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Vouillac-Mendoza C, Durand A, Ahmed SH, Guillem K. Knowledge by omission: the significance of omissions in the 5-choice serial reaction time task. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2024; 241:1319-1328. [PMID: 38443605 DOI: 10.1007/s00213-024-06564-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/08/2023] [Accepted: 02/21/2024] [Indexed: 03/07/2024]
Abstract
RATIONALE The 5-choice serial reaction time task (5-CSRTT) is commonly used to assess attention in rodents. Manipulation of this task by decreasing the light stimulus duration is often used to probe attentional capacity and causes a decrease in accuracy and an increase in omissions. However, although a decrease in response accuracy is commonly interpreted as a decrease in attention, it is more difficult to interpret an increase in omissions in terms of attentional performance. METHODS Here we present a series of experiments in rats that seeks to investigate the origins of these key behavioral measures of attention in the 5-CSRTT. After an initial training in the 5-CSRTT, rats were tested in a variable stimulus duration procedure to increase task difficulty and probe visual attentional capacity under several specific controlled conditions. CONCLUSIONS We found that response accuracy reflects visuospatial sustained attentional processing, as commonly interpreted, while response omission reflects rats' ignorance about the stimulus location, presumably due to failure to pay attention to the curved wall during its presentation. Moreover, when rats lack of relevant information, they choose not to respond instead of responding randomly. Finally, pretreatment with nicotine selectively decreased response omissions, without affecting response accuracy, particularly when the attentional demand was high. Overall, our results indicate that response accuracy and response omission thus correspond to two distinct attentional states.
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Affiliation(s)
- Caroline Vouillac-Mendoza
- Institut de Neurosciences Cognitives et Intégratives d'Aquitaine, CNRS UMR 5287, Université de Bordeaux, Bâtiment BBS - 2ème étage 2, Rue du Dr Hoffmann Martinot, Bordeaux, F-33000, France
| | | | - Serge H Ahmed
- Institut de Neurosciences Cognitives et Intégratives d'Aquitaine, CNRS UMR 5287, Université de Bordeaux, Bâtiment BBS - 2ème étage 2, Rue du Dr Hoffmann Martinot, Bordeaux, F-33000, France
| | - Karine Guillem
- Institut de Neurosciences Cognitives et Intégratives d'Aquitaine, CNRS UMR 5287, Université de Bordeaux, Bâtiment BBS - 2ème étage 2, Rue du Dr Hoffmann Martinot, Bordeaux, F-33000, France.
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Urueña-Méndez G, Arrondeau C, Bellés L, Ginovart N. Decoupling Dopamine Synthesis from Impulsive Action, Risk-Related Decision-Making, and Propensity to Cocaine Intake: A Longitudinal [ 18F]-FDOPA PET Study in Roman High- and Low-Avoidance Rats. eNeuro 2024; 11:ENEURO.0492-23.2023. [PMID: 38253584 PMCID: PMC10867553 DOI: 10.1523/eneuro.0492-23.2023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/24/2023] [Revised: 12/20/2023] [Accepted: 12/26/2023] [Indexed: 01/24/2024] Open
Abstract
Impulsive action and risk-related decision-making (RDM) are two facets of impulsivity linked to a hyperdopaminergic release in the striatum and an increased propensity to cocaine intake. We previously showed that with repeated cocaine exposure, this initial hyperdopaminergic release is blunted in impulsive animals, potentially signaling drug-induced tolerance. Whether such dopaminergic dynamics involve changes in dopamine (DA) synthesis as a function of impulsivity is currently unknown. Here, we investigated the predictive value of DA synthesis for impulsive action, RDM, and the propensity to take cocaine in a rat model of vulnerability to cocaine abuse. Additionally, we assessed the effects of cocaine intake on these variables. Rats were tested sequentially in the rat Gambling Task (rGT) and were scanned with positron emission tomography and [18F]-FDOPA to respectively assess both impulsivity facets and striatal DA synthesis before and after cocaine self-administration (SA). Our results revealed that baseline striatal levels of DA synthesis did not significantly predict impulsive action, RDM, or a greater propensity to cocaine SA in impulsive animals. Besides, we showed that impulsive action, but not RDM, predicted higher rates of cocaine taking. However, chronic cocaine exposure had no impact on DA synthesis, nor affected impulsive action and RDM. These findings indicate that the hyper-responsive DA system associated with impulsivity and a propensity for cocaine consumption, along with the reduction in this hyper-responsive DA state in impulsive animals with a history of cocaine use, might not be mediated by dynamic changes in DA synthesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ginna Urueña-Méndez
- Departments of Psychiatry, Faculty of Medicine, University of Geneva, Geneva CH1206, Switzerland
- Basic Neuroscience, Faculty of Medicine, University of Geneva, Geneva CH1206, Switzerland
| | - Chloé Arrondeau
- Departments of Psychiatry, Faculty of Medicine, University of Geneva, Geneva CH1206, Switzerland
- Basic Neuroscience, Faculty of Medicine, University of Geneva, Geneva CH1206, Switzerland
| | - Lidia Bellés
- Departments of Psychiatry, Faculty of Medicine, University of Geneva, Geneva CH1206, Switzerland
- Basic Neuroscience, Faculty of Medicine, University of Geneva, Geneva CH1206, Switzerland
| | - Nathalie Ginovart
- Departments of Psychiatry, Faculty of Medicine, University of Geneva, Geneva CH1206, Switzerland
- Basic Neuroscience, Faculty of Medicine, University of Geneva, Geneva CH1206, Switzerland
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Jones JA, Belin-Rauscent A, Jupp B, Fouyssac M, Sawiak SJ, Zuhlsdorff K, Zhukovsky P, Hebdon L, Velazquez Sanchez C, Robbins TW, Everitt BJ, Belin D, Dalley JW. Neurobehavioral Precursors of Compulsive Cocaine Seeking in Dual Frontostriatal Circuits. BIOLOGICAL PSYCHIATRY GLOBAL OPEN SCIENCE 2024; 4:194-202. [PMID: 38298793 PMCID: PMC10829640 DOI: 10.1016/j.bpsgos.2023.06.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/07/2023] [Revised: 06/04/2023] [Accepted: 06/09/2023] [Indexed: 02/02/2024] Open
Abstract
Background Only some individuals who use drugs recreationally eventually develop a substance use disorder, characterized in part by the rigid engagement in drug foraging behavior (drug seeking), which is often maintained in the face of adverse consequences (i.e., is compulsive). The neurobehavioral determinants of this individual vulnerability have not been fully elucidated. Methods Using a prospective longitudinal study involving 39 male rats, we combined multidimensional characterization of behavioral traits of vulnerability to stimulant use disorder (impulsivity and stickiness) and resilience (sign tracking and sensation seeking/locomotor reactivity to novelty) with magnetic resonance imaging to identify the structural and functional brain correlates of the later emergence of compulsive drug seeking in drug-naïve subjects. We developed a novel behavioral procedure to investigate the individual tendency to persist in drug-seeking behavior in the face of punishment in a drug-free state in subjects with a prolonged history of cocaine seeking under the control of the conditioned reinforcing properties of a drug-paired Pavlovian conditioned stimulus. Results In drug-naïve rats, the tendency to develop compulsive cocaine seeking was characterized by behavioral stickiness-related functional hypoconnectivity between the prefrontal cortex and posterior dorsomedial striatum in combination with impulsivity-related structural alterations in the infralimbic cortex, anterior insula, and nucleus accumbens. Conclusions These findings show that the vulnerability to developing compulsive cocaine-seeking behavior stems from preexisting structural or functional changes in two distinct corticostriatal systems that underlie deficits in impulse control and goal-directed behavior.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jolyon A. Jones
- Department of Psychology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom
- Behavioural and Clinical Neuroscience Institute, University of Cambridge, Downing Site, Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | - Aude Belin-Rauscent
- Department of Psychology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom
- Behavioural and Clinical Neuroscience Institute, University of Cambridge, Downing Site, Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | - Bianca Jupp
- Department of Neurosciences, Central Clinical School, Monash University, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - Maxime Fouyssac
- Department of Psychology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom
- Behavioural and Clinical Neuroscience Institute, University of Cambridge, Downing Site, Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | - Stephen J. Sawiak
- Behavioural and Clinical Neuroscience Institute, University of Cambridge, Downing Site, Cambridge, United Kingdom
- Department of Physiology, Development and Neuroscience, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | - Katharina Zuhlsdorff
- Department of Psychology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom
- Behavioural and Clinical Neuroscience Institute, University of Cambridge, Downing Site, Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | - Peter Zhukovsky
- Department of Psychology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom
- Centre for Addiction and Mental Health, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Lara Hebdon
- Department of Psychology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom
- Behavioural and Clinical Neuroscience Institute, University of Cambridge, Downing Site, Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | - Clara Velazquez Sanchez
- Department of Psychology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom
- Behavioural and Clinical Neuroscience Institute, University of Cambridge, Downing Site, Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | - Trevor W. Robbins
- Department of Psychology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom
- Behavioural and Clinical Neuroscience Institute, University of Cambridge, Downing Site, Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | - Barry J. Everitt
- Department of Psychology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom
- Behavioural and Clinical Neuroscience Institute, University of Cambridge, Downing Site, Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | - David Belin
- Department of Psychology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom
- Behavioural and Clinical Neuroscience Institute, University of Cambridge, Downing Site, Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | - Jeffrey W. Dalley
- Department of Psychology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom
- Behavioural and Clinical Neuroscience Institute, University of Cambridge, Downing Site, Cambridge, United Kingdom
- Department of Psychiatry, Herschel Smith Building for Brain and Mind Sciences, Forvie Site, Cambridge, United Kingdom
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Armenta-Resendiz M, Assali A, Tsvetkov E, Cowan CW, Lavin A. Repeated methamphetamine administration produces cognitive deficits through augmentation of GABAergic synaptic transmission in the prefrontal cortex. Neuropsychopharmacology 2022; 47:1816-1825. [PMID: 35788684 PMCID: PMC9372065 DOI: 10.1038/s41386-022-01371-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/02/2022] [Revised: 06/14/2022] [Accepted: 06/22/2022] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Methamphetamine (METH) abuse is associated with the emergence of cognitive deficits and hypofrontality, a pathophysiological marker of many neuropsychiatric disorders that is produced by altered balance of local excitatory and inhibitory synaptic transmission. However, there is a dearth of information regarding the cellular and synaptic mechanisms underlying METH-induced cognitive deficits and associated hypofrontal states. Using PV-Cre transgenic rats that went through a METH sensitization regime or saline (SAL) followed by 7-10 days of home cage abstinence combined with cognitive tests, chemogenetic experiments, and whole-cell patch recordings on the prelimbic prefrontal cortex (PFC), we investigated the cellular and synaptic mechanisms underlying METH-induce hypofrontality. We report here that repeated METH administration in rats produces deficits in working memory and increases in inhibitory synaptic transmission onto pyramidal neurons in the PFC. The increased PFC inhibition is detected by an increase in spontaneous and evoked inhibitory postsynaptic synaptic currents (IPSCs), an increase in GABAergic presynaptic function, and a shift in the excitatory-inhibitory balance onto PFC deep-layer pyramidal neurons. We find that pharmacological blockade of D1 dopamine receptor function reduces the METH-induced augmentation of IPSCs, suggesting a critical role for D1 dopamine signaling in METH-induced hypofrontality. In addition, repeated METH administration increases the intrinsic excitability of parvalbumin-positive fast spiking interneurons (PV + FSIs), a key local interneuron population in PFC that contributes to the control of inhibitory tone. Using a cell type-specific chemogenetic approach, we show that increasing PV + FSIs activity in the PFC is necessary and sufficient to cause deficits in temporal order memory similar to those induced by METH. Conversely, reducing PV + FSIs activity in the PFC of METH-exposed rats rescues METH-induced temporal order memory deficits. Together, our findings reveal that repeated METH exposure increases PFC inhibitory tone through a D1 dopamine signaling-dependent potentiation of inhibitory synaptic transmission, and that reduction of PV + FSIs activity can rescue METH-induced cognitive deficits, suggesting a potential therapeutic approach to treating cognitive symptoms in patients suffering from METH use disorder.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Ahlem Assali
- Department of Neuroscience, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, SC, USA
| | - Evgeny Tsvetkov
- Department of Neuroscience, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, SC, USA
| | - Christopher W Cowan
- Department of Neuroscience, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, SC, USA
| | - Antonieta Lavin
- Department of Neuroscience, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, SC, USA.
