quality, traceable, environmentally friendly marketed toward higher income consumers) still contained NTS with high levels of AMR.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Niamh Holohan
- Department of Infection Biology, London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine, London, United Kingdom
| | - Maximilian Wallat
- Department of Infection Biology, London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine, London, United Kingdom
| | - Thi Hai Yen Luu
- Department of Bacteriology, National Institute of Veterinary Research (NIVR), Hanoi, Vietnam
| | - Eleanor Clark
- Department of Infection Biology, London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine, London, United Kingdom
| | - Duong Thi Quy Truong
- Department of Bacteriology, National Institute of Veterinary Research (NIVR), Hanoi, Vietnam
| | - Sinh Dang Xuan
- International Livestock Research Institute, Regional Office for East and Southeast Asia, Hanoi, Vietnam
| | - Hue Thi Kim Vu
- Department of Veterinary Hygiene, National Institute of Veterinary Research (NIVR), Hanoi, Vietnam
| | - Dung Van Truong
- Department of Veterinary Hygiene, National Institute of Veterinary Research (NIVR), Hanoi, Vietnam
| | - Hoang Tran Huy
- Department of Bacteriology, National Institute of Hygiene and Epidemiology, Hanoi, Vietnam
| | - Hung Nguyen-Viet
- International Livestock Research Institute, Regional Office for East and Southeast Asia, Hanoi, Vietnam
| | - Fred Unger
- International Livestock Research Institute, Regional Office for East and Southeast Asia, Hanoi, Vietnam
| | - Son Thi Thanh Dang
- Department of Veterinary Hygiene, National Institute of Veterinary Research (NIVR), Hanoi, Vietnam
| | - Richard A. Stabler
- Department of Infection Biology, London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine, London, United Kingdom
- *Correspondence: Richard A. Stabler
| |
Collapse
|
26
|
Lu HF, Yue CT, Kung WM. Salmonella Group D1 Subdural Empyema Mimicking Subdural Hematoma: A Case Report. Infect Drug Resist 2022; 15:6357-6363. [PMID: 36337934 PMCID: PMC9635384 DOI: 10.2147/idr.s388101] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/30/2022] [Accepted: 10/27/2022] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Subdural empyema is caused by various pathogens. The most typical clinical presentation may include fever, headache, seizures, and altered consciousness. However, Salmonella infections are relatively rare. Representative features of Salmonella infection include fever and gastrointestinal symptoms such as diarrhea, vomiting, and abdominal cramping pain. Extra-gastrointestinal invasion of Salmonella in the central nervous system is unusual. We present the case of an afebrile 58-year-old male who presented with a headache and a progressive dull response for a week. He had a closed head injury approximately 1 week before this visit. A tentative diagnosis led to a subdural hematoma (SDH), and he underwent urgent burr hole surgery. Intraoperative findings showed a large amount of brown-yellow pus in the subdural space instead of the pathognomonic bloody serosanguinous or thick motor oil, which is typical of SDH. The intraoperative culture yielded Salmonella group D1. After initial brain surgery and 52 days of effective intravenous administration of a third-generation cephalosporin (Ceftriaxone 2000 mg per day), the patient recovered fully without neurological deficits. His consciousness and mentality remained normal without focal weakness of the limbs for over 5 years of follow-up. This is a unique case with an atypical initial presentation that leads to a final unexpected diagnosis. Ongoing treatment strategies include a combination of surgical drainage for disease confirmation and appropriate medical antibiotics.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Hao-Fang Lu
- Division of General Medicine, Taipei Tzu Chi Hospital, Buddhist Tzu Chi Foundation, New Taipei City, 23142, Taiwan
- School of Medicine, College of Medicine, National Taiwan University, Taipei, 10002, Taiwan
| | - Chung-Tai Yue
- Department of Anatomic Pathology, Taipei Tzu Chi Hospital, Buddhist Tzu Chi Medical Foundation, New Taipei City, 23142, Taiwan
| | - Woon-Man Kung
- Division of Neurosurgery, Department of Surgery, Taipei Tzu Chi Hospital, Buddhist Tzu Chi Medical Foundation, New Taipei City, 23142, Taiwan
- Department of Exercise and Health Promotion, College of Kinesiology and Health, Chinese Culture University, Taipei, 11114, Taiwan
- Correspondence: Woon-Man Kung, Division of Neurosurgery, Department of Surgery, Taipei Tzu Chi Hospital, Buddhist Tzu Chi Medical Foundation, No. 289, Jianguo Road, Xindian District, New Taipei City, 23142, Taiwan, Email
| |
Collapse
|
27
|
