Milk Fat Globule Membrane Supplementation in Formula Modulates the Neonatal Gut Microbiome and Normalizes Intestinal Development

Relationship between the components of mare breast milk and foal gut microbiome: shaping gut microbiome development after birth

The gut microbiota (GM) is essential for mammalian health. Although the association between infant GM and breast milk (BM) composition has been well established in humans, such a relationship has not been investigated in horses. Hence, this study was conducted to analyze the GM formation of foals during lactation and determine the presence of low-molecular-weight metabolites in mares' BM and their role in shaping foals' GM. The fecal and BM samples from six pairs of foals and mares were subjected to 16S ribosomal RNA metagenomic and metabolomic analyses, respectively. The composition of foal GM changed during lactation time; hierarchical cluster analysis divided the fetal GM into three groups corresponding to different time points in foal development. The level of most metabolites in milk decreased over time with increasing milk yield, while threonic acid and ascorbic acid increased. Further analyses revealed gut bacteria that correlated with changes in milk metabolites; for instance, there was a positive correlation between Bacteroidaceae in the foal's gut microbiota and serine/glycine in the mother's milk. These findings help improve the rearing environment of lactating horses and establish artificial feeding methods for foals.

Characterization of phospholipidome in milk, yogurt and cream, and phospholipid differences related to various dairy processing methods

Milk phospholipids have multiple health benefits, but the deficiency of detailed phospholipid profiles in dairy products brings obstacles to intake calculation and function evaluation of dairy phospholipids. In present study, 306 phospholipid molecular species were identified and quantified among 207 milk, yogurt and cream products using a HILIC-ESI-Q-TOF MS and a HILIC-ESI-QQQ MS. The phospholipid profiles of five mammals' milk show that camel milk contains the most abundant phosphatidylethanolamine, phosphatidylserine and sphingomyelin; cow, yak and goat milk have similar phospholipidomes, while buffalo milk contains abundant phosphatidylinositol. Fewer plasmalogens but more lyso-glycerolphospholipids were found in ultra-high-temperature (UHT) sterilized milk than in pasteurized milk, and higher proportions of lyso-glycerolphospholipid/total phospholipid were observed in both cream and skimmed/semi-skimmed milk than whole milk, indicating that UHT and skimming processes improve glycerolphospholipid degradation and phospholipid nutrition loss. Meanwhile, more diacyl-glycerolphospholipids and less of their degradation products make yogurt a better phospholipid resource than whole milk.

Comprehensive review of milk fat globule membrane proteins across mammals and lactation periods in health and disease

Milk fat globule membrane (MFGM) is a three-layer membrane-like structure encasing natural milk fat globules (MFGs). MFGM holds promise as a nutritional supplement because of the numerous physiological functions of its constituent protein. This review summarizes and compares the differences in MFGM protein composition across various species, including bovines, goats, camels, mares, and donkeys, and different lactation periods, such as colostrum and mature milk, as assessed by techniques such as proteomics and mass spectrometry. We also discuss the health benefits of MFGM proteins throughout life. MFGM proteins promote intestinal development, neurodevelopment, and glucose and lipid metabolism by upregulating tight junction protein expression, brain function-related genes, and glucose and fatty acid biosynthesis processes. We focus on the mechanisms underlying these beneficial effects of MFGM proteins. MFGM proteins activate key substances in in signaling pathways, such as the phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase/protein kinase B, mitogen-activated protein kinase, and myosin light chain kinase signaling pathways. Overall, the consumption of MFGM proteins plays an essential role in conferring health benefits, some of which are important throughout the mammalian life cycle.

Human milk sphingomyelin: Function, metabolism, composition and mimicking

Human milk, which contains various nutrients, is the "gold standard" for infant nutrition. Healthy human milk meets all the nutritional needs of early infant development. Polar lipids mainly exist in the milk fat globule membrane, accounting for approximately 1-2% of human milk lipids; sphingomyelin (SM) accounts for approximately 21-24% of polar lipids. SM plays an important role in promoting the development of the brain and nervous system, regulating intestinal flora, and improving skin barriers. Though SM could be synthesized de novo, SM nutrition from dietary is also important for infants. The content and composition of SM in human milk has been reported, however, the molecular mechanisms of nutritional functions of SM for infants required further research. This review summarizes the functional mechanisms, metabolic pathways, and compositional, influencing factors, and mimicking of SM in human milk, and highlights the challenges of improving maternal and infant early/long-term nutrition.

Dietary milk polar lipids modulate gut barrier integrity and lipid metabolism in C57BL/6J mice during systemic inflammation induced by Escherichia coli lipopolysaccharide

The focus of this work is the role milk polar lipids play in affecting gut permeability, systemic inflammation, and lipid metabolism during acute and chronic inflammation induced by a single subcutaneous injection of lipopolysaccharide. Three groups of C57BL/6J mice were fed: modified AIN-93G diet with moderate level of fat (CO); CO with milk gangliosides (GG); CO with milk phospholipids (MPL). The MPL did not prevent a gut permeability increase upon LPS stress but increased the expression of tight junction proteins zonula occludens-1 and occludin in colon mucosa. The GG prevented the gut permeability increase upon LPS stress. The MPL decreased absolute and relative liver mass and decreased hepatic gene expression of acetyl-CoA carboxylase 2 and 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl-CoA reductase. The GG increased hepatic gene expression of acetyl-CoA acyltransferase 2. In conclusion, milk GG protected the intestinal barrier integrity but had little effect on systemic inflammation and lipid metabolism; milk MPL, conversely, had complex effects on gut permeability, did not affect systemic inflammation, and had beneficial effect on hepatic lipid metabolism.

Comprehensive analysis of phospholipid in milk and their biological roles as nutrients and biomarkers

Phospholipids (PL) have garnered significant attention due to their physiological activities. Milk and other dairy products are important dietary sources for humans and have been extensively used to analyze the presence of PL by various analytical techniques. In this paper, the analysis techniques of PL were reviewed with the eight trigrams of phospholipidomics and a comprehensive fingerprint of 1295 PLs covering 8 subclasses in milk and other dairy products, especially. Technology is the primary productive force. Based on phospholipidomics technology, we further review the relationship between the composition of PL and factors that may be involved in processing and experimental operation, and emphasized the significance of the biological role played by PL in dietary supplements and biomarkers (production, processing and clinical research), and providing the future research directions.

Preventative Effects of Milk Fat Globule Membrane Ingredients on DSS-Induced Mucosal Injury in Intestinal Epithelial Cells

The goblet cells of the gastrointestinal tract (GIT) produce glycoproteins called mucins that form a protective barrier from digestive contents and external stimuli. Recent evidence suggests that the milk fat globule membrane (MFGM) and its milk phospholipid component (MPL) can benefit the GIT through improving barrier function. Our objective was to compare the effects of two digested MFGM ingredients with or without dextran sodium sulfate (DSS)-induced barrier stress on mucin proteins. Co-cultured Caco-2/HT29-MTX intestinal cells were treated with in vitro digests of 2%, 5%, and 10% (w/v) MFGM or MPL alone for 6 h or followed by challenge with 2.5% DSS (6 h). Transepithelial electrical resistance and fluorescein isothiocyanate (FITC)-dextran (FD4) permeability measurements were used to measure changes in barrier integrity. Mucin characterization was performed using a combination of slot blotting techniques for secreted (MUC5AC, MUC2) and transmembrane (MUC3A, MUC1) mucins, scanning electron microscopy (SEM), and periodic acid Schiff (PAS)/Alcian blue staining. Digested MFGM and MPL prevented a DSS-induced reduction in secreted mucins, which corresponded to the prevention of DSS-induced increases in FD4 permeability. SEM and PAS/Alcian blue staining showed similar visual trends for secreted mucin production. A predictive bioinformatic approach was also used to identify potential KEGG pathways involved in MFGM-mediated mucosal maintenance under colitis conditions. This preliminary in silico evidence, combined with our in vitro findings, suggests the role of MFGM in inducing repair and maintenance of the mucosal barrier.