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Cognitive performance during adulthood in a rat model of neonatal diffuse white matter injury. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2022; 239:745-764. [PMID: 35064798 PMCID: PMC8891199 DOI: 10.1007/s00213-021-06053-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/04/2021] [Accepted: 12/27/2021] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
RATIONALE Infants born prematurely risk developing diffuse white matter injury (WMI), which is associated with impaired cognitive functioning and an increased risk of autism spectrum disorder. Recently, our rat model of preterm diffuse WMI induced by combined fetal inflammation and postnatal hypoxia showed impaired motor performance, anxiety-like behaviour and autism-like behaviour in juvenile rats, especially males. Immunohistochemistry showed delayed myelination in the sensory cortex and impaired oligodendrocyte differentiation. OBJECTIVE To assess long-term cognitive deficits in this double-hit rat model of diffuse WMI, animals were screened on impulsivity, attention and cognitive flexibility in adulthood using the 5-choice serial reaction time task (5CSRTT) and a probabilistic reversal learning task, tests that require a proper functioning prefrontal cortex. Thereafter, myelination deficits were evaluated by immunofluorescent staining in adulthood. RESULTS Overall, little effect of WMI or sex was found in the cognitive tasks. WMI animals showed subtle differences in performance in the 5CSRTT. Manipulating 5CSRTT parameters resulted in performance patterns previously seen in the literature. Sex differences were found in perseverative responses and omitted trials: female WMI rats seem to be less flexible in the 5CSRTT but not in the reversal learning task. Males collected rewards faster in the probabilistic reversal learning task. These findings are explained by temporally rather than permanently affected myelination and by the absence of extensive injury to prefrontal cortical subregions, confirmed by immunofluorescent staining in both adolescence and adulthood. CONCLUSION This rat model of preterm WMI does not lead to long-term cognitive deficits as observed in prematurely born human infants.
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Mora S, Martín-González E, Prados-Pardo Á, Moreno J, López MJ, Pilar-Cuellar F, Castro E, Díaz Á, Flores P, Moreno M. Increased vulnerability to impulsive behavior after streptococcal antigen exposure and antibiotic treatment in rats. Brain Behav Immun 2020; 89:675-688. [PMID: 32798664 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbi.2020.08.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/20/2020] [Revised: 08/04/2020] [Accepted: 08/11/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
RATIONALE The inflammation induced by Group A Streptococcus (GAS) infection has been viewed as a vulnerability factor in mental disorders characterized by inhibitory control deficits, such as attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder or obsessive-compulsive disorder. Antibiotic treatment reduces GAS symptoms; however, its effects on impulsivity have not been fully assessed. OBJECTIVES We investigated whether GAS exposure during early adolescence might be a vulnerability factor for adult impulsivity, if antibiotic treatment acts as a protective factor, and whether these differences are accompanied by changes in the inflammatory cytokine frontostriatal regions. METHODS Male Wistar rats were exposed to the GAS antigen or to vehicle plus adjuvants at postnatal day (PND) 35 (with two boosts), and they received either ampicillin (supplemented in the drinking water) or water alone from PND35 to PND70. Adult impulsivity was assessed using two different models, the 5-choice serial reaction time task (5-CSRT task) and the delay discounting task (DDT). The levels of interleukin-6 (IL-6) and IL-17 were measured in the prefrontal cortex (PFc), and the tumor necrosis factor α levels (TNFα) were measured in the PFc and nucleus accumbens (NAcc). RESULTS GAS exposure and ampicillin treatment increased the waiting impulsivity by a higher number of premature responses when the animals were challenged by a long intertrial interval during the 5-CSRT task. The GAS exposure revealed higher impulsive choices at the highest delay (40 s) when tested by DDT, while coadministration with ampicillin prevented the impulsive choice. GAS exposure and ampicillin reduced the IL-6 and IL-17 levels in the PFc, and ampicillin treatment increased the TNFα levels in the NAcc. A regression analysis revealed a significant contribution of GAS exposure and TNFα levels to the observed effects. CONCLUSIONS GAS exposure and ampicillin treatment induced an inhibitory control deficit in a different manner depending on the form of impulsivity measured here, with inflammatory long-term changes in the PFc and NAcc that might increase the vulnerability to impulsivity-related neuropsychiatric disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Santiago Mora
- Department of Psychology and Health Research Centre, University of Almería, Carretera de Sacramento s/n, 04120 Almería, Spain
| | - Elena Martín-González
- Department of Psychology and Health Research Centre, University of Almería, Carretera de Sacramento s/n, 04120 Almería, Spain
| | - Ángeles Prados-Pardo
- Department of Psychology and Health Research Centre, University of Almería, Carretera de Sacramento s/n, 04120 Almería, Spain
| | - Joaquín Moreno
- Department of Biology and Geology, CeiA3 and CIAMBITAL, University of Almería, Carretera de Sacramento s/n, 04120 Almería, Spain
| | - María José López
- Department of Biology and Geology, CeiA3 and CIAMBITAL, University of Almería, Carretera de Sacramento s/n, 04120 Almería, Spain
| | - Fuencisla Pilar-Cuellar
- Biomedical Research Networking Center for Mental Health Network (CIBERSAM), Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Santander, Spain; Institute of Biomedicine and Biotechnology of Cantabria (IBBTEC), University of Cantabria-CSIC-SODERCAN, 39011 Santander, Spain; Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, University of Cantabria, 39011 Santander, Spain
| | - Elena Castro
- Biomedical Research Networking Center for Mental Health Network (CIBERSAM), Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Santander, Spain; Institute of Biomedicine and Biotechnology of Cantabria (IBBTEC), University of Cantabria-CSIC-SODERCAN, 39011 Santander, Spain; Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, University of Cantabria, 39011 Santander, Spain
| | - Álvaro Díaz
- Biomedical Research Networking Center for Mental Health Network (CIBERSAM), Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Santander, Spain; Institute of Biomedicine and Biotechnology of Cantabria (IBBTEC), University of Cantabria-CSIC-SODERCAN, 39011 Santander, Spain; Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, University of Cantabria, 39011 Santander, Spain
| | - Pilar Flores
- Department of Psychology and Health Research Centre, University of Almería, Carretera de Sacramento s/n, 04120 Almería, Spain
| | - Margarita Moreno
- Department of Psychology and Health Research Centre, University of Almería, Carretera de Sacramento s/n, 04120 Almería, Spain.
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Nazari A, Perez-Fernandez C, Flores P, Moreno M, Sánchez-Santed F. Age-dependent effects of repeated methamphetamine exposure on locomotor activity and attentional function in rats. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 2020; 191:172879. [PMID: 32088359 DOI: 10.1016/j.pbb.2020.172879] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/05/2019] [Revised: 01/29/2020] [Accepted: 02/20/2020] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
Abstract
Many adolescents use amphetamines which are the second most common abused illegal drugs. Methamphetamine (Meth), as a potent amphetamine affects attentional functions. However, the most significant factor for susceptibility to Meth is the age of exposure, most studies have examined the effects of Meth after early adolescence stage. The present experiment was aimed to investigate some possible short- and long-term effects of Meth at two distinct points of adolescence stage (early versus late) on 1) locomotor activity in adolescent rats and 2) attentional functions in their adulthood. Rats received Meth (5 mg/kg, i.p., for consecutive 10 days) during early adolescence (postnatal days (PND) 30-39) or late adolescence (PND 50-59). Locomotor activity was assessed after the first and tenth injections. Then, in adulthood, rats were trained and tested on the Five-choice serial reaction time task (5-CSRTT) to display possible attentional impairments. The first Meth administration in early exposed adolescent (EEA) group produced the highest level of activity, compared with the first exposure in late exposed adolescent (LEA) group and tenth administrations in both groups. In adulthood, LEA group significantly delayed learning the 5-CSRTT and exhibited attentional impairments, as demonstrated by significant reduced response accuracy and increased omission errors under pharmacological challenge, compared with control group. The susceptibility to Meth depends on the age of exposure and Meth administration during late adolescence stage may cause prolonged attentional deficits in adulthood.
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Affiliation(s)
- Azadeh Nazari
- Department of Neuroscience and Addiction Studies, School of Advanced Technologies in Medicine, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, No, 88, Italia Street, Qods Street, 14177-55469 Tehran, Iran.
| | - Cristian Perez-Fernandez
- Department of Psychology, and Heath Research Center, Universidad de Almería, Carretera de Sacramento s/n, 04120 Almería, Spain.
| | - Pilar Flores
- Department of Psychology, and Heath Research Center, Universidad de Almería, Carretera de Sacramento s/n, 04120 Almería, Spain.
| | - Margarita Moreno
- Department of Psychology, and Heath Research Center, Universidad de Almería, Carretera de Sacramento s/n, 04120 Almería, Spain.
| | - Fernando Sánchez-Santed
- Department of Psychology, and Heath Research Center, Universidad de Almería, Carretera de Sacramento s/n, 04120 Almería, Spain.