Bacteriophage-Resistant Salmonella rissen: An In Vitro Mitigated Inflammatory Response. Viruses 2021; 13:v13122468. [PMID: 34960737 PMCID: PMC8703591 DOI: 10.3390/v13122468] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/08/2021] [Revised: 12/02/2021] [Accepted: 12/08/2021] [Indexed: 01/21/2023] Open
Abstract
Non-typhoid Salmonella (NTS) represents one of the major causes of foodborne diseases, which are made worse by the increasing emergence of antibiotic resistance. Thus, NTS are a significant and common public health concern. The purpose of this study is to investigate whether selection for phage-resistance alters bacterial phenotype, making this approach suitable for candidate vaccine preparation. We therefore compared two strains of Salmonella enterica serovar Rissen: RR (the phage-resistant strain) and RW (the phage-sensitive strain) in order to investigate a potential cost associated with the bacterium virulence. We tested the ability of both RR and RW to infect phagocytic and non-phagocytic cell lines, the activity of virulence factors associated with the main Type-3 secretory system (T3SS), as well as the canonic inflammatory mediators. The mutant RR strain-compared to the wildtype RW strain-induced in the host a weaker innate immune response. We suggest that the mitigated inflammatory response very likely is due to structural modifications of the lipopolysaccharide (LPS). Our results indicate that phage-resistance might be exploited as a means for the development of LPS-based antibacterial vaccines.
Collapse
|
28
|
Sultana KF, Saha O, Hoque MN, Sultana M, Hossain MA. Multilocus sequence typing of multidrug-resistant Salmonella strains circulating in poultry farms of Bangladesh. Braz J Microbiol 2021; 52:2385-2399. [PMID: 34297327 DOI: 10.1007/s42770-021-00577-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/09/2020] [Accepted: 07/11/2021] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Salmonella is one of the most important foodborne zoonotic pathogens, and becoming multidrug-resistant (MDR), which represents a serious public health concern worldwide. This study aimed to identify the circulating MDR strains of Salmonella through cutting edge molecular techniques including gene specific PCR, RAPD-PCR, ribosomal gene sequencing, and multilocus sequence types (MLST) in the poultry industry of Bangladesh. Two hundred Salmonella isolates were retrieved from 154 samples comprising droppings (n = 60), cloacal swabs (n = 60), feeds (n = 14), feeding water (n = 14), and handler's swab (n = 6) from 14 commercial layer farms of Bangladesh. The isolates were confirmed as Salmonella through invA gene specific PCR, and further genotyping was done by RAPD-PCR, and 16S rRNA sequencing. The isolates were distributed into 18 different genotypes according to RAPD typing. The phylogenetic analysis identified three diverging phylogroups such as S. enterica Litchfield, S. enterica Enteritidis and S. enterica Kentucky with 11, 8, and 6 strains, respectively. The in vitro antibiogram profiling the Salmonella isolates through disc diffusion method using 13 commercially available antibiotics revealed highest resistance against doxycycline (91.5%) followed by tetracycline and ampicillin (86.0%, in each), and 72.0% isolates as MDR, being resistant to ≥ 5 antibiotics. The MLST typing was carried out based on the PCR amplification of seven housekeeping genes (aroC, hisD, hemD, purE, secA, thrA, and dnaN). MLST typing also revealed three sequence types (STs) such as ST11, ST198, and ST214 in these isolates, and eBURST analysis showed ST11 as the founder genotype. The three STs were highly resistant to tetracyclines and quinolone group of antibiotics, and all of the isolates harboring S. enterica Litchfield showed the highest resistance. Circulating common MLSTs with MDR properties in different farms confirmed the possibility of a common route of intra-farm transmission. We report for the first time of the association serovar Litchfield (ST11) in avian salmonellosis with MDR properties which is an urgent public health concern in Bangladesh.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Khandokar Fahmida Sultana
- Department of Microbiology, University of Dhaka, Dhaka, Bangladesh.,Department of Microbiology, Noakhali Science and Technology University, Noakhali, Bangladesh
| | - Otun Saha
- Department of Microbiology, University of Dhaka, Dhaka, Bangladesh
| | - M Nazmul Hoque
- Department of Microbiology, University of Dhaka, Dhaka, Bangladesh.,Department of Gynecology, Obstetrics and Reproductive Health, Bangabandhu Sheikh Muibur Rahman Agricultural University, Gazipur, 1706, Bangladesh
| | - Munawar Sultana
- Department of Microbiology, University of Dhaka, Dhaka, Bangladesh.