Effects of dietary forage-to-concentrate ratio and forage type on milk phospholipids and fatty acid composition of polar lipids

The effects of grass silage and red clover silage on milk fatty acid (FA) composition are extensively studied, but little is known of their effects on minor lipid constituents of milk fat globule membrane. We investigated the effects of forage:concentrate (FC) ratio in grass silage-based diets and forage type (grass silage vs. red clover silage) on selected molecular species of milk phospholipids (PL) and the FA composition of PL. Ten multiparous Nordic Red cows were offered following dietary treatments: grass silage-based diets containing 70:30 (HG) or 30:70 (LG) FC ratio or a red clover silage-based diet (RC) comprising 50:50 FC ratio on a dry matter basis. The most abundant molecular species within the phosphatidylcholines was 16:0-18:1 phosphatidylcholine that was increased by 18% in HG compared with LG milk. Dietary treatments did not affect the relative proportion of 18:1-18:1+18:0-18:2 phosphatidylethanolamine that was the most prevalent species (ca. 44%-45%) in that class. We identified the d18:1-22:0 sphingomyelin as the most abundant sphingomyelin species that tended to increase in HG milk compared with LG. The FC ratio did not affect the relative proportions of saturated FA nor monounsaturated FA in PL, but the proportion of cis-9 18:1 was elevated in HG versus LG milk, whereas the proportion of 18:2n-6 was 50% higher in LG versus HG milk. The RC diet increased monounsaturated FA and 18:3n-3 levels in PL compared with grass silage-based diets and decreased the relative proportion of saturated FA. However, the RC diet did not affect the relative proportion of polyunsaturated FA in PL, although red clover silage typically increases the proportion of polyunsaturated FA in milk fat. This study provides valuable knowledge of the minor lipid components in milk on species level in relation to common feeding strategies in high-forage systems.

Maternal short chain fructo-oligosaccharides supplementation during late gestation and lactation influences milk components and offspring gut metabolome: a pilot study

Breast milk composition is influenced by maternal diet. This study aimed to evaluate if supplementation of maternal diet with a prebiotic fibre, through its potential effect on milk composition, can be a leverage to orientate the gut microbiota of infants in a way that would be beneficial for their health. Twelve sows received a diet supplemented with short chain fructo-oligosaccharides or maltodextrins during the last month of gestation and the lactation. Oligosaccharidic and lipidomic profiles of colostrum and mature milk (21 days), as well as faecal microbiota composition and metabolomic profile of 21 day-old piglets were evaluated. The total porcine milk oligosaccharide concentration tended to be lower in scFOS-supplemented sows, mainly due to the significant reduction of the neutral core oligosaccharides (in particular that of a tetrahexose). Maternal scFOS supplementation affected the concentration of 31 lipids (mainly long-chain triglycerides) in mature milk. Faecal short-chain fatty acid content and that of 16 bacterial metabolites were modified by scFOS supplementation. Interestingly, the integrative data analysis gave a novel insight into the relationships between (i) maternal milk lipids and PMOs and (ii) offspring faecal bacteria and metabolites. In conclusion, scFOS-enriched maternal diet affected the composition of mature milk, and this was associated with a change in the colonisation of the offspring intestinal microbiota.

Acylated Ghrelin Activates PI3K/mTOR Signaling Pathway by Promoting ThPOK Acetylation to Promote Milk Fat Synthesis in Bovine Mammary Epithelial Cells

Ghrelin regulates diverse physiological activities. However, the effects of this hormone on the milk fat synthesis remain unknown. This study aimed to investigate the effect of acylated ghrelin (AG) on milk fat synthesis by modifying the expression (knockdown or overexpression) of growth hormone secretagogue receptor 1a (GHSR1a) and Th-inducing POK (ThPOK) in primary bovine mammary epithelial cells (BMECs). The results showed that AG significantly increased the triglyceride relative content from 260.83 ± 9.87 to 541.67 ± 8.38 in BMECs via GHSR1a. ThPOK functions as a key regulatory target downstream of AG, activating the PI3K and mTOR signaling pathways to promote milk fat synthesis in BMECs. Moreover, AG-regulated ThPOK by increasing the EP300 activity, which promoted ThPOK acetylation to protect it from proteasomal degradation. In conclusion, AG increases ThPOK acetylation and stabilizes ThPOK through GHSR1a, thereby activating the PI3K/mTOR signaling pathway and ultimately promoting the milk fat synthesis in BMECs.

Nutritional and health effects of bovine colostrum in neonates

High concentrations of immunoglobulins, bioactive peptides, and growth factors are found in bovine colostrum (BC), the milk produced by cows in the first few days after parturition. Various biological functions make it increasingly used to provide nutritional support and immune protection to the offspring of many species, including humans. These biological functions include cell growth stimulation, anti-infection, and immunomodulation. The primary components and biological functions of colostrum were reviewed in the literature, and the authors also looked at its latent effects on the growth and development of neonates as well as on conditions such as infections, necrotizing enterocolitis, short bowel syndrome, and feeding intolerance. The importance of BC in neonatal nutrition, immune support, growth and development, and gut health has been demonstrated in a number of experimental and animal studies. BC has also been shown to be safe at low doses without adverse effects in newborns. BC supplementation has been shown to be efficient in preventing several disorders, including rotavirus diarrhea, necrotizing enterocolitis, and sepsis in animal models of prematurity and some newborn studies. Therefore, BC supplementation should be considered in cases where maternal milk is insufficient or donor milk is unavailable. The optimal age, timing, dosage, and form of BC administration still require further investigation.

Milk fat globule size: Unraveling the intricate relationship between metabolism, homeostasis, and stress signaling

Fat is an important component of milk which delivers energy, nutrients, and bioactive molecules from the lactating mother to the suckling neonate. Milk fat consists of a complex mixture of different types of lipids; hundreds of fatty acids, triglycerides, phospholipids, sphingolipids, cholesterol and cholesteryl ester, and glycoconjugates, secreted by the mammary gland epithelial cells (MEC) in the form of a lipid-protein assembly termed the milk fat globule (MFG). The mammary gland in general, and specifically that of modern dairy cows, faces metabolic stress once lactation commences, which changes the lipogenic capacity of MECs directly by reducing available energy and reducing factors required for both lipid synthesis and secretion or indirectly by activating a proinflammatory response. Both processes have the capacity to change the morphometric features (e.g., number and size) of the secreted MFG and its precursor-the intracellular lipid droplet (LD). The MFG size is tightly associated with its lipidome and proteome and also affects the bioavailability of milk fat and protein. Thus, MFG size has the potential to regulate the bioactivity of milk and dairy products. MFG size also plays a central role in the functional properties of milk and dairy products such as texture and stability. To understand how stress affects the structure-function of the MFG, we cover: (i) The mechanism of production and secretion of the MFG and the implications of MFG size, (ii) How the response mechanisms to stress can change the morphometric features of MFGs, and (iii) The possible consequences of such modifications.