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Guo H, Xie Q, Cui J, Xu D, Deji C, Chen Y, Wang Y, Lai J. Naloxone reversed cognitive impairments induced by repeated morphine under heavy perceptual load in the 5-choice serial reaction time task. J Neurosci Res 2019; 97:1051-1065. [PMID: 31081159 DOI: 10.1002/jnr.24427] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/22/2018] [Revised: 02/28/2019] [Accepted: 03/18/2019] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
Repeated opioids abuse may produce long-lasting and complicated cognitive deficits in individuals. Naloxone is a typical mu-opioid receptor antagonist widely used in clinical treatment for opioid overdose and opioid abuse. However, it remains unclear whether naloxone affects morphine-induced cognitive deficits. Using the 5-choice serial reaction time task (5-CSRTT), the present study investigated cognitive profiles including attention, impulsivity, compulsivity, and processing speed in repeated morphine-treated mice. Repeated morphine administration (10 mg/kg, i.p.) induced complex cognitive changes including decreased attention and increased impulsivity, compulsivity, processing speed. Systemic naloxone administration (5 mg/kg, i.p.) reversed these cognitive changes under the heavy perceptual load in 5-CSRTT. Using the novel object recognition (NOR), Y-maze and open-field test (OFT), the present study investigated the memory ability and locomotor activity. Naloxone reversed the effect of morphine on recognition memory and locomotion but had no effect on working memory. In addition, repeated morphine administration decreased the expression of postsynaptic density protein 95 (PSD95) and cAMP response element binding protein (CREB) phosphorylation in the prefrontal cortex (PFC) and hippocampus (HIP), and these effects were significantly reversed by naloxone in PFC. Our study suggests that repeated exposure to morphine affects multiple cognitive aspects and impairs synaptic functions. Systemic naloxone treatment reverses the mu-opioids-induced cognitive changes, especially under the heavy perceptual load, possibly by restoring the synaptic dysfunctions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hao Guo
- College of Forensic Science, Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an, China
| | - Qiaoli Xie
- College of Forensic Science, Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an, China
| | - Jingjing Cui
- College of Forensic Science, Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an, China
| | - Dan Xu
- College of Forensic Science, Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an, China
| | - Cuola Deji
- College of Forensic Science, Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an, China
| | - Yuanyuan Chen
- College of Forensic Science, Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an, China
| | - Yunpeng Wang
- College of Forensic Science, Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an, China
| | - Jianghua Lai
- College of Forensic Science, Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an, China.,Key Laboratory of Ministry of Public Health for Forensic Science, Xi'an, China
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Comparison of Continuous Performance Test Results of Former Morphine and Methamphetamine Users During the Early Abstinence Phase. IRANIAN JOURNAL OF PSYCHIATRY AND BEHAVIORAL SCIENCES 2018. [DOI: 10.5812/ijpbs.57233] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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Abstract
Chronic use of mind altering substances can lead to a wide variety of neuropsychological deficits, affecting the domains of attention, learning, memory, reasoning. Executive functions such as working memory, cognitive flexibility and inhibitory control may specifically be impaired. These deficits can impact engagement in effective psychosocial interventions. Mild to moderate cognitive dysfunction may not be picked up in routine clinical examination or through commonly used tests like the mini-mental state examination (MMSE). Detailed neuropsychological tests, although extremely valuable, are time and human-resource intensive and are not readily available to the clinician. This study attempted to devise a brief cognitive screen (BCS- AUD) for alcohol use disorders. Ninety subjects who fulfilled ICD-10 criteria for alcohol use disorders were assessed on the MMSE and selective tests from the NIMHANS neuropsychological battery. While 79 (87.78%) of patients had adequate scores on the MMSE (>25), cognitive deficits were noted with relatively high frequency on finger tapping (92.22-93.33%), auditory verbal learning test delayed recall AVLTDR (37-63%) and Tower of London 5 move subtest (42%). Statistically significant associations were found between MMSE and Digit symbol total time (0.05), Finger tapping right hand (0.01), Tower of London total number of problems solved with minimum moves (TNPSMM) (0.05), Verbal working memory two back hits (VM2BKHIT) (0.01), AVLTDR (0.01), and complex figure test-copy (0.01). Principal component analysis helped to identify three tests that merited inclusion in the BCS-AUD, namely Finger Tapping Test, Verbal Working Memory N Back Test and Auditory Verbal Test (AVLT). The utility of the BCS-AUD in identifying cognitive dysfunction in other substance use disorders needs to be examined. Patients rating positive on the cognitive screener would require in-depth evaluation, monitoring and remediation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Arun Gupta
- Flinders Medical Centre, Bedford Park SA 5042, Australia
| | | | - Shobini Rao
- Department of Clinical Psychology, National Institute of Mental Health and Neuro Sciences, Bengaluru, India
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Fizet J, Cassel JC, Kelche C, Meunier H. A review of the 5-Choice Serial Reaction Time (5-CSRT) task in different vertebrate models. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2016; 71:135-153. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2016.08.027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2016] [Revised: 08/24/2016] [Accepted: 08/26/2016] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
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Chronic methamphetamine self-administration disrupts cortical control of cognition. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2016; 69:36-48. [PMID: 27450578 DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2016.07.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2015] [Revised: 07/18/2016] [Accepted: 07/19/2016] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Methamphetamine (meth) is one of the most abused substances worldwide. Chronic use has been associated with repeated relapse episodes that may be exacerbated by cognitive impairments during drug abstinence. Growing evidence demonstrates that meth compromises prefrontal cortex activity, resulting in persisting attentional and memory impairments. After summarizing recent studies of meth-induced cognitive dysfunction using a translationally relevant model of self-administered meth, this review emphasizes the cortical brain changes contributing to cognitive dysregulation during abstinence. Finally, we propose the use of cognitive enhancers during abstinence that may promote a drug-free state by reversing cortical dysfunction linked with prolonged meth abuse.
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Janetsian SS, Linsenbardt DN, Lapish CC. Memory impairment and alterations in prefrontal cortex gamma band activity following methamphetamine sensitization. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2015; 232:2083-95. [PMID: 25572530 PMCID: PMC4433565 DOI: 10.1007/s00213-014-3840-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/24/2014] [Accepted: 12/05/2014] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
RATIONALE Repeated methamphetamine (MA) use leads to increases in the incentive motivational properties of the drug as well as cognitive impairments. These behavioral alterations persist for some time following abstinence, and neuroadaptations in the structure and function of the prefrontal cortex (PFC) are particularly important for their expression. However, there is a weak understanding of the changes in neural firing and oscillatory activity in the PFC evoked by repeated drug use, thus complicating the development of novel treatment strategies for addiction. OBJECTIVES The purpose of the current study was to assess changes in cognitive and brain function following MA sensitization. METHODS Sensitization was induced in rats, then temporal and recognition memory were assessed after 1 or 30 days of abstinence. Electrophysiological recordings from the medial PFC were also acquired from rats whereupon simultaneous measures of oscillatory and spiking activity were examined. RESULTS Impaired temporal memory was observed after 1 and 30 days of abstinence. However, recognition memory was only impaired after 1 day of abstinence. An injection of MA profoundly decreased neuronal firing rate and the anesthesia-induced slow oscillation (SO) in both sensitized (SENS) and control (CTRL) rats. Strong correlations were observed between the SO and gamma band power, which was altered in SENS animals. A decrease in the number of neurons phase-locked to the gamma oscillation was also observed in SENS animals. CONCLUSIONS The changes observed in PFC function may play an integral role in the expression of the altered behavioral phenotype evoked by MA sensitization.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarine S. Janetsian
- Department of Psychology, Indiana University-Purdue University Indianapolis, 402 N. Blackford, LD 124, Indianapolis, IN 46202, USA
| | - David N. Linsenbardt
- Department of Psychology, Indiana University-Purdue University Indianapolis, 402 N. Blackford, LD 124, Indianapolis, IN 46202, USA
| | - Christopher C. Lapish
- Department of Psychology, Indiana University-Purdue University Indianapolis, 402 N. Blackford, LD 124, Indianapolis, IN 46202, USA. Stark Neuroscience Institute, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, IN, USA. School of Science Institute for Mathematical Modeling and Computational Sciences, Indiana University-Purdue University Indianapolis, 402 N. Blackford, LD 124, Indianapolis, IN 46202, USA
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Whitelock CF, Agyepong HN, Patterson K, Ersche KD. Signing below the dotted line: signature position as a marker of vulnerability for visuospatial processing difficulties. Neurocase 2015; 21:67-72. [PMID: 24313358 PMCID: PMC4241630 DOI: 10.1080/13554794.2013.860178] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/04/2022]
Abstract
Almost one-third of the participants in a neuropsychological study signed the consent form below the given line. The relationship between a signature position on or below the line and participants' cognitive function was investigated. Fifty drug-dependent individuals, 50 of their siblings, and 50 unrelated control participants completed a battery of neuropsychological tests using the Cambridge Neuropsychological Test Automated Battery (CANTAB). Individuals signing below, rather than on, the line performed more poorly on tests of visuospatial memory, but no differently on other cognitive tests. Signature positioning may be a soft sign for impairment of the mechanisms involved in visuospatial memory.