| | - M Anwar Hossain
- Department of Microbiology, University of Dhaka, Dhaka, Bangladesh. .,Jashore Science and Technology University, Jessore, Bangladesh.
| |
Collapse
|
29
|
Pearce ME, Langridge GC, Lauer AC, Grant K, Maiden MCJ, Chattaway MA. An evaluation of the species and subspecies of the genus Salmonella with whole genome sequence data: Proposal of type strains and epithets for novel S. enterica subspecies VII, VIII, IX, X and XI. Genomics 2021; 113:3152-3162. [PMID: 34242711 PMCID: PMC8426187 DOI: 10.1016/j.ygeno.2021.07.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2020] [Revised: 06/25/2021] [Accepted: 07/02/2021] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
Species and subspecies within the Salmonella genus have been defined for public health purposes by biochemical properties; however, reference laboratories have increasingly adopted sequence-based, and especially whole genome sequence (WGS), methods for surveillance and routine identification. This leads to potential disparities in subspecies definitions, routine typing, and the ability to detect novel subspecies. A large-scale analysis of WGS data from the routine sequencing of clinical isolates was employed to define and characterise Salmonella subspecies population structure, demonstrating that the Salmonella species and subspecies were genetically distinct, including those previously identified through phylogenetic approaches, namely: S. enterica subspecies londinensis (VII), subspecies brasiliensis (VIII), subspecies hibernicus (IX) and subspecies essexiensis (X). The analysis also identified an additional novel subspecies, reptilium (XI). Further, these analyses indicated that S. enterica subspecies arizonae (IIIa) isolates were divergent from the other S. enterica subspecies, which clustered together and, on the basis of ANI analysis, subspecies IIIa was sufficiently distinct to be classified as a separate species, S. arizonae. Multiple phylogenetic and statistical approaches generated congruent results, suggesting that the proposed species and subspecies structure was sufficiently biologically robust for routine application. Biochemical analyses demonstrated that not all subspecies were distinguishable by these means and that biochemical approaches did not capture the genomic diversity of the genus. We recommend the adoption of standardised genomic definitions of species and subspecies and a genome sequence-based approach to routine typing for the identification and definition of novel subspecies. A large-scale analysis of genomic data demonstrate Salmonella species and subspecies are genetically distinct. Biochemical analysis does not capture the genomic diversity of the Salmonella genus but routine species and subspecies identification can be achieved with rMLST Average Nucleotide Identify (ANI) with a 95% criteria was suitable to distinguish species and 98% to distinguish subspecies. Five novel S. enteric subspecies (VII-XI) type strains are defined. Reclassification of S. arizonae as a separate species is recommended.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Madison E Pearce
- Department of Zoology, University of Oxford, Peter Medawar Building for Pathogen Research, South Parks Road, Oxford OX1 3SY, United Kingdom; National Institute for Health Research, Health Protection Research Unit, Gastrointestinal Infections, University of Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - Gemma C Langridge
- Quadram Institute Bioscience, Norwich Research Park, Norwich NR4 7UQ, United Kingdom.
| | - A C Lauer
- Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Enteric Diseases Laboratory Branch, 1600 Clifton RD NE, Atlanta, GA 30329, USA.
| | - Kathie Grant
- Public Health England, Gastrointestinal Bacteria Reference Unit, 61 Colindale Avenue, London NW9 5EQ, United Kingdom
| | - Martin C J Maiden
- Department of Zoology, University of Oxford, Peter Medawar Building for Pathogen Research, South Parks Road, Oxford OX1 3SY, United Kingdom; National Institute for Health Research, Health Protection Research Unit, Gastrointestinal Infections, University of Oxford, United Kingdom.
| | - Marie A Chattaway
- Public Health England, Gastrointestinal Bacteria Reference Unit, 61 Colindale Avenue, London NW9 5EQ, United Kingdom.
| |
Collapse
|