Milk phospholipids protect Bifidobacterium longum subsp. infantis during in vitro digestion and enhance polysaccharide production

Bifidobacterium longum subsp. infantis is associated with the gut microbiota of breast-fed infants. Bifidobacterium infantis promotes intestinal barrier and immune function through several proposed mechanisms, including interactions between their surface polysaccharides, the host, and other gut microorganisms. Dairy foods and ingredients are some of the most conspicuous food-based niches for this species and may provide benefits for their delivery and efficacy in the gut. Milk phospholipid (MPL)-rich ingredients have been increasingly recognized for their versatile benefits to health, including interactions with the gut microbiota and intestinal cells. Therefore, our objective was to investigate the capacity for MPL to promote survival of B. infantis during simulated digestion and to modulate bacterial polysaccharide production. To achieve these aims, B. infantis was incubated with or without 0.5% MPL in de Man, Rogosa, and Sharpe (MRS) media at 37°C under anaerobiosis. Survival across the oral, gastric, and intestinal phases using in vitro digestion was measured using plate count, along with adhesion to goblet-like intestinal cells. MPL increased B. infantis survival at the end of the intestinal phase by at least 7% and decreased adhesion to intestinal cells. The bacterial surface characteristics, which may contribute to these effects, were assessed by ζ-potential, changes in surface proteins using comparative proteomics, and production of bound polysaccharides. MPL decreased the surface charge of the bifidobacteria from -17 to -24 mV and increased a 50 kDa protein (3-fold) that appears to be involved in protection from stress. The production of bound polysaccharides was measured using FTIR, HPLC, and TEM imaging. These techniques all suggest an increase in bound polysaccharide production at least 1.7-fold in the presence of MPL. Our results show that MPL treatment increases B. infantis survival during simulated digestion, induces a stress resistance surface protein, and yields greater bound polysaccharide production, suggesting its use as a functional ingredient to enhance probiotic and postbiotic effects.

Astaxanthin nanoparticles ameliorate dextran sulfate sodium-induced colitis by alleviating oxidative stress, regulating intestinal flora, and protecting the intestinal barrier

This study aimed to develop a novel astaxanthin nanoparticle using gum arabic (GA) and whey protein powder enriched with milk fat globule membranes (MFGM-WPI) as carriers and to investigate its effect and alleviation mechanism on colitis in mice. We demonstrated that MFGM-GA-astaxanthin could improve the bioaccessibility of astaxanthin and cope with oxidative stress more effectively in a Caco-2 cell model. In vivo studies demonstrated that MFGM-GA-astaxanthin alleviated colitis symptoms and repaired intestinal barrier function by increasing the expression of mucin 2, occludin, and zonula occludens-1. This was attributed to the alleviating effect of MFGM-GA-astaxanthin on oxidative stress. Moreover, MFGM-GA-astaxanthin restored the abnormalities of flora caused by dextran sulfate sodium, including Lactobacillus, Bacteroides, Ruminococcus, and Shigella. This study provides a basis for the therapeutic effect of astaxanthin nanoparticles on colon diseases.

Bovine colostrum and its potential contributions for treatment and prevention of COVID-19

Bovine colostrum (BC) is the initial milk an animal produces after giving birth, particularly in the first few days. Numerous bioactive substances found in BC, including proteins, enzymes, growth factors, immunoglobulins, etc., are beneficial to human health. BC has a significant role to play as part of a healthy diet, with well-documented health and nutritional advantages for people. Therefore, the use of BC and its crucial derivatives in the development of functional food and pharmaceuticals for the prevention of several diseases such as gastrointestinal and respiratory system disorders is becoming increasingly popular around the world. A novel coronavirus severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) was identified as the cause of a cluster of pneumonia cases that is called Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) in China. After the first SARS-CoV-2 virus-related fatality was announced, the illness quickly spread throughout China and to other continents, causing a pandemic. Since then, numerous studies have been initiated to develop safe and efficient treatments. To prevent viral infection and potential lingering effects, it is important to investigate alternative treatments for COVID-19. Due to its effective bioactive profile and its immunomodulatory roles in biological processes, BC might be considered a promising approach to assist in combating people affected by the SARS-CoV-2 or prevention from the virus. BC has immunomodulatory effects because to its high concentration of bioactive components such as immunoglobulins, lactoferrin, cytokines, and growth factors, etc., which might help control immunological responses, potentially fostering a balanced immune response. Furthermore, its bioactive components have a potential cross-reactivity against SARS-CoV-2, aiding in virus neutralization and its comprehensive food profile also supplies important vitamins, minerals, and amino acids, fostering a healthy immune system. Hence, the possible contributions of BC to the management of COVID-19 were reviewed in this article based on the most recent research on the subject. Additionally, the key BC components that influence immune system modulation were evaluated. These components may serve as potential mediators or therapeutic advantages in COVID-19.

Whey and Buttermilk-Based Formulas Modulate Gut Microbiota in Mice with Antibiotic-Induced Dysbiosis

SCOPE

Diet is one of the main factors that modifies intestinal microbiota composition. The search for foods that can reverse situations of intestinal dysbiosis such as that induced by antibiotics is of great interest. Buttermilk and whey are the main by-products produced by the dairy industry containing bioactive compounds. The aim of this study is to investigate the ability of whey and buttermilk-based formulas supplemented with lactoferrin and milk fat globule membrane (MFGM) to modulate the effects of clindamycin on mouse intestinal microbiota.

METHODS AND RESULTS

Male C57BL/6 mice are treated with saline (control), clindamycin (Clin), a formula containing whey (F1) or buttermilk (F2), Clin+F1 or Clin+F2, and their fecal microbiota profiles are analyzed by sequencing of 16S rRNA gene using the MinION device. Clin induces alterations in both the composition and metabolic functions of the mice intestinal microbiota. The treatment with F1 or F2 reverses the effects of clindamycin, restoring the levels of Rikenellaceae and Lactobacillaceae families and certain pathways related to short-chain fatty acids production and tetrahydrofolate biosynthesis.

CONCLUSION

Whey and buttermilk supplemented with lactoferrin and MFGM may be a bioactive formula for functional foods to prevent or restore microbiota alterations induced by antibiotic administration.

Specific Milk Composition of miR-30b Transgenic Mice Associated with Early Duodenum Maturation in Offspring with Lasting Consequences for Growth

BACKGROUND

Milk composition is complex and includes numerous components essential for offspring growth and development. In addition to the high abundance of miR-30b microRNA, milk produced by the transgenic mouse model of miR-30b-mammary deregulation displays a significantly altered fatty acid profile. Moreover, wild-type adopted pups fed miR-30b milk present an early growth defect.

OBJECTIVE

This study aimed to investigate the consequences of miR-30b milk feeding on the duodenal development of wild-type neonates, a prime target of suckled milk, along with comprehensive milk phenotyping.

METHODS

The duodenums of wild-type pups fed miR-30b milk were extensively characterized at postnatal day (PND)-5, PND-6, and PND-15 using histological, transcriptomic, proteomic, and duodenal permeability analyses and compared with those of pups fed wild-type milk. Milk of miR-30b foster dams collected at mid-lactation was extensively analyzed using proteomic, metabolomic, and lipidomic approaches and hormonal immunoassays.

RESULTS

At PND-5, wild-type pups fed miR-30b milk showed maturation of their duodenum with 1.5-fold (P < 0.05) and 1.3-fold (P < 0.10) increased expression of Claudin-3 and Claudin-4, respectively, and changes in 8 duodenal proteins (P < 0.10), with an earlier reduction in paracellular and transcellular permeability (183 ng/mL fluorescein sulfonic acid [FSA] and 12 ng/mL horseradish peroxidase [HRP], respectively, compared with 5700 ng/mL FSA and 90 ng/mL HRP in wild-type; P < 0.001). Compared with wild-type milk, miR-30b milk displayed an increase in total lipid (219 g/L compared with 151 g/L; P < 0.05), ceramide (17.6 μM compared with 6.9 μM; P < 0.05), and sphingomyelin concentrations (163.7 μM compared with 76.3 μM; P < 0.05); overexpression of 9 proteins involved in the gut barrier (P < 0.1); and higher insulin and leptin concentrations (1.88 ng/mL and 2.04 ng/mL, respectively, compared with 0.79 ng/mL and 1.06 ng/mL; P < 0.01).