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Affiliation(s)
- Claire F Whitelock
- a Department of Psychiatry and Behavioural and Clinical Neuroscience Institute , University of Cambridge , Cambridge , UK
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Cassaday HJ, Nelson AJD, Pezze MA. From attention to memory along the dorsal-ventral axis of the medial prefrontal cortex: some methodological considerations. Front Syst Neurosci 2014; 8:160. [PMID: 25249948 PMCID: PMC4157611 DOI: 10.3389/fnsys.2014.00160] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/10/2014] [Accepted: 08/15/2014] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Distinctions along the dorsal-ventral axis of medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC), between anterior cingulate (AC), prelimbic (PL), and infralimbic (IL) sub-regions, have been proposed on a variety of neuroanatomical and neurophysiological grounds. Conventional lesion approaches (as well as some electrophysiological studies) have shown that these distinctions relate to function in that a number behavioral dissociations have been demonstrated, particularly using rodent models of attention, learning, and memory. For example, there is evidence to suggest that AC has a relatively greater role in attention, whereas IL is more involved in executive function. However, the well-established methods of behavioral neuroscience have the limitation that neuromodulation is not addressed. The neurotoxin 6-hydroxydopamine has been used to deplete dopamine (DA) in mPFC sub-regions, but these lesions are not selective anatomically and noradrenalin is typically also depleted. Microinfusion of drugs through indwelling cannulae provides an alternative approach, to address the role of neuromodulation and moreover that of specific receptor subtypes within mPFC sub-regions, but the effects of such treatments cannot be assumed to be anatomically restricted either. New methodological approaches to the functional delineation of the role of mPFC in attention, learning and memory will also be considered. Taken in isolation, the conventional lesion methods which have been a first line of approach may suggest that a particular mPFC sub-region is not necessary for a particular aspect of function. However, this does not exclude a neuromodulatory role and more neuropsychopharmacological approaches are needed to explain some of the apparent inconsistencies in the results.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Andrew J D Nelson
- School of Psychology, University of Nottingham Nottingham, UK ; School of Psychology, Cardiff University Cardiff, UK
| | - Marie A Pezze
- School of Psychology, University of Nottingham Nottingham, UK
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Asinof SK, Paine TA. The 5-choice serial reaction time task: a task of attention and impulse control for rodents. J Vis Exp 2014:e51574. [PMID: 25146934 DOI: 10.3791/51574] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/31/2022] Open
Abstract
This protocol describes the 5-choice serial reaction time task, which is an operant based task used to study attention and impulse control in rodents. Test day challenges, modifications to the standard task, can be used to systematically tax the neural systems controlling either attention or impulse control. Importantly, these challenges have consistent effects on behavior across laboratories in intact animals and can reveal either enhancements or deficits in cognitive function that are not apparent when rats are only tested on the standard task. The variety of behavioral measures that are collected can be used to determine if other factors (i.e., sedation, motivation deficits, locomotor impairments) are contributing to changes in performance. The versatility of the 5CSRTT is further enhanced because it is amenable to combination with pharmacological, molecular, and genetic techniques.
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dela Peña I, Kim HJ, Sohn A, Kim BN, Han DH, Ryu JH, Shin CY, Noh M, Cheong JH. Prefrontal cortical and striatal transcriptional responses to the reinforcing effect of repeated methylphenidate treatment in the spontaneously hypertensive rat, animal model of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Behav Brain Funct 2014; 10:17. [PMID: 24884696 PMCID: PMC4077266 DOI: 10.1186/1744-9081-10-17] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/22/2014] [Accepted: 04/25/2014] [Indexed: 01/12/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Methylphenidate is the most commonly used stimulant drug for the treatment of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Research has found that methylphenidate is a “reinforcer” and that individuals with ADHD also abuse this medication. Nevertheless, the molecular consequences of long-term recreational methylphenidate use or abuse in individuals with ADHD are not yet fully known. Methods Spontaneously hypertensive rats (SHR), the most validated and widely used ADHD animal model, were pretreated with methylphenidate (5 mg/kg, i.p.) during their adolescence (post-natal day [PND] 42–48) and tested for subsequent methylphenidate-induced conditioned place preference (CPP) and self-administration. Thereafter, the differentially expressed genes in the prefrontal cortex (PFC) and striatum of representative methylphenidate-treated SHRs, which showed CPP to and self-administration of methylphenidate, were analyzed. Results Genome-wide transcriptome profiling analyses revealed 30 differentially expressed genes in the PFC, which include transcripts involved in apoptosis (e.g. S100a9, Angptl4, Nfkbia), transcription (Cebpb, Per3), and neuronal plasticity (Homer1, Jam2, Asap1). In contrast, 306 genes were differentially expressed in the striatum and among them, 252 were downregulated. The main functional categories overrepresented among the downregulated genes include those involved in cell adhesion (e.g. Pcdh10, Ctbbd1, Itgb6), positive regulation of apoptosis (Perp, Taf1, Api5), (Notch3, Nsbp1, Sik1), mitochondrion organization (Prps18c, Letm1, Uqcrc2), and ubiquitin-mediated proteolysis (Nedd4, Usp27x, Ube2d2). Conclusion Together, these changes indicate methylphenidate-induced neurotoxicity, altered synaptic and neuronal plasticity, energy metabolism and ubiquitin-dependent protein degradation in the brains of methylphenidate-treated SHRs, which showed methylphenidate CPP and self-administration. In addition, these findings may also reflect cognitive impairment associated with chronic methylphenidate use as demonstrated in preclinical studies. Future studies are warranted to determine the clinical significance of the present findings with regard to long-term recreational methylphenidate use or abuse in individuals with ADHD.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | - Minsoo Noh
- Uimyung Research Institute for Neuroscience, Sahmyook University, 26-21 Kongreung-2-dong, Hwarangro- 815 Nowon-gu, Seoul 139-742, Korea.
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Jentsch JD, Ashenhurst JR, Cervantes MC, Groman SM, James AS, Pennington ZT. Dissecting impulsivity and its relationships to drug addictions. Ann N Y Acad Sci 2014; 1327:1-26. [PMID: 24654857 DOI: 10.1111/nyas.12388] [Citation(s) in RCA: 140] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Addictions are often characterized as forms of impulsive behavior. That said, it is often noted that impulsivity is a multidimensional construct, spanning several psychological domains. This review describes the relationship between varieties of impulsivity and addiction-related behaviors, the nature of the causal relationship between the two, and the underlying neurobiological mechanisms that promote impulsive behaviors. We conclude that the available data strongly support the notion that impulsivity is both a risk factor for, and a consequence of, drug and alcohol consumption. While the evidence indicating that subtypes of impulsive behavior are uniquely informative--either biologically or with respect to their relationships to addictions--is convincing, multiple lines of study link distinct subtypes of impulsivity to low dopamine D2 receptor function and perturbed serotonergic transmission, revealing shared mechanisms between the subtypes. Therefore, a common biological framework involving monoaminergic transmitters in key frontostriatal circuits may link multiple forms of impulsivity to drug self-administration and addiction-related behaviors. Further dissection of these relationships is needed before the next phase of genetic and genomic discovery will be able to reveal the biological sources of the vulnerability for addiction indexed by impulsivity.
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Affiliation(s)
- J David Jentsch
- Department of Psychology, University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California
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Lu CL, Ku YC, Lo SM, Peng CH, Tung CS, Lin YW, Liu YP. Acute and subchronic effects of buspirone on attention and impulsivity in the five-choice serial reaction time task in rats. Neurosci Lett 2013; 556:210-5. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neulet.2013.10.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/06/2013] [Revised: 09/29/2013] [Accepted: 10/04/2013] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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20
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Caprioli D, Fryer TD, Sawiak SJ, Aigbirhio FI, Dalley JW. Translating positron emission tomography studies in animals to stimulant addiction: promises and pitfalls. Curr Opin Neurobiol 2013; 23:597-606. [DOI: 10.1016/j.conb.2013.04.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/27/2013] [Accepted: 04/04/2013] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
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Kamat PK, Rai S, Nath C. Okadaic acid induced neurotoxicity: An emerging tool to study Alzheimer's disease pathology. Neurotoxicology 2013; 37:163-72. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neuro.2013.05.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/01/2013] [Revised: 04/25/2013] [Accepted: 05/03/2013] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
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22
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Caprioli D, Hong YT, Sawiak SJ, Ferrari V, Williamson DJ, Jupp B, Adrian Carpenter T, Aigbirhio FI, Everitt BJ, Robbins TW, Fryer TD, Dalley JW. Baseline-dependent effects of cocaine pre-exposure on impulsivity and D2/3 receptor availability in the rat striatum: possible relevance to the attention-deficit hyperactivity syndrome. Neuropsychopharmacology 2013; 38:1460-71. [PMID: 23399948 PMCID: PMC3682140 DOI: 10.1038/npp.2013.44] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
We have previously shown that impulsivity in rats predicts the emergence of compulsive cocaine seeking and taking, and is coupled to decreased D2/3 receptor availability in the ventral striatum. As withdrawal from cocaine normalises high impulsivity in rats, we investigated, using positron emission tomography (PET), the effects of response-contingent cocaine administration on D2/3 receptor availability in the striatum. Rats were screened for impulsive behavior on the five-choice serial reaction time task. After a baseline PET scan with the D2/3 ligand [(18)F]fallypride, rats were trained to self-administer cocaine for 15 days under a long-access schedule. As a follow-up, rats were assessed for impulsivity and underwent a second [(18)F]fallypride PET scan. At baseline, we found that D2/3 receptor availability was significantly lower in the left, but not right, ventral striatum of high-impulsive rats compared with low-impulsive rats. While the number of self-administered cocaine infusions was not different between the two impulsivity groups, impulsivity selectively decreased in high-impulsive rats withdrawn from cocaine. This effect was accompanied by a significant increase in D2/3 receptor availability in the left, but not right, ventral striatum. We further report that D2/3 receptor availability was inversely related to baseline D2/3 receptor availability in the ventral striatum of high-impulsive rats, as well as to the left and right dorsal striatum of both low-impulsive and high-impulsive rats. These findings indicate that the reduction in impulsivity in high-impulsive rats by prior cocaine exposure may be mediated by a selective correction of deficient D2/3 receptor availability in the ventral striatum. A similar baseline-dependent mechanism may account for the therapeutic effects of stimulant drugs in clinical disorders such as ADHD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniele Caprioli
- Behavioural and Clinical Neuroscience Institute, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK,Department of Psychology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
| | - Young T Hong
- Department of Clinical Neurosciences, University of Cambridge, Wolfson Brain Imaging Centre, Cambridge Biomedical Campus, Cambridge, UK
| | - Stephen J Sawiak
- Behavioural and Clinical Neuroscience Institute, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK,Department of Clinical Neurosciences, University of Cambridge, Wolfson Brain Imaging Centre, Cambridge Biomedical Campus, Cambridge, UK
| | - Valentina Ferrari
- Department of Clinical Neurosciences, University of Cambridge, Wolfson Brain Imaging Centre, Cambridge Biomedical Campus, Cambridge, UK
| | - David J Williamson
- Department of Clinical Neurosciences, University of Cambridge, Wolfson Brain Imaging Centre, Cambridge Biomedical Campus, Cambridge, UK
| | - Bianca Jupp
- Behavioural and Clinical Neuroscience Institute, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK,Department of Psychology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
| | - T Adrian Carpenter
- Behavioural and Clinical Neuroscience Institute, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK,Department of Clinical Neurosciences, University of Cambridge, Wolfson Brain Imaging Centre, Cambridge Biomedical Campus, Cambridge, UK
| | - Franklin I Aigbirhio
- Behavioural and Clinical Neuroscience Institute, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK,Department of Clinical Neurosciences, University of Cambridge, Wolfson Brain Imaging Centre, Cambridge Biomedical Campus, Cambridge, UK
| | - Barry J Everitt
- Behavioural and Clinical Neuroscience Institute, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK,Department of Psychology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
| | - Trevor W Robbins
- Behavioural and Clinical Neuroscience Institute, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK,Department of Psychology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
| | - Tim D Fryer
- Behavioural and Clinical Neuroscience Institute, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK,Department of Clinical Neurosciences, University of Cambridge, Wolfson Brain Imaging Centre, Cambridge Biomedical Campus, Cambridge, UK
| | - Jeffrey W Dalley
- Behavioural and Clinical Neuroscience Institute, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK,Department of Psychology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK,Department of Psychiatry, University of Cambridge, Cambridge Biomedical Campus, Cambridge, UK,Department of Psychology, University of Cambridge, Downing St, Cambridge CB2 3EB, UK. Tel: +44 0 1223 765 291; Fax: +44 0 1223 333 564. E-mail:
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Abstract
Although the serotonin (5-hydroxytryptamine, 5-HT) neurotransmitter system has been implicated in modulating executive control processes such as attention, response inhibition, and behavioral flexibility, the contributions of particular serotonin receptors remain unclear. Here, using operant-based behavioral paradigms, we demonstrate that mice with genetically ablated 5-HT2C receptors (2CKO mice) display deficits in executive functions. 2CKO mice were impaired in the acquisition of a visuospatial attention task as assessed in the 5-choice serial reaction time task (5-CSRTT). In this task, 2CKO mice exhibited marked impairment of attentional processes, with normal response inhibition. We assessed dynamic changes in neurotransmitter levels within the nucleus accumbens (NAc) by in vivo microdialysis in task-performing animals. Extracellular dopamine concentrations were elevated in the NAc of 2CKO mice during task performance, indicating that 5-HT2C receptors impact dopamine homeostasis during a visuospatial attention task. These findings raise the possibility that disinhibition of mesolimbic dopamine pathways contributes to impaired attention and perturbed task performance in 2CKO mice. Additionally, in a spatial reversal learning task, 2CKO mice failed to improve their performance over a series of reversals, indicating that intact 5-HT2C receptor signaling is required to accurately respond to repeated changes in reward contingencies. In contrast to the 2CKO phenotype in the 5-CSRTT, wild-type mice treated with the 5-HT2C receptor antagonist SB242084 exhibited diminished response inhibition, suggesting differing effects of acute pharmacological blockade and constitutive loss of 5-HT2C receptor activity. Altogether, these findings provide insights into the serotonergic regulation of executive control processes and suggest that impaired 5-HT2C receptor signaling during development may predispose to executive function disorders.
