1
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Chimatahalli Shanthakumar K, Sridhara PG, Rajabathar JR, Al-lohedan HA, Lokanath NK, Mylnahalli Krishnegowda H. Unveiling a Novel Solvatomorphism of Anti-inflammatory Flufenamic Acid: X-ray Structure, Quantum Chemical, and In Silico Studies. ACS OMEGA 2024; 9:20753-20772. [PMID: 38764648 PMCID: PMC11097344 DOI: 10.1021/acsomega.3c07520] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/28/2023] [Revised: 04/10/2024] [Accepted: 04/16/2024] [Indexed: 05/21/2024]
Abstract
This paper delves into the polymorphism of 2-[3-(trifluoromethyl)anilino]benzoic acid, commonly referred to as flufenamic acid (FA), a pharmaceutical agent employed in treating inflammatory conditions. The central focus of the study is on a newly unearthed solvatomorphic structure of FA in methanol (FAM), and a thorough comparison is conducted with the commercially available standard structure. Employing a comprehensive approach, including X-ray crystallography, Hirshfeld surface analysis, density functional theory (DFT), molecular docking, and molecular dynamics (MD) simulations, the research aims to unravel the structural and functional implications of solvatomorphism. The X-ray crystal structure analysis brings to light notable differences between the standard FA and solvatomorphic FAM, showcasing variations in intermolecular interactions and crystal packing. Key features such as hydrogen bonding, π···π stacking, and C-H···π interactions are identified as influential factors shaping the stability and conformation of the compounds. Hirshfeld surface analysis further quantifies the nature and contribution of intermolecular interactions, providing a comprehensive perspective on molecular stability. Density functional theory offers valuable electronic structure insights, highlighting disparities in frontier molecular orbitals between FA and FAM. Molecular docking studies against prostaglandin D2 11-ketoreductase explore potential drug interactions, unveiling distinct binding modes and hydrogen bonding patterns that shed light on how the solvatomorphic structure may impact drug-target interactions. In-depth molecular dynamics simulations over 100 ns investigate the stability of the protein-ligand complex, with root mean square deviation and root mean square fluctuation analyses revealing minimal deviations and affirming the stability of FAM within the active site of the target protein.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Jothi Ramalingam Rajabathar
- Department
of Chemistry, College of Science, King Saud
University, P.O. Box. 2455, Riyadh 11451, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
| | - Hamad A. Al-lohedan
- Department
of Chemistry, College of