CONCLUSIONS

miR-30b milk displays significant changes in bioactive components associated with neonatal duodenal integrity and maturation, which could be involved in the earlier intestinal closure phenotype of the wild-type pups associated with a lower growth rate.

Milk-Fat-Globule-Membrane-Enriched Dairy Milk Compared with a Soy-Lecithin-Enriched Beverage Did Not Adversely Affect Endotoxemia or Biomarkers of Gut Barrier Function and Cardiometabolic Risk in Adults with Metabolic Syndrome: A Randomized Controlled Crossover Trial

Full-fat dairy milk may protect against cardiometabolic disorders, due to the milk fat globule membrane (MFGM), through anti-inflammatory and gut-health-promoting activities. We hypothesized that a MFGM-enriched milk beverage (MEB) would alleviate metabolic endotoxemia in metabolic syndrome (MetS) persons by improving gut barrier function and glucose tolerance. In a randomized crossover trial, MetS persons consumed for two-week period a controlled diet with MEB (2.3 g/d milk phospholipids) or a comparator beverage (COMP) formulated with soy phospholipid and palm/coconut oil. They then provided fasting blood and completed a high-fat/high-carbohydrate test meal challenge for evaluating postprandial metabolism and intestinal permeability. Participants had no adverse effects and achieved high compliance, and there were no between-trial differences in dietary intakes. Compared with COMP, fasting endotoxin, glucose, incretins, and triglyceride were unaffected by MEB. The meal challenge increased postprandial endotoxin, triglyceride, and incretins, but were unaffected by MEB. Insulin sensitivity; fecal calprotectin, myeloperoxidase, and short-chain fatty acids; and small intestinal and colonic permeability were also unaffected by MEB. This short-term study demonstrates that controlled administration of MEB in MetS persons does not affect gut barrier function, glucose tolerance, and other cardiometabolic health biomarkers, which contradicts observational evidence that full-fat milk heightens cardiometabolic risk. Registered at ClinicalTrials.gov (NCT03860584).

Infant formulae - Key components, nutritional value, and new perspectives

Breastfeeding is the most effective strategy for meeting the nutritional demands of infants, whilst infant formulae are manufactured foods that mimic human milk and can be safely used to replace breastfeeding. In this paper, the compositional differences between human milk and other mammalian milk are reviewed, and thus nutritional profiles and compositions of standard bovine milk-based formulae as well as special formulae are discussed. Differences between breast milk and other mammalian milk in composition and content affect their digestion and absorption in infants. Characteristics and mimicking of breast milk have been intensively studied with the objective of narrowing the gap between human milk and infant formulae. The functions of the key nutritional components in infant formulae are examined. This review detailed recent developments in the formulation of different types of special infant formulae and efforts for their humanization, and summarized safety and quality control of infant formulae.

Food matrix impacts bioaccessibility and assimilation of acid whey-derived milk fat globule membrane lipids in Caco-2 cells

The milk fat globule membrane (MFGM) imparts human health benefits ranging from improved immune system, gut, and brain function to improved cardiometabolic health. The industry's growing interest in introducing MFGM-enriched foods requires scientific evidence that the benefits derived from this compound are not affected by the formulation or processes that may alter its function, such as the digestion process. In this study, the impact of food matrices and supplementation levels on the bioaccessibility and assimilation of MFGM lipids in cell culture was investigated. Three food matrices including a protein-rich jelly, carbohydrate-rich cookie, and a carbohydrate- and fat-rich cookie with sunflower oil (SF-cookie) were supplemented with an MFGM ingredient derived from cottage cheese acid whey at 2, 5, and 10% (w/w). Each formulation underwent simulated digestion consisting of oral, gastric, and intestinal phases, and the micellar fraction was collected for both analysis and lipid assimilation in Caco-2 intestinal cells. The micellar fractions were diluted and applied to the cells for 4 h. A lipidomic approach was used to assess the lipid profiles of micellar fractions and intestinal cells. The micelles from digested jellies, cookies, and SF-cookies containing MFGM showed a distinct separation using partial least squares discriminant analysis (PLS-DA). Both correlation loadings and variable importance in projection (VIP) scores demonstrated a tendency of MFGM polar lipids (ceramides, glucosylceramides) for micelles from digested jelly, whereas micelles from digested cookies were associated with MFGM neutral lipids (free fatty acids, cholesterol, etc.). The effect of supplementation level on the micellar lipid profiles reinforced this pattern. The lipid profiles of intestinal cells after incubation with the micellar fractions differed considerably from the corresponding micellar lipid profiles. Specifically, the SF-cookie-treated cells were associated with a greater abundance of PUFA relative to jelly- and cookie-treated cells; however, increasing MFGM supplementation showed irregular patterns and rearrangement of cellular lipid profiles, suggesting the cells' role in regulating lipid metabolism in response to nutritional stimuli. The nature of lipid micellarization and assimilation in intestinal cells from MFGM-containing food formulations echoes the complexity of lipids inherent to the MFGM itself, suggesting the need for application-based MFGM supplementation.

Milk fat globule membrane plus milk fat increase docosahexaenoic acid availability in infant formulas

PURPOSE

Milk fat globule membrane (MFGM) has components with emulsifier properties that could affect the provision of substrates to the brain. We evaluated the effects of MFGM plus milk fat addition to infant formulas on docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) availability and gut development.

METHODS

In Experiment 1, suckling piglets were divided into 3 groups: Group L1 (n = 8): fed with a vegetal fat formula with palm oil; L2 (n = 8): canola oil formula and L3 (n = 8): milk fat + canola oil + 1% Lacprodan (3% MFGM of total protein content). In Experiment 2, Group L4 (n = 7): fed with canola oil + 1% Lacprodan (3% MFGM) and Group L5 (n = 5): milk fat + canola oil + 2% Lacprodan (6% MFGM). All formulas contained 0.2% DHA and 0.2% arachidonic acid.

RESULTS

In Experiment 1, DHA was similar among the groups in both total fatty acids and plasma phospholipids (PL). However, 3% MFGM (L3) increased significantly the proportion of DHA and LC-PUFA n-3 in liver total fatty acids, jejunum, and also in jejunum PL respect to the other formulas. There were no changes in gut histology, cell proliferation, apoptosis, or brain DHA content. In Experiment 2, higher MFGM dose was used. Then, higher DHA was not only found in peripheral tissues of 6% MFGM (L5) piglets but also in plasma PL, while a similar trend was observed in cortex PL (p = 0.123).

CONCLUSION

In conclusion, MFGM plus milk fat may increase DHA availability of infant formulas which could contribute to their beneficial health effects.

The Immunological Role of Milk Fat Globule Membrane

Human milk is the ideal food for newborns until the age of six months. Human milk can be defined as a dynamic living tissue, containing immunological molecules, such as immunoglobulins, supra-molecular structures, such as the milk fat globule membrane (MFGM), and even entire cells, such as the milk microbiota. The milk composition changes throughout lactation to fulfill the infant’s requirements and reflect the healthy/disease status of the lactating mother. Many bioactive milk components are either soluble or bound to the MFGM. In this work, we focus on the peculiar role of the MFGM components, from their structural organization in fat globules to their route into the gastrointestinal tract. Immunometabolic differences between human and bovine MFGM components are reported and the advantages of supplementing infant formula with the MFGM are highlighted.