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Abuse and dependence liability analysis of methylphenidate in the spontaneously hypertensive rat model of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD): what have we learned? Arch Pharm Res 2013; 36:400-10. [PMID: 23471559 DOI: 10.1007/s12272-013-0037-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/22/2012] [Accepted: 02/05/2013] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
Methylphenidate is the most prescribed stimulant medication for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Despite the well documented clinical benefits of the drug, several questions remain unanswered concerning the effects of extended methylphenidate use (e.g. can methylphenidate be abused by ADHD patients? does repeated methylphenidate treatment produce addiction?). Preclinical studies can help address the long-term safety of clinical treatments, moreover animal studies provide valuable information on the details of drug actions. The spontaneously hypertensive rat (SHR), bred from normotensive Wistar Kyoto rat strain, is considered as the best validated and the most widely used animal model of ADHD. We reviewed the findings of research reports that investigated the abuse and dependence liability of methylphenidate in SHR. In particular, we surveyed the studies which investigated the effects of methylphenidate pretreatment on subsequent methylphenidate-induced conditioned place preference or self-administration for they may give insights into the abuse or dependence liability of long-term methylphenidate treatment in ADHD.
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Therapeutic potential of histaminergic compounds in the treatment of addiction and drug-related cognitive disorders. Behav Brain Res 2013; 237:357-68. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bbr.2012.09.025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/03/2012] [Revised: 09/13/2012] [Accepted: 09/16/2012] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
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Belin D, Deroche-Gamonet V. Responses to novelty and vulnerability to cocaine addiction: contribution of a multi-symptomatic animal model. Cold Spring Harb Perspect Med 2012; 2:2/11/a011940. [PMID: 23125204 DOI: 10.1101/cshperspect.a011940] [Citation(s) in RCA: 99] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Epidemiological studies have revealed striking associations between several distinct behavioral/personality traits and drug addiction, with a large emphasis on the sensation-seeking trait and the associated impulsive dimension of personality. However, in human studies, it is difficult to identify whether personality/behavioral traits actually contribute to increased vulnerability to drug addiction or reflect psychobiological adaptations to chronic drug exposure. Here we show how animal models, including the first multi-symptomatic model of addiction in the rat, have contributed to a better understanding of the relationships between different subdimensions of the sensation-seeking trait and different stages of the development of cocaine addiction, from vulnerability to initiation of cocaine self-administration to the transition to compulsive drug intake. We argue that sensation seeking predicts vulnerability to use cocaine, whereas novelty seeking, akin to high impulsivity, predicts instead vulnerability to shift from controlled to compulsive cocaine use, that is, addiction.
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Affiliation(s)
- David Belin
- INSERM U, Laboratoire de Neurosciences Expérimentales et Cliniques, Group Psychobiology of Compulsive Disorders, Université de Poitiers, France
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Reichel CM, Chan C, Ghee SM, See RE. Sex differences in escalation of methamphetamine self-administration: cognitive and motivational consequences in rats. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2012; 223:371-80. [PMID: 22592902 PMCID: PMC3698560 DOI: 10.1007/s00213-012-2727-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 114] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/08/2012] [Accepted: 04/15/2012] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
RATIONALE Male rats escalate methamphetamine (meth) intake during long-access meth self-administration, show enhanced reinstatement of meth-seeking, and exhibit meth-induced memory impairments. However, the impact of long-access daily meth self-administration on reinstatement and cognitive dysfunction has not been assessed in females, even though clinical studies on meth addiction have shown differences between men and women. OBJECTIVES This study determined whether male and freely cycling female rats: (1) escalate meth intake in a 6-h daily-access period relative to 1-h access; (2) show different sensitivity to meth primed reinstatement after short- and long-access conditions; and (3) show deficits in novel object and object in place recognition memory. METHODS Male and female Long-Evans rats self-administered meth in limited (1-h/day) or extended (6-h/day) daily access sessions. After 21 days, meth access was discontinued, and rats entered an abstinence period. On the seventh and 14th days of abstinence, rats were assessed for recognition memory using tests for: (a) novel object recognition memory and (b) object-in-place memory. Rats were tested for reinstatement of meth-seeking following extinction of responding. RESULTS Female rats self-administered more meth and escalated intake faster than males during extended, but not limited, daily access. Both males and females in the extended, but not limited, access groups showed memory deficits on both tasks. Female rats showed greater reinstatement to meth-seeking with lower doses of meth priming injections than males. CONCLUSIONS Relative to males, females were equally susceptible to meth-induced memory deficits but exhibited higher meth intake and greater relapse to meth-seeking.
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Amitai N, Markou A. Comparative effects of different test day challenges on performance in the 5-choice serial reaction time task. Behav Neurosci 2012; 125:764-74. [PMID: 21942437 DOI: 10.1037/a0024722] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
The 5-choice serial reaction time task (5-CSRTT) is a valuable cognitive test that permits the simultaneous assessment of several different cognitive modalities, including attention, impulse control, processing speed, and cognitive flexibility. Increasing task difficulty on test days through various challenges can further enhance the versatility of this test by selectively enhancing the cognitive load on different aspects of the task. Systematic comparisons of the effects of different test day challenges on 5-CSRTT performance are essential to verify how these challenges affect different task measures and which manipulations are best suited for future studies of different aspects of cognition. We trained Wistar rats in the 5-CSRTT under standard conditions, then challenged them on the test days by (1) decreasing the duration of the stimulus to be detected, (2) increasing the time interval between trials (intertrial interval, ITI), (3) randomly varying the ITI, or (4) adding a flashing light distractor. All test day challenges produced distinct profiles of performance disruption that reflected differential effects on different cognitive modalities. Decreased stimulus duration selectively impaired attentional performance, while increased ITI increased impulsive-like premature responses and decreased trials completed. Variable ITI induced only mild, nonsignificant disruptions in response inhibition and processing speed, while the flashing light distractor produced comprehensive impairment affecting multiple aspects of 5-CSRTT performance, including disrupted attention and increased premature and timeout responses. This improved understanding of the effects of different test day challenges in the 5-CSRTT will allow researchers to use these manipulations of a valuable cognitive test to their full potential.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nurith Amitai
- Department of Psychiatry, School of Medicine, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla 92093-0603, CA, USA
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Wiskerke J, van Mourik Y, Schetters D, Schoffelmeer ANM, Pattij T. On the Role of Cannabinoid CB1- and μ-Opioid Receptors in Motor Impulsivity. Front Pharmacol 2012; 3:108. [PMID: 22701425 PMCID: PMC3371578 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2012.00108] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/13/2012] [Accepted: 05/20/2012] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Previous studies using a rat 5-choice serial reaction time task have established a critical role for dopamine D2 receptors in regulating increments in motor impulsivity induced by acute administration of the psychostimulant drugs amphetamine and nicotine. Here we investigated whether cannabinoid CB1 and/or μ-opioid receptors are involved in nicotine-induced impulsivity, given recent findings indicating that both receptor systems mediate amphetamine-induced motor impulsivity. Results showed that the cannabinoid CB1 receptor antagonist SR141716A, but not the opioid receptor antagonist naloxone, reduced nicotine-induced premature responding, indicating that nicotine-induced motor impulsivity is cannabinoid, but not opioid receptor-dependent. In contrast, SR141716A did not affect impulsivity following a challenge with the dopamine transporter inhibitor GBR 12909, a form of drug-induced impulsivity that was previously found to be dependent on μ-opioid receptor activation. Together, these data are consistent with the idea that the endogenous cannabinoid, dopamine, and opioid systems each play important, but distinct roles in regulating (drug-induced) motor impulsivity. The rather complex interplay between these neurotransmitter systems modulating impulsivity will be discussed in terms of the differential involvement of mesocortical and mesolimbic neurocircuitry.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joost Wiskerke
- Department of Anatomy and Neurosciences, Neuroscience Campus Amsterdam, VU University Medical Center Amsterdam, The Netherlands
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Trait impulsive choice predicts resistance to extinction and propensity to relapse to cocaine seeking: a bidirectional investigation. Neuropsychopharmacology 2012; 37:1377-86. [PMID: 22318198 PMCID: PMC3327843 DOI: 10.1038/npp.2011.323] [Citation(s) in RCA: 78] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Despite the strong association between impulsivity and addiction in humans, it is still a matter of debate whether impulsive choice predisposes to, or results from, drug dependence. Furthermore, it is unknown whether treating impulsivity can protect against relapse propensity. Therefore, this study explored the bidirectional relationship between impulsive choice and cocaine taking and seeking in rat behavioral models. In experiment 1, to determine whether impulsive choice predisposes to cocaine taking or seeking, rats were selected based on trait impulsivity in a delayed reward task and subsequently compared on various stages of cocaine self-administration (SA). To examine the consequence of cocaine intake on impulsive choice, impulsivity was monitored once a week throughout various stages of cocaine SA. To determine whether treating impulsive choice can protect against relapse propensity, in experiment 2, impulsive choice was manipulated by pharmacological interventions and cocaine-associated contextual cues. Trait impulsive choice as determined in experiment 1 predicted high extinction resistance and enhanced propensity to context-induced relapse in the cocaine SA model, whereas cocaine intake did not alter impulsive choice. Furthermore, acute changes in impulsive choice were not related to rates of context-induced relapse. Taken together, the current data indicate that trait impulsive choice predicts persistent cocaine seeking during extinction and enhanced propensity to relapse, whereas acute manipulations of impulsive choice had no favorable outcomes on relapse measures. These observations suggest that trait impulsivity can be used as a predictive factor for addiction liability, but treating this impulsivity does not necessarily protect against relapse.
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Differential behavioral responses of the spontaneously hypertensive rat to methylphenidate and methamphetamine: lack of a rewarding effect of repeated methylphenidate treatment. Neurosci Lett 2012; 514:189-93. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neulet.2012.02.090] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/05/2012] [Revised: 02/19/2012] [Accepted: 02/27/2012] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
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Urcelay GP, Dalley JW. Linking ADHD, impulsivity, and drug abuse: a neuropsychological perspective. Curr Top Behav Neurosci 2012; 9:173-197. [PMID: 21365439 DOI: 10.1007/7854_2011_119] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/30/2023]
Abstract
In this chapter, we consider the relevance of impulsivity as both a psychological construct and endophenotype underlying attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and drug addiction. The case for executive dysfunction in ADHD and drug addiction is critically reviewed in the context of dissociable cognitive control processes mediated by the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC), the orbital and ventral medial prefrontal cortex (VMPFC). We argue that such neuroanatomical divisions within the prefrontal cortex are likely to account for the multidimensional basis of impulsivity conceptually categorized in terms of "motoric" and "choice" impulsivity. The relevance of this distinction for the etiology of ADHD and drug addiction is integrated within a novel theoretical framework. This scheme embraces animal learning theory to help explain the heterogeneity of impulse control disorders, which are exemplified by ADHD as a vulnerability disorder for drug addiction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gonzalo P Urcelay
- Behavioural and Clinical Neuroscience Institute, Department of Experimental Psychology, University of Cambridge, Downing St., Cambridge, CB2 3EB, UK
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Kolokotroni KZ, Rodgers RJ, Harrison AA. Effects of chronic nicotine, nicotine withdrawal and subsequent nicotine challenges on behavioural inhibition in rats. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2012; 219:453-68. [PMID: 22124670 DOI: 10.1007/s00213-011-2558-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/28/2011] [Accepted: 10/24/2011] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
RATIONALE Drug addiction is a chronically relapsing disorder characterised by compulsive drug use and loss of control over drug intake. Although several theories propose impulsivity as a key component of addiction, the precise nature of this relationship remains unclear. OBJECTIVES This study aims to investigate the short- and longer-term effects of chronic nicotine administration on behavioural inhibition. METHODS Rats were trained on a symmetrically reinforced go/no-go task, following which they were subcutaneously prepared with osmotic minipumps delivering either nicotine (3.16 mg kg(-1) day(-1) (freebase)) or saline for 7 days. Performance was assessed daily during chronic treatment, in early and late abstinence, and in response to acute nicotine challenges following prolonged abstinence. RESULTS Chronic nicotine resulted in a transient reduction in inhibitory control. Spontaneous withdrawal was associated with a nicotine abstinence syndrome, the early stages of which were characterised by a significant increase in inhibitory control. This was, however, short-lived with a decrease in inhibition observed in the second week of abstinence. Whilst performance returned to baseline by the end of the third week, acute challenges (0.125, 0.25, 0.5 mg/kg, SC) revealed that nicotine exposure had sensitised animals to the disinhibitory effects of the compound. CONCLUSIONS Drug-induced loss of inhibitory control may be critically involved both in the initial and later stages of addiction. Neuroadaptations occurring during chronic exposure to and/or withdrawal from nicotine render animals more sensitive to the disinhibitory effects of the drug. Longer-term changes in behaviour may play an important role in the increased susceptibility to relapse in those with a history of nicotine abuse.
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Affiliation(s)
- K Z Kolokotroni
- Behavioural Neuroscience Laboratory, Institute of Psychological Sciences, University of Leeds, Leeds, LS2 9JT, UK.
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Bartko SJ, Romberg C, White B, Wess J, Bussey TJ, Saksida LM. Intact attentional processing but abnormal responding in M1 muscarinic receptor-deficient mice using an automated touchscreen method. Neuropharmacology 2011; 61:1366-78. [PMID: 21903112 PMCID: PMC3899542 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropharm.2011.08.023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/01/2010] [Revised: 07/28/2011] [Accepted: 08/16/2011] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
Cholinergic receptors have been implicated in schizophrenia, Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, and Huntington's disease. However, to better target therapeutically the appropriate receptor subsystems, we need to understand more about the functions of those subsystems. In the current series of experiments, we assessed the functional role of M(1) receptors in cognition by testing M(1) receptor-deficient mice (M1R(-/-)) on the five-choice serial reaction time test of attentional and response functions, carried out using a computer-automated touchscreen test system. In addition, we tested these mice on several tasks featuring learning, memory and perceptual challenges. An advantage of the touchscreen method is that each test in the battery is carried out in the same task setting, using the same types of stimuli, responses and feedback, thus providing a high level of control and task comparability. The surprising finding, given the predominance of the M(1) receptor in cortex, was the complete lack of effect of M(1) deletion on measures of attentional function per se. Moreover, M1R(-/-) mice performed relatively normally on tests of learning, memory and perception, although they were impaired in object recognition memory with, but not without an interposed delay interval. They did, however, show clear abnormalities on a variety of response measures: M1R(-/-) mice displayed fewer omissions, more premature responses, and increased perseverative responding compared to wild-types. These data suggest that M1R(-/-) mice display abnormal responding in the face of relatively preserved attention, learning and perception.
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Affiliation(s)
- Susan J. Bartko
- Department of Experimental Psychology, University of Cambridge, Downing St., Cambridge CB2 3EB, UK,MRC and Wellcome Trust Behavioural and Clinical Neuroscience Institute, University of Cambridge CB2 3EB, UK
| | - Carola Romberg
- Department of Experimental Psychology, University of Cambridge, Downing St., Cambridge CB2 3EB, UK,MRC and Wellcome Trust Behavioural and Clinical Neuroscience Institute, University of Cambridge CB2 3EB, UK,Max-Planck-Institute for Psychiatry, Kraepelinstr. 2-4, 80804 Munich, Germany
| | - Benjamin White
- Department of Experimental Psychology, University of Cambridge, Downing St., Cambridge CB2 3EB, UK
| | - Jürgen Wess
- Molecular Signaling Section, Laboratory of Bioorganic Chemistry, National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
| | - Timothy J. Bussey
- Department of Experimental Psychology, University of Cambridge, Downing St., Cambridge CB2 3EB, UK,MRC and Wellcome Trust Behavioural and Clinical Neuroscience Institute, University of Cambridge CB2 3EB, UK
| | - Lisa M. Saksida
- Department of Experimental Psychology, University of Cambridge, Downing St., Cambridge CB2 3EB, UK,MRC and Wellcome Trust Behavioural and Clinical Neuroscience Institute, University of Cambridge CB2 3EB, UK
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Wiskerke J, Stoop N, Schetters D, Schoffelmeer ANM, Pattij T. Cannabinoid CB1 receptor activation mediates the opposing effects of amphetamine on impulsive action and impulsive choice. PLoS One 2011; 6:e25856. [PMID: 22016780 PMCID: PMC3189229 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0025856] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/19/2011] [Accepted: 09/12/2011] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
It is well known that acute challenges with psychostimulants such as amphetamine affect impulsive behavior. We here studied the pharmacology underlying the effects of amphetamine in two rat models of impulsivity, the 5-choice serial reaction time task (5-CSRTT) and the delayed reward task (DRT), providing measures of inhibitory control, an aspect of impulsive action, and impulsive choice, respectively. We focused on the role of cannabinoid CB1 receptor activation in amphetamine-induced impulsivity as there is evidence that acute challenges with psychostimulants activate the endogenous cannabinoid system, and CB1 receptor activity modulates impulsivity in both rodents and humans. Results showed that pretreatment with either the CB1 receptor antagonist/inverse agonist SR141716A or the neutral CB1 receptor antagonist O-2050 dose-dependently improved baseline inhibitory control in the 5-CSRTT. Moreover, both compounds similarly attenuated amphetamine-induced inhibitory control deficits, suggesting that CB1 receptor activation by endogenously released cannabinoids mediates this aspect of impulsive action. Direct CB1 receptor activation by Δ9-Tetrahydrocannabinol (Δ9-THC) did, however, not affect inhibitory control. Although neither SR141716A nor O-2050 affected baseline impulsive choice in the DRT, both ligands completely prevented amphetamine-induced reductions in impulsive decision making, indicating that CB1 receptor activity may decrease this form of impulsivity. Indeed, acute Δ9-THC was found to reduce impulsive choice in a CB1 receptor-dependent way. Together, these results indicate an important, though complex role for cannabinoid CB1 receptor activity in the regulation of impulsive action and impulsive choice as well as the opposite effects amphetamine has on both forms of impulsive behavior.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joost Wiskerke
- Department of Anatomy and Neurosciences, VU University Medical Center, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Nicky Stoop
- Department of Anatomy and Neurosciences, VU University Medical Center, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Dustin Schetters
- Department of Anatomy and Neurosciences, VU University Medical Center, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Anton N. M. Schoffelmeer
- Department of Anatomy and Neurosciences, VU University Medical Center, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Tommy Pattij
- Department of Anatomy and Neurosciences, VU University Medical Center, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
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Cumming P, Caprioli D, Dalley JW. What have positron emission tomography and 'Zippy' told us about the neuropharmacology of drug addiction? Br J Pharmacol 2011; 163:1586-604. [PMID: 20846139 PMCID: PMC3166689 DOI: 10.1111/j.1476-5381.2010.01036.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/10/2010] [Revised: 08/09/2010] [Accepted: 08/31/2010] [Indexed: 11/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Translational molecular imaging with positron emission tomography (PET) and allied technologies offer unrivalled applications in the discovery of biomarkers and aetiological mechanisms relevant to human disease. Foremost among clinical PET findings during the past two decades of addiction research is the seminal discovery of reduced dopamine D(2/3) receptor expression in the striatum of drug addicts, which could indicate a predisposing factor and/or compensatory reaction to the chronic abuse of stimulant drugs. In parallel, recent years have witnessed significant improvements in the performance of small animal tomographs (microPET) and a refinement of animal models of addiction based on clinically relevant diagnostic criteria. This review surveys the utility of PET in the elucidation of neuropharmacological mechanisms underlying drug addiction. It considers the consequences of chronic drug exposure on regional brain metabolism and neurotransmitter function and identifies those areas where further research is needed, especially concerning the implementation of PET tracers targeting neurotransmitter systems other than dopamine, which increasingly have been implicated in the pathophysiology of drug addiction. In addition, this review considers the causal effects of behavioural traits such as impulsivity and novelty/sensation-seeking on the emergence of compulsive drug-taking. Previous research indicates that spontaneously high-impulsive rats--as exemplified by 'Zippy'--are pre-disposed to escalate intravenous cocaine self-administration, and subsequently to develop compulsive drug taking tendencies that endure despite concurrent adverse consequences of such behaviour, just as in human addiction. The discovery using microPET of pre-existing differences in dopamine D(2/3) receptor expression in the striatum of high-impulsive rats suggests a neural endophenotype that may likewise pre-dispose to stimulant addiction in humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paul Cumming