Acetate-Induced Milk Fat Synthesis Is Associated with Activation of the mTOR Signaling Pathway in Bovine Mammary Epithelial Cells

Acetate is a precursor substance for fatty acid synthesis in bovine mammary epithelial cells (BMECs), and the mTOR signaling pathway plays an important role in milk fat synthesis. However, the mechanism of the regulatory effects of acetate on lipogenic genes via the mTOR signaling pathway in BMEC remains unknown. We hypothesized that acetate can enhance the expression of lipogenic genes and triglyceride (TG) production by activating the mTOR signaling pathway in BMECs. Therefore, the aim of this study was to investigate the network of acetate-regulated lipid metabolism by the mTOR signaling pathway in BMECs. These results showed that TG synthesis was elevated (p < 0.01) in BMECs with acetate treatment. The lipid droplets were increased in the acetate-treated groups compared with those in the control group through the Bodipy staining of the lipids. In addition, the fatty acid profile in BMECs treated with acetate was affected, with an elevation in the proportions of C14:0, C16:0, and C18:0. The mRNA levels of the sterol-response-element-binding protein 1 (SREBP1), stearoyl-CoA desaturase 1 (SCD1), and fatty acid synthase (FAS) genes involved in the lipogenesis and transcriptional factors were upregulated (p < 0.05) in BMECs with acetate treatment. Remarkably, the expression of acetyl-CoA carboxylase α (ACCα) and FAS rate-limiting enzymes involved in lipogenesis was upregulated in BMECs with acetate treatment. Moreover, the addition of acetate enhanced the key protein expression of S6K1, which is related to the mTOR signaling pathway. Taken together, our data suggest that TG accumulation and expression of lipogenic genes induced by acetate are associated with the activation of the mTOR signaling pathway, which provides new insights into the understanding of the molecular mechanism in the expression of mTOR-signaling-pathway-regulated lipogenic genes.

A narrative review of the functional components of human breast milk and their potential to modulate the gut microbiome, the consideration of maternal and child characteristics, and confounders of breastfeeding, and their impact on risk of obesity later in life

Nutritional exposure and, therefore, the metabolic environment during early human development can affect health later in life. This can go beyond the nutrients consumed; there is evidence that the development and modulation of the gut microbiome during early life can affect human growth, development, and health, and the gut microbiome is associated with the risk of obesity later in life. The primary aim of this review was to evaluate existing evidence, to identify the components of human breast milk, which may modulate the gut microbiome, and to assess the impact of the gut microbiome on the risk of becoming obese later in life. This review also considers maternal and child characteristics, and confounders of breastfeeding and how they impact on the infant gut microbiome. Current evidence supports a positive association between fecal, branched short-chain fatty acids and human milk oligosaccharide diversity and a gut microbiome associated with better metabolic health. A negative correlation was found between microbiome diversity and human milk oligosaccharide evenness, which was associated with a greater fat mass and percentage of fat. The components of human breast milk, including oligosaccharides, probiotics, milk fat globule membrane, and adiponectin, were hypothesized to positively influence infant growth and body weight by modulating the microbial diversity and composition of the gut. Maternal diet, timing and duration of breast feeding, and the mode of delivery were all shown to affect the human milk microbiota. However, more experimental studies with long follow-up are required to shed light on the governing mechanisms linking breast milk components with a diverse infant microbiome and healthier body weight later in life.

Effects of melatonin on intestinal function and bacterial compositions in sucking piglets

Melatonin has been reported to affect intestinal function by targeting microbiome, morphological structure, barrier integrity and nutrient absorptive system. While the effect of melatonin on intestinal development in newborn infants is obscure, thus, this study firstly attempted to investigate the hypothesis that melatonin treatment improves intestinal development in sucking piglets. 14 healthy newborn piglets received 10 ml melatonin solution (1 mg/ml) or drinking water (n = 7) for 21 days. The results showed that oral administration of melatonin increased liver relative weight (p < 0.05) but failed to affect growth performance in sucking piglets (p > 0.05). Immunostaining jejunal samples from melatonin group showed high expressions of nnos and claudin1, indicating that melatonin improved intestinal neural development and barrier integrity. Also, melatonin promoted intestinal absorptive function evidenced by the increased serum proline concentration in melatonin-treated piglets compared with the control (p < 0.05). Gut microbiota compositions were tested by 16S rDNA sequencing and the results showed that melatonin increased the relative abundance of Actinobacteria compared with the control (p < 0.05) at the phylum level. However, Selenomonadales was markedly reduced compared with the control at the order level (p < 0.05). Gut and faecal volatile fatty acids were tested to evaluate the microbiota metabolism, but no difference was noticed in volatile fatty acid concentrations (p > 0.05). Melatonin improved intestinal development by affecting neural development, barrier integrity, nutrient absorption and microbiota in sucking piglets.

Safety and tolerance assessment of milk fat globule membrane-enriched infant formulas in healthy term Chinese infants: a randomised multicenter controlled trial

Background

Milk fat globule membrane (MFGM), natural to breast milk, is essential for neonatal development, but lacking from standard infant formulas.

Objectives

To evaluate the safety and tolerability of MFGM supplementation in formula for infants 0 to 12 months.

Methods

In a prospective, multicentre, double-blind, randomized trial, healthy term infants were randomized to a standard formula (SF, n = 104) or an MFGM-enriched formula (MF, n = 108) for 6 months and a corresponding follow-on formula until 12 months. Exclusively breast-fed infants (n = 206) were recruited as the reference group (BFR). Tolerance and safety events were recorded continuously. Anthropometric measurements were assessed at enrolment, 42 days and 4, 6, 8 and 12 months.

Results

Infants (n = 375) completed the study with average dropout of < 20%. Stool frequency, color, and consistency between SF and MF were not significantly different throughout, except the incidence of loose stools in MF at 6 months being lower than for SF (odds ratio 0.216, P < 0.05) and the frequency of green-colored stools at 12 months being higher in MF (CI 95%, odds ratio 8.92, P < 0.05). The BFR had a higher frequency of golden stools and lower rate of green stools (4–6 months) than the two formula-fed groups (P < 0.05). SF displayed more diarrhoea (4.8%) than MF (1%) and BFR (1%) at the 8-month visit (P < 0.05). BFR (0–1%) had significantly less (P < 0.05) lower respiratory infections than MF (4.6–6.5%) and SF (2.9–5.8%) at 6- and 8-months, respectively. Formula intake, frequency of spit-up/vomiting or poor sleep were similar between SF and MF. Growth rate (g/day) was similar at 4, 6, 8 and 12 months between the 3 groups, but growth rate for BFR was significantly higher than for SF and MF at 42 days (95% CI, P = 0.001).

Conclusions

MFGM-enriched formula was safe and well-tolerated in healthy term infants between 0 and 12 months, and total incidences of adverse events were similar to that for the SF group. A few differences in formula tolerance were observed, however these differences were not in any way related to poor growth.

Milk Fat Globule Membrane Attenuates Acute Colitis and Secondary Liver Injury by Improving the Mucus Barrier and Regulating the Gut Microbiota

Objective

Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) often occurs along with extraintestinal manifestations, including hepatic injury. Milk fat globule membrane (MFGM) is an active substance with a potential anti-inflammation activity. However, its alleviated effect and mechanisms in IBD as well as the IBD-induced secondary liver injury are still unclear.

Methods

C57BL/6J mice were administered with a 21-day oral gavage of MFGM, followed by 7 days of drinking water with 4% dextran sulfate sodium (DSS). Disease activity index (DAI), histological features, and cytokines of the colon and liver were evaluated. Then, RNA-seq of the colon and liver was conducted. The gut microbiota was assessed by analyzing 16S rRNA gene sequences, and finally the integrity and the function of the mucus barrier were evaluated by Alcian blue staining, real-time quantitative PCR, and ELISA.