- Department of Nuclear Medicine, Ludwig-Maximilian's University, Munich, Germany
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García-Lecumberri C, Torres I, Martín S, Crespo JA, Miguéns M, Nicanor C, Higuera-Matas A, Ambrosio E. Strain differences in the dose-response relationship for morphine self-administration and impulsive choice between Lewis and Fischer 344 rats. J Psychopharmacol 2011; 25:783-91. [PMID: 20488829 DOI: 10.1177/0269881110367444] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Dose-response studies are thought to be a valuable tool to predict the most genetically drug-vulnerable individuals. However, dose-response curves for morphine self-administration have not yet been examined and nor strain differences might be evident. Therefore, this study aimed to define the dose-response curve for morphine self-administration (0.25, 0.5, 1 and 2 mg/kg) in Lewis (LEW) rats and their histocompatible Fischer-344 (F344) rats. In addition, impulsivity has been suggested as one of the genetic factors contributing most to the initiation of drug use. Therefore, the impulsive choice of both rat strains in the presence or absence of the same morphine doses was also analysed. LEW rats self-administered significantly more morphine whatever the dose tested and they exhibited greater basal impulsive choice compared with F344 rats. The F344 strain showed a preference for the dose of 0.5 mg/kg, while any of the doses used had a differential reinforcing effect in the LEW strain. The basal pattern of strain differences in impulsive choice was not affected by morphine administration. These data suggest that the LEW strain has a highly drug-vulnerable phenotype and they point to the strength of impulsivity as a pre-existing behavioural trait that might make this rat strain more vulnerable to the reinforcing effects of drugs and, therefore, to develop addiction.
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Contributions of serotonin in addiction vulnerability. Neuropharmacology 2011; 61:421-32. [PMID: 21466815 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropharm.2011.03.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 108] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/24/2010] [Revised: 03/24/2011] [Accepted: 03/25/2011] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
The serotonin (5-hydroxytryptamine; 5-HT) system has long been associated with mood and its dysregulation implicated in the pathophysiology of mood and anxiety disorders. While modulation of 5-HT neurotransmission by drugs of abuse is also recognized, its role in drug addiction and vulnerability to drug relapse is a more recent focus of investigation. First, we review preclinical data supporting the serotonergic raphe nuclei and their forebrain projections as targets of drugs of abuse, with emphasis on the effects of psychostimulants, opioids and ethanol. Next, we examine the role of 5-HT receptors in impulsivity, a core behavior that contributes to the vulnerability to addiction and relapse. Finally, we discuss evidence for serotonergic dysregulation in comorbid mood and addictive disorders and suggest novel serotonergic targets for the treatment of addiction and the prevention of drug relapse.
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Wake-promoting agent modafinil worsened attentional performance following REM sleep deprivation in a young-adult rat model of 5-choice serial reaction time task. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2011; 213:155-66. [PMID: 20865249 DOI: 10.1007/s00213-010-2019-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/10/2010] [Accepted: 09/07/2010] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
RATIONALE Individuals who experience sleep loss may exhibit certain physiological abnormalities. Central stimulant drugs have been studied in sleep-loss conditions, and some of them might be therapeutically beneficial. Modafinil (diphenyl-methyl-sulfinyl-2-acetamide, MOD) has been increasingly employed for elevating alertness and vigilance in recent years, yet the underlying mechanism of actions for MOD is not fully understood. OBJECTIVES To examine the behavioral effect of MOD following rapid eye movement sleep deprivation (REMD) in rats. A five-choice serial reaction time task (5-CSRTT) was employed to investigate animals' attentional performance and impulsive reactivity. MATERIALS AND METHODS Rats of different ages were trained to learn the 5-CSRTT. REMD with the water platform method was applied for 96 h. The impacts of REMD on 5-CSRTT in middle-age (32-weeks-old) and young-adult (12-week-old) rats were compared with baseline or a condition with shorter visual stimulus duration. RESULTS The results revealed that following REMD, young-adult but not middle-age rats were liable to be affected in their performances of the 5-CSRTT. In young-adult rats, while MOD had no contributions to the effect of REMD, it worsened rats' performance following REMD when the stimulus duration was shortened, as shown by the reduced number of correct responses and prolonged magazine latency. CONCLUSIONS These results suggest that aging might be a crucial factor for the physiological impact following REMD. MOD should be used cautiously, particularly, in conditions that require REM sleep.
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Setlow B, Mendez IA, Mitchell MR, Simon NW. Effects of chronic administration of drugs of abuse on impulsive choice (delay discounting) in animal models. Behav Pharmacol 2009; 20:380-9. [PMID: 19667970 PMCID: PMC2874684 DOI: 10.1097/fbp.0b013e3283305eb4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Drug-addicted individuals show high levels of impulsive choice, characterized by preference for small immediate over larger but delayed rewards. Although the causal relationship between chronic drug use and elevated impulsive choice in humans has been unclear, a small but growing body of literature over the past decade has shown that chronic drug administration in animal models can cause increases in impulsive choice, suggesting that a similar causal relationship may exist in human drug users. This article reviews this literature, with a particular focus on the effects of chronic cocaine administration, which have been most thoroughly characterized. The potential mechanisms of these effects are described in terms of drug-induced neural alterations in ventral striatal and prefrontal cortical brain systems. Some implications of this research for pharmacological treatment of drug-induced increases in impulsive choice are discussed, along with suggestions for future research in this area.
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Affiliation(s)
- Barry Setlow
- Behavioral and Cellular Neuroscience Program, Department of Psychology, Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas 77843-4235, USA.
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Acute effects of morphine on distinct forms of impulsive behavior in rats. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2009; 205:489-502. [PMID: 19436995 PMCID: PMC2712067 DOI: 10.1007/s00213-009-1558-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 77] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/24/2008] [Accepted: 04/27/2009] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
RATIONALE Disturbances in impulse control are key features of substance abuse disorders, and conversely, many drugs of abuse are known to elicit impulsive behavior both clinically and preclinically. To date, little is known with respect to the involvement of the opioid system in impulsive behavior, although recent findings have demonstrated its involvement in delay discounting processes. The aim of the present study was to further investigate the role of the opioid system in varieties of impulsivity. MATERIALS AND METHODS To this end, groups of rats were trained in the five-choice serial reaction time task (5-CSRTT) and stop-signal task (SST), operant paradigms that provide measures of inhibitory control and response inhibition, respectively. In addition, another group of rats was trained in the delayed reward paradigm, which measures the sensitivity towards delay of gratification and as such assesses impulsive choice. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Results demonstrated that morphine, a selective micro-opioid receptor agonist, primarily impaired inhibitory control in the 5-CSRTT by increasing premature responding. In addition, in keeping with previous data, morphine decreased the preference for the large over small reward in the delayed reward paradigm. The effects of morphine on measures of impulsivity in both the 5-CSRTT and delayed reward paradigm were blocked by naloxone, a micro-opioid receptor antagonist. Naloxone by itself did not alter impulsive behavior, suggesting limited involvement of an endogenous opioid tone in impulsivity. Response inhibition measured in the SST was neither altered by morphine nor naloxone, although some baseline-dependent effects of morphine on response inhibition were observed. CONCLUSION In conclusion, the present data demonstrate that acute challenges with morphine modulate distinct forms of impulsive behavior, thereby suggesting a role for the opioid system in impulsivity.
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Fujiwara A, Iino M, Sasaki M, Hironaka N, Wakasa Y. A new behavioral test for assessment of drug effects on attentional performance and its validity in cynomolgus monkeys. J Toxicol Sci 2009; 34:183-90. [PMID: 19336975 DOI: 10.2131/jts.34.183] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/02/2022]
Abstract
The assessment of drug effects on attention is important in non-clinical pharmacology, for both evaluation of safety and therapeutic efficacy of medicinal products. In the present study, we have developed a two-lever choice behavioral test to assess drug effects on attentional performance in monkeys. In each trial of this experiment, one of two lamps in front of a monkey was randomly illuminated for a brief period of time and the monkey was required to press a lever beneath the lamp 30 times to obtain a food reward. The percentage of correct responses, response latency of correct choice responses and response speed were measured. Using this test, we examined the effects of three sedative drugs, diazepam (0.25, 1 and 4 mg/kg, i.g.), ethanol (0.5, 1 and 2 g/kg, i.g.), and pentobarbital (0.25, 1 and 4 mg/kg, i.v.). Diazepam and pentobarbital lengthened response latency without significantly affecting the percentage of correct responses, response and response speed, suggesting selective disruptive effects on attentional performance. In contrast, ethanol at the high dose tested caused deterioration in all three measurements, which is thought to reflect a general sedative effect including motor impairment as reflected by lengthening response speed. It is suggested that the present behavioral test method could detect drug effects on attentional performance in monkeys and could be a useful tool for safety assessment in drug development.