Results

Prophylactic MFGM treatment was effective against colitis to include effects in body weight loss, DAI score, colonic length, intestinal pathology, and histological score. Additionally, prophylactic MFGM decreased the levels of interleukin (IL)-1β, IL-6, and myeloperoxidase in colonic tissue, while it increased the IL-10 level. Moreover, the gene expressions of MUC2, MUC4, Reg3b, and Reg3g associated with the production of the molecular mediator of immune response, membrane invagination, and response to protozoan were strikingly upregulated when administered with MFGM. On the other hand, the beneficial effects of MFGM were related to the enriched abundance of genera such as Faccalibacumum and Roseburia in feces samples. Consistently, the administration of MFGM was also found to alleviate DSS-induced hepatic injury. Furthermore, the glutathione transferase activity pathway was enriched in the liver of MFGM-treated mice after DSS administration. Mechanistically, prophylactic MFGM enhanced the mucosal barrier by increasing the gene levels of Reg3b and Reg3g. Meanwhile, the alleviation of MFGM on liver injury was dependent on the reduced hepatic oxidative stress.

Conclusions

MFGM attenuated colitis and hepatic injury by maintaining the mucosal barrier and bacterial community while inhibiting oxidative stress, which might be an effective therapy of hepatic injury secondary to IBD.

The role of orally ingested milk fat globule membrane on intestinal barrier functions evaluated with a suckling rat pup supplementation model and a human enterocyte model

Milk fat globule membrane (MFGM), the membrane surrounding secreted fat droplets in milk, contains components involved in a wide range of bioprocesses including cell proliferation and differentiation. The intestine is relatively immature and permeable at birth. Since MFGM is partly resistant to digestion in infancy, we hypothesized that orally ingested MFGM promotes intestinal development by enhancing intestinal barrier functions in early life. An established suckling rat model was used; Sprague-Dawley rats were bred, and litters were culled to 10 pups/dam. Pups were supplemented orally with MFGM (0, 100, or 300 mg/kg/day) from postnatal day 1 to 20. Intestine samples were collected for histology, qRT-PCR, immunoblotting, and immunohistochemistry analysis. Additionally, differentiated Caco-2 cells were used to assess effects of MFGM on the human intestinal barrier. Control and MFGM-supplemented rat pups showed similar growth. Intestinal differentiation and expression of tight junction proteins in jejunum and colon were significantly increased by orally ingested MFGM, and MFGM supplementation significantly activated PI3K/Akt/mTOR, MAPK, and MLCK signaling pathways, suggesting that MFGM promotes intestinal development by triggering various signaling pathways. In human enterocytes (polarized Caco-2 cells), MFGM (400 µg/mL for 72 h) decreased permeability, as revealed by increased transepithelial electrical resistance. In Caco-2 cells, MFGM also enhanced expression of tight junction proteins, including claudin-4 and ZO-2. In conclusion, orally ingested MFGM may exert beneficial roles in intestinal development by activating various cell signaling pathways to upregulate tight junction proteins and thereby increasing intestinal barrier functions.

Babies, Bugs, and Barriers: Dietary Modulation of Intestinal Barrier Function in Early Life

The intestinal barrier is essential in early life to prevent infection, inflammation, and food allergies. It consists of microbiota, a mucus layer, an epithelial layer, and the immune system. Microbial metabolites, the mucus, antimicrobial peptides, and secretory immunoglobulin A (sIgA) protect the intestinal mucosa against infection. The complex interplay between these functionalities of the intestinal barrier is crucial in early life by supporting homeostasis, development of the intestinal immune system, and long-term gut health. Exclusive breastfeeding is highly recommended during the first 6 months. When breastfeeding is not possible, milk-based infant formulas are the only safe alternative. Breast milk contains many bioactive components that help to establish the intestinal microbiota and influence the development of the intestinal epithelium and the immune system. Importantly, breastfeeding lowers the risk for intestinal and respiratory tract infections. Here we review all aspects of intestinal barrier function and the nutritional components that impact its functionality in early life, such as micronutrients, bioactive milk proteins, milk lipids, and human milk oligosaccharides. These components are present in breast milk and can be added to milk-based infant formulas to support gut health and immunity. Expected final online publication date for the Annual Review of Nutrition, Volume 42 is August 2022. Please see http://www.annualreviews.org/page/journal/pubdates for revised estimates.

Changes in Human Milk Fat Globule Composition Throughout Lactation: A Review

There has been a growing interest in understanding how the relative levels of human milk fat globule (MFG) components change over the course of lactation, how they differ between populations, and implications of these changes for the health of the infant. In this article, we describe studies published over the last 30 years which have investigated components of the MFG in term milk, focusing on changes over the course of lactation and highlighting infant and maternal factors that may influence these changes. We then consider how the potential health benefits of some of the milk fat globule membrane (MFGM) components and derived ingredients relate to compositional and functional aspects and how these change throughout lactation. The results show that the concentrations of phospholipids, gangliosides, cholesterol, fatty acids and proteins vary throughout lactation, and such changes are likely to reflect the changing requirements of the growing infant. There is a lack of consistent trends for changes in phospholipids and gangliosides across lactation which may reflect different methodological approaches. Other factors such as maternal diet and geographical location have been shown to influence human MFGM composition. The majority of research on the health benefits of MFGM have been conducted using MFGM ingredients derived from bovine milk, and using animal models which have clearly demonstrated the role of the MFGM in supporting cognitive and immune health of infants at different stages of growth and development.

Gut microbiome and necrotizing enterocolitis: Understanding the connection to find a cure

Necrotizing enterocolitis (NEC), a cause of death among premature babies, has defied therapeutics for decades. Bacterial analyses have expanded insights into NEC pathophysiology and roles of the gut microbiome. We discuss the contribution of the gut microbiome and potential therapeutics, notably lactadherin, that may promote gut homeostasis to alleviate NEC.

Roles of Milk Fat Globule Membrane on Fat Digestion and Infant Nutrition

Milk fats are present as globules emulsified in the aqueous phase of milk and stabilized by a delicate membrane architecture called milk fat globule membrane (MFGM). The unique structure and composition of the MFGM play an important role in fat digestion and the metabolic programming of neonates. The objective of this review is to compare the structure, composition, and physicochemical characteristics of fat globules in human milk, bovine milk, and infant formula. It provides an overview of the fat digestion process and enzymes in healthy infants, and describes the possible roles of the MFGM in association with factors affecting fat digestion. Lastly, the health benefits of the MFGM on infant nutrition and future perspectives are discussed with a focus on brain development, metabolic response, and gut health.

Functional Significance of Different Milk Constituents in Modulating the Gut Microbiome and Infant Health

Human milk, the gold standard for optimal nourishment, controls the microbial composition of infants by either enhancing or limiting bacterial growth. The milk fat globule membrane has gained interest in gut-related functions and cognitive development. The membrane proteins can directly interact with probiotic bacteria, influencing their survival and adhesion through gastrointestinal transit, whereas membrane phospholipids increase the residence time of probiotic bacteria in the gut. The commensal bacteria in milk act as the initial inoculum in building up the gut colonization of an infant, whereas oligosaccharides promote proliferation of beneficial microorganisms. Interestingly, milk extracellular vesicles are also involved in influencing the microbiota composition but are not well-explored. This review highlights the contribution of different milk components in modulating the infant gut microbiota, particularly the fat globule membrane, and the complex interplay between host- and brain-gut microbiota signaling affecting infant and adult health positively.

Neonatal Supplementation of Oleamide During Suckling Promotes Learning Ability and Memory in Adolescent Mice

BACKGROUND

Fatty acid amides (FAMs) are present in breast milk. Oleamide (ODA), a member of the FAM family, has been reported to affect learning and memory-related abilities in animal experiments.

OBJECTIVES

This study aimed to characterize the temporal changes of FAMs in human milk and sought to examine the effect of ODA supplementation during suckling on postweaning cognitive performance in mice.

METHODS

FAMs were measured in human milk (postpartum 1-24 wk) by ultra-performance liquid chromatography-triple quadruple mass spectrometry (UPLC-TQ-MS) analysis. We supplemented neonatal C57BL/6J mice of both sexes with vehicle (control), 5 mg/(kg · day) ODA (L-ODA), or 25 mg/(kg · day) ODA (H-ODA) throughout suckling by oral gavage. After weaning, the Morris water maze test and novel object recognition test were performed. Neurogenesis, spinal morphogenesis in the dentate gyrus (DG) region, and hippocampal expression of synaptic markers were analyzed. Data were analyzed by ANOVA and repeated-measures ANOVA.

RESULTS

ODA (0.566-1.31 mg/L) was the most abundant FAM in breast milk, followed by palmitamide (0.135-0.269 mg/L) and linoleamide (0.046-0.242 mg/L). Compared with the control group, the H-ODA group demonstrated shorter escape latency, shorter travel distance, 113% more platform crossing, and 48% greater discrimination index in behavioral tests (P < 0.05). Additionally, the H-ODA group showed a higher density of 5-ethynyl-2'-deoxyuridine (EdU)+ and EdU+& doublecortin (DCX)+ cells (62% and 53%, respectively), and 52% greater spine density in the DG region than the control group (P < 0.05). The synaptic markers, postsynaptic density protein 95 (PSD95) and synaptophysin (SYP), were upregulated in the H-ODA group compared with the control group (P < 0.05). The L-ODA group also showed shorter escape latency in behavioral tests and 27% greater spine density in the DG region than the control group (P < 0.05).

CONCLUSIONS

ODA is the most common FAM in human milk. ODA supplementation during suckling promotes learning and memory-related abilities in adolescent mice by augmenting hippocampal neuronal proliferation and boosting synaptic plasticity.

Early Antibiotic Exposure Alters Intestinal Development and Increases Susceptibility to Necrotizing Enterocolitis: A Mechanistic Study

Increasing evidence suggests that prolonged antibiotic therapy in preterm infants is associated with increased mortality and morbidities, such as necrotizing enterocolitis (NEC), a devastating gastrointestinal pathology characterized by intestinal inflammation and necrosis. While a clinical correlation exists between antibiotic use and the development of NEC, the potential causality of antibiotics in NEC development has not yet been demonstrated. Here, we tested the effects of systemic standard-of-care antibiotic therapy for ten days on intestinal development in neonatal mice. Systemic antibiotic treatment impaired the intestinal development by reducing intestinal cell proliferation, villi height, crypt depth, and goblet and Paneth cell numbers. Oral bacterial challenge in pups who received antibiotics resulted in NEC-like intestinal injury in more than half the pups, likely due to a reduction in mucous-producing cells affecting microbial-epithelial interactions. These data support a novel mechanism that could explain why preterm infants exposed to prolonged antibiotics after birth have a higher incidence of NEC and other gastrointestinal disorders.

Gut Microbiome Alterations following Postnatal Iron Supplementation Depend on Iron Form and Persist into Adulthood

The gut microbiota is implicated in the adverse developmental outcomes of postnatal iron supplementation. To generate hypotheses on how changes to the gut microbiota by iron adversely affect development, and to determine whether the form of iron influences microbiota outcomes, we characterized gut microbiome and metabolome changes in Sprague-Dawley rat pups given oral supplements of ferrous sulfate (FS), ferrous bis-glycinate chelate (FC), or vehicle control (CON) on postnatal day (PD) 2−14. Iron supplementation reduced microbiome alpha-diversity (p < 0.0001) and altered short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs) and trimethylamine (TMA) in a form-dependent manner. To investigate the long-term effects of iron provision in early life, an additional cohort was supplemented with FS, FC, or CON until PD 21 and then weaned onto standard chow. At ~8 weeks of age, young adult (YA) rats that received FS exhibited more diverse microbiomes compared to CON (p < 0.05), whereas FC microbiomes were less diverse (p < 0.05). Iron provision resulted in 10,000-fold reduced abundance of Lactobacilli in pre-weanling and YA animals provided iron in early life (p < 0.0001). Our results suggest that in pre-weanling rats, supplemental iron form can generate differential effects on the gut microbiota and microbial metabolism that persist into adulthood.

The Role of Dietary Fats in the Development and Prevention of Necrotizing Enterocolitis

Necrotizing enterocolitis (NEC) is a significant cause of mortality and morbidity in preterm infants. The pathogenesis of NEC is not completely understood; however, intestinal immaturity and excessive immunoreactivity of intestinal mucosa to intraluminal microbes and nutrients appear to have critical roles. Dietary fats are not only the main source of energy for preterm infants, but also exert potent effects on intestinal development, intestinal microbial colonization, immune function, and inflammatory response. Preterm infants have a relatively low capacity to digest and absorb triglyceride fat. Fat may thereby accumulate in the ileum and contribute to the development of NEC by inducing oxidative stress and inflammation. Some fat components, such as long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (LC-PUFAs), also exert immunomodulatory roles during the early postnatal period when the immune system is rapidly developing. LC-PUFAs may have the ability to modulate the inflammatory process of NEC, particularly when the balance between n3 and n6 LC-PUFAs derivatives is maintained. Supplementation with n3 LC-PUFAs alone may have limited effect on NEC prevention. In this review, we describe how various fatty acids play different roles in the pathogenesis of NEC in preterm infants.

Profiling polar lipids in whey protein phospholipid concentrate by LC-HRMS/MS

Bioactive polar lipids in the milk fat globular membrane can be recovered and enriched during whey protein processing into a co-product called whey protein phospholipid concentrate (WPPC). A food-grade solvent successfully extracted polar lipids from powdered dairy products, and lipids can be fractionated under temperature-induced crystallization. This study investigates the specific lipid species present in ethanol extracted lipid residues from commercially available WPPC using a UPLC-Q-TOF-MS/MS lipidomics method. In general, sphingomyelins and phosphatidylcholines were retained in the polar lipid enriched fraction. Sphingomyelin was found to be a rich source of long chain fatty acids. Several glycosphingolipids, glucosyl-, galactosyl-, lactosyl-, and galabiosylceramide, were also detected in WPPC; these species were observed to crystallize away from other polar lipids during fractionation. Correlation analysis supported the claim that majority of polar lipids recovered in a total lipid extract using ethanol were retained in a polar lipid enriched residue after fractional crystallization.

Delivery Mode Affects Intestinal Microbial Composition and the Development of Intestinal Epithelial Cells

Background

The infant's intestine contains diverse microbiota, which play an important role in an infant's health.

Objective

This study aimed to analyze the different intestinal microbiota and their function in two delivery modes [vaginal delivery and cesarean section (C-section)] and to investigate the proprieties of bacteria associated with vaginal delivery on the development of intestinal epithelial cells in rat pups.

Materials and Methods

We evaluated the intestinal microbial diversity of the stool samples of 51 infants of subjects who underwent vaginal delivery and C-section by sequencing the V4 regions of the 16S rRNA gene and predicted the function of the microbiotas. The infant stool microbiota in the vaginal delivery group was associated with the digestive system and cell growth and death, whereas that of the C-section group was associated with membrane transport. Then, we isolated the strains based on function prediction.

Results

A total of 95 strains were isolated in the vaginal delivery group. Bifidobacterium bifidum FL-228.1 (FL-228.1) was screened and selected owing to its good surface hydrophobicity, bacterial survivability in the simulated gastrointestinal condition and adhesion ability to the IEC-6 cell line as well as owing to the development of intestinal epithelial cells. Furthermore, in vivo experiments revealed that FL-228.1 exhibited favorable effects on the development of intestinal epithelial cells in rat pups.

Conclusion

The results of this study indicate an apparent difference in the bacterial composition of the stool samples collected from infants of the two delivery modes. By analyzing and screening the bacteria in infant stool samples, we found that one strain, i.e., B bifidum FL-228.1, exhibited favorable effects on the development of intestinal epithelial cells.

Effects of colostrum management on transfer of passive immunity and the potential role of colostral bioactive components on neonatal calf development and metabolism

Neonatal dairy and beef calves are required to ingest adequate volumes of high-quality colostrum during their first hours of life to acquire transfer of passive immunity (TPI). As such, immunoglobulin G (IgG) has largely been the focus of colostrum research over recent decades. Yet, little is known about the additional bioactive compounds in colostrum that potentially influence newborn calf development and metabolism. The purpose of this narrative review is to synthesize research regarding the effects of colostrum management practices on TPI, as well as to address the potential role of additional colostral bioactive molecules, including oligosaccharides, fatty acids, insulin, and insulin-like growth factor-I, in promoting calf development and metabolism. Due to the importance of IgG in ensuring calf immunity and health, we review past research describing the process of colostrogenesis and dam factors influencing the concentrations of IgG in an effort to maximize TPI. We also address the transfer of additional bioactive compounds in colostrum and prepartum management and dam factors that influence their concentrations. Finally, we highlight key areas of future research for the scientific community to pursue to ultimately improve the health and welfare of neonatal dairy calves.

MFGM components promote gut Bifidobacterium growth in infant and in vitro

PURPOSE

Infant gut microbiota which plays an important role in long-term health is mainly shaped by early life nutrition. However, the effect of nutrients on infants gut microbiota is less researched. Here, we present a study aiming to investigate in vitro a modified formula that is supplemented with milk fat globule membrane (MFGM) that were missing in common formulas when compared with human milk and to assess the impact of feeding scheme on microbiota and metabolism.

METHODS

A total of 44 infants including 16 from breast milk feeding, 13 from common formula feeding and 15 from modified formula feeding were analyzed, and A cross-sectional sampling of fecal and urine was done at 1 month-of-age. Stool microbiota composition was characterized using high-throughput DNA sequencing, and urinary metabolome was profiled by nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR). In vitro growth experiment of Bifidobacterium with key components from MFGM was performed and analyzed by both DNA and RNA.

RESULTS

Stool samples from the infants who were breastfed had a higher relative abundance of Bifidobacterium and a lower relative abundance of Escherichia than the formula-fed infants. The stool microbiome shifts were associated with urine metabolites changes. Three substances including lactadherin, sialic acid and phospholipid, key components of MFGM were significantly positively correlated to Bifidobacterium of stool samples from infants, and stimulated the growth rate of Bifidobacterium significantly by provided energy in vitro growth experiment with RNA analysis.

CONCLUSIONS

These findings suggest that the key components from MFGM could improve infants' health by modulating the gut microbiome, and possibly supporting the growth of Bifidobacterium.

REGISTRATION

Clinicaltrials.gov NCT02658500 (registered on January 20, 2016).

Potential Benefits of Bovine Colostrum in Pediatric Nutrition and Health

Bovine colostrum (BC), the first milk produced from cows after parturition, is increasingly used as a nutritional supplement to promote gut function and health in other species, including humans. The high levels of whey and casein proteins, immunoglobulins (Igs), and other milk bioactives in BC are adapted to meet the needs of newborn calves. However, BC supplementation may improve health outcomes across other species, especially when immune and gut functions are immature in early life. We provide a review of BC composition and its effects in infants and children in health and selected diseases (diarrhea, infection, growth-failure, preterm birth, necrotizing enterocolitis (NEC), short-bowel syndrome, and mucositis). Human trials and animal studies (mainly in piglets) are reviewed to assess the scientific evidence of whether BC is a safe and effective antimicrobial and immunomodulatory nutritional supplement that reduces clinical complications related to preterm birth, infections, and gut disorders. Studies in infants and animals suggest that BC should be supplemented at an optimal age, time, and level to be both safe and effective. Exclusive BC feeding is not recommended for infants because of nutritional imbalances relative to human milk. On the other hand, adverse effects, including allergies and intolerance, appear unlikely when BC is provided as a supplement within normal nutrition guidelines for infants and children. Larger clinical trials in infant populations are needed to provide more evidence of health benefits when patients are supplemented with BC in addition to human milk or formula. Igs and other bioactive factors in BC may work in synergy, making it critical to preserve bioactivity with gentle processing and pasteurization methods. BC has the potential to become a safe and effective nutritional supplement for several pediatric subpopulations.

Influence of Dietary Polar Lipid Supplementation on Memory and Longitudinal Brain Development

Polar lipids, which are found in human milk, serve essential functions within biological membranes, hence their importance in brain development and cognition. Therefore, we aimed to evaluate the longitudinal effects on brain macrostructural and microstructural development and recognition memory of early-life polar lipid supplementation using the translational pig model. Twenty-eight intact (i.e., not castrated) male pigs were provided either a control diet (n = 14) or the control diet supplemented with polar lipids (n = 14) from postnatal day 2 until postnatal week 4. After postnatal week 4, all animals were provided the same nutritionally-adequate diets until postnatal week 24. Pigs underwent magnetic resonance imaging at 8 longitudinal time-points to model brain macrostructural and microstructural developmental trajectories. The novel object recognition task was implemented at postnatal weeks 4 and 8 to evaluate recognition memory. Subtle differences were observed between groups in hippocampal absolute brain volumes and fractional anisotropy, and no differences in myelin water fraction developmental patterns were noted. Behavioral outcomes did not differ in recognition memory, and only minimal differences were observed in exploratory behaviors. Our findings suggest that early-life dietary supplementation of polar lipids has limited effect on brain developmental patterns, object recognition memory, and exploratory behaviors.

Nutritional Interventions and the Gut Microbiome in Children

The gut microbiome plays an integral role in health and disease, and diet is a major driver of its composition, diversity, and functional capacity. Given the dynamic development of the gut microbiome in infants and children, it is critical to address two major questions: (a) Can diet modify the composition, diversity, or function of the gut microbiome, and (b) will such modification affect functional/clinical outcomes including immune function, cognitive development, and overall health? We synthesize the evidence on the effect of nutritional interventions on the gut microbiome in infants and children across 26 studies. Findings indicate the need to study older children, assess the whole intestinal tract, and harmonize methods and interpretation of findings, which are critical for informing meaningful clinical and public health practice. These findings are relevant for precision health, may help identify windows of opportunity for intervention, and may inform the design and delivery of such interventions. Expected final online publication date for the Annual Review of Nutrition, Volume 41 is September 2021. Please see http://www.annualreviews.org/page/journal/pubdates for revised estimates.

Variation in milk fat globule size and composition: A source of bioactives for human health

Milk fat globules (MFGs) are secreted from the mammalian gland and are composed of a triacylglycerol core surrounded by a triple membrane structure, the milk fat globule membrane (MFGM). The MFGM contains complex lipids and proteins reported to have nutritional, immunological, neurological and digestive functions. Human and ruminant milk are shown to share a similar MFG structure but with different size, profile and abundance of protein and polar lipids. This review summarizes the reported data on human, bovine, caprine and ovine MFG composition and concentration of bioactive components in different MFG-size fractions. A comprehensive understanding of compositional variations between milk from different species and MFG size fractions may help promote various milk sources as targeted supplements to improve human development and health. MFG size and MFGM composition are species-specific and affected by lactation, diet and breed (or maternal origin). Purification and enrichment methods for some bioactive proteins and lipids present in the MFGM have yet to be established or are not scaled sufficiently to be used to supplement human diets. To overcome this problem, MFG size selection through fractionation or herd selection may provide a convenient way to pre-enrich the MFG fraction with specific protein and lipid components to fulfill human dietary and health requirements.