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A neurocognitive animal model dissociating between acute illness and remission periods of schizophrenia. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2009; 202:237-58. [PMID: 18618100 PMCID: PMC2719245 DOI: 10.1007/s00213-008-1216-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/19/2007] [Accepted: 05/26/2008] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
RATIONALE The development and validation of animal models of the cognitive impairments of schizophrenia have remained challenging subjects. OBJECTIVE We review evidence from a series of experiments concerning an animal model that dissociates between the disruption of attentional capacities during acute illness periods and the cognitive load-dependent impairments that characterize periods of remission. The model focuses on the long-term attentional consequences of an escalating-dosing pretreatment regimen with amphetamine (AMPH). RESULTS Acute illness periods are modeled by the administration of AMPH challenges. Such challenges result in extensive impairments in attentional performance and the "freezing" of performance-associated cortical acetylcholine (ACh) release at pretask levels. During periods of remission (in the absence of AMPH challenges), AMPH-pretreated animals' attentional performance is associated with abnormally high levels of performance-associated cortical ACh release, indicative of the elevated attentional effort required to maintain performance. Furthermore, and corresponding with clinical evidence, attentional performance during remission periods is exquisitely vulnerable to distractors, reflecting impaired top-down control and abnormalities in fronto-mesolimbic-basal forebrain circuitry. Finally, this animal model detects the moderately beneficial cognitive effects of low-dose treatment with haloperidol and clozapine that were observed in clinical studies. CONCLUSIONS The usefulness and limitations of this model for research on the neuronal mechanisms underlying the cognitive impairments in schizophrenia and for drug-finding efforts are discussed.
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Robbins TW, Ersche KD, Everitt BJ. Drug addiction and the memory systems of the brain. Ann N Y Acad Sci 2008; 1141:1-21. [PMID: 18991949 DOI: 10.1196/annals.1441.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 287] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Abstract
We review drug addiction from the perspective of the hypothesis that drugs of abuse interact with distinct brain memory systems. We focus on emotional and procedural forms of memory, encompassing Pavlovian and instrumental conditioning, both for action-outcome and for stimulus-response associations. Neural structures encompassed by these systems include the amygdala, hippocampus, nucleus accumbens, and dorsal striatum. Additional influences emanate from the anterior cingulate and prefrontal cortex, which are implicated in the encoding and retrieval of drug-related memories that lead to drug craving and drug use. Finally, we consider the ancillary point that chronic abuse of many drugs may impact directly on neural memory systems via neuroadaptive and neurotoxic effects that lead to cognitive impairments in which memory dysfunction is prominent.
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Affiliation(s)
- T W Robbins
- Behavioural and Clinical Neuroscience Institute, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK.
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Briand LA, Flagel SB, Garcia-Fuster MJ, Watson SJ, Akil H, Sarter M, Robinson TE. Persistent alterations in cognitive function and prefrontal dopamine D2 receptors following extended, but not limited, access to self-administered cocaine. Neuropsychopharmacology 2008; 33:2969-80. [PMID: 18305460 PMCID: PMC3092154 DOI: 10.1038/npp.2008.18] [Citation(s) in RCA: 108] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/14/2023]
Abstract
Drug addicts have deficits in frontocortical function and cognition even long after the discontinuation of drug use. It is not clear, however, whether the cognitive deficits are a consequence of drug use, or are present prior to drug use, and thus are a potential predisposing factor for addiction. To determine if self-administration of cocaine is capable of producing long-lasting alterations in cognition, rats were allowed access to cocaine for either 1 h/day (short access, ShA) or 6 h/day (long access, LgA) for 3 weeks. Between 1 and 30 days after the last self-administration session, we examined performance on a cognitively demanding test of sustained attention that requires an intact medial prefrontal cortex. The expression levels of dopamine D1 and D2 receptor mRNA and D2 protein in the prefrontal cortex were also examined. Early after discontinuation of drug use, LgA (but not ShA) animals were markedly impaired on the sustained attention task. Although the LgA animals improved over time, they continued to show a persistent pattern of performance deficits indicative of a disruption of cognitive flexibility up to 30 days after the discontinuation of drug use. This was accompanied by a significant decrease in DA D2 (but not D1) mRNA in the medial and orbital prefrontal cortex, and D2 receptor protein in the medial prefrontal cortex of LgA (but not ShA) animals. These findings establish that repeated cocaine use is capable of producing persistent alterations in the prefrontal cortex and in cognitive function, and illustrate the usefulness of extended access self-administration procedures for studying the neurobiology of addiction.
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MESH Headings
- Animals
- Cocaine/pharmacology
- Cocaine-Related Disorders/metabolism
- Cocaine-Related Disorders/physiopathology
- Cognition Disorders/chemically induced
- Cognition Disorders/metabolism
- Cognition Disorders/physiopathology
- Disease Models, Animal
- Dopamine/metabolism
- Dopamine Uptake Inhibitors/pharmacology
- Male
- Mice
- Mice, Inbred C57BL
- Neural Pathways/drug effects
- Neural Pathways/metabolism
- Neural Pathways/physiopathology
- Neurons/drug effects
- Neurons/metabolism
- Prefrontal Cortex/drug effects
- Prefrontal Cortex/metabolism
- Prefrontal Cortex/physiopathology
- RNA, Messenger/drug effects
- RNA, Messenger/metabolism
- Receptors, Dopamine D1/drug effects
- Receptors, Dopamine D1/genetics
- Receptors, Dopamine D1/metabolism
- Receptors, Dopamine D2/drug effects
- Receptors, Dopamine D2/genetics
- Receptors, Dopamine D2/metabolism
- Self Administration
- Synaptic Transmission/drug effects
- Synaptic Transmission/physiology
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Shelly B. Flagel
- Molecular and Behavioral Neuroscience Institute, The University of Michigan
| | | | - Stanley J. Watson
- Neuroscience Program, The University of Michigan
- Molecular and Behavioral Neuroscience Institute, The University of Michigan
| | - Huda Akil
- Neuroscience Program, The University of Michigan
- Molecular and Behavioral Neuroscience Institute, The University of Michigan
| | - Martin Sarter
- Neuroscience Program, The University of Michigan
- Department of Psychology, The University of Michigan
| | - Terry E. Robinson
- Neuroscience Program, The University of Michigan
- Department of Psychology, The University of Michigan
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48
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Everitt BJ, Belin D, Economidou D, Pelloux Y, Dalley JW, Robbins TW. Review. Neural mechanisms underlying the vulnerability to develop compulsive drug-seeking habits and addiction. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 2008; 363:3125-35. [PMID: 18640910 PMCID: PMC2607322 DOI: 10.1098/rstb.2008.0089] [Citation(s) in RCA: 629] [Impact Index Per Article: 39.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
We hypothesize that drug addiction can be viewed as the endpoint of a series of transitions from initial voluntary drug use through the loss of control over this behaviour, such that it becomes habitual and ultimately compulsive. We describe evidence that the switch from controlled to compulsive drug seeking represents a transition at the neural level from prefrontal cortical to striatal control over drug-seeking and drug-taking behaviours as well as a progression from ventral to more dorsal domains of the striatum, mediated by its serially interconnecting dopaminergic circuitry. These neural transitions depend upon the neuroplasticity induced by chronic self-administration of drugs in both cortical and striatal structures, including long-lasting changes that are the consequence of toxic drug effects. We further summarize evidence showing that impulsivity, a spontaneously occurring behavioural tendency in outbred rats that is associated with low dopamine D2/3 receptors in the nucleus accumbens, predicts both the propensity to escalate cocaine intake and the switch to compulsive drug seeking and addiction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Barry J Everitt
- Department of Experimental Psychology, Behavioural and Clinical Neuroscience Institute, University of Cambridge, Downing Street, Cambridge, UK.
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49
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Parallel and interactive learning processes within the basal ganglia: relevance for the understanding of addiction. Behav Brain Res 2008; 199:89-102. [PMID: 18950658 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbr.2008.09.027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 314] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/07/2008] [Revised: 09/16/2008] [Accepted: 09/18/2008] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
In this review we discuss the evidence that drug addiction, defined as a maladaptive compulsive habit, results from the progressive subversion by addictive drugs of striatum-dependent operant and Pavlovian learning mechanisms that are usually involved in the control over behaviour by stimuli associated with natural reinforcement. Although mainly organized through segregated parallel cortico-striato-pallido-thalamo-cortical loops involved in motor or emotional functions, the basal ganglia, and especially the striatum, are key mediators of the modulation of behavioural responses, under the control of both action-outcome and stimulus-response mechanisms, by incentive motivational processes and Pavlovian associations. Here we suggest that protracted exposure to addictive drugs recruits serial and dopamine-dependent, striato-nigro-striatal ascending spirals from the nucleus accumbens to more dorsal regions of the striatum that underlie a shift from action-outcome to stimulus-response mechanisms in the control over drug seeking. When this progressive ventral to dorsal striatum shift is combined with drug-associated Pavlovian influences from limbic structures such as the amygdala and the orbitofrontal cortex, drug seeking behaviour becomes established as an incentive habit. This instantiation of implicit sub-cortical processing of drug-associated stimuli and instrumental responding might be a key mechanism underlying the development of compulsive drug seeking and the high vulnerability to relapse which are hallmarks of drug addiction.
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50
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Martinez V, Sarter M. Detection of the moderately beneficial cognitive effects of low-dose treatment with haloperidol or clozapine in an animal model of the attentional impairments of schizophrenia. Neuropsychopharmacology 2008; 33:2635-47. [PMID: 18094665 DOI: 10.1038/sj.npp.1301661] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
The absence of effective cognition enhancers for the treatment of patients with schizophrenia limits the validation of animal models and behavioral tests used for drug finding and characterization. However, low doses of haloperidol and clozapine were documented to produce moderately beneficial effects in patients. Therefore, this experiment was designed to determine the attentional effects of such treatments in a repeated-amphetamine (AMPH) animal model. Animals were trained in an operant-sustained attention task and underwent a 40-day pretreatment period with saline or increasing doses (1-10 mg per kg) of AMPH. After regaining baseline performance following 10 days of saline treatment, animals were treated with haloperidol (0.025 mg per kg), clozapine (2.5 mg per kg), or vehicle for 10 days. Furthermore, the effects of AMPH challenges (1.0 mg per kg) were assessed. In AMPH-pretreated animals, the administration of AMPH challenges resulted in the disruption of attentional performance. Treatment with haloperidol and clozapine attenuated the detrimental performance effects of these challenges, with clozapine exhibiting more robust attenuation. Furthermore, clozapine, but not haloperidol, impaired the performance of control animals. In contrast, the performance of AMPH-pretreated animals remained unaffected by clozapine. As this animal model detects the moderately beneficial cognitive effects of haloperidol and clozapine, it may be useful for preclinical research designed to detect and characterize treatments for the cognitive symptoms of schizophrenia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vicente Martinez
- Department of Psychology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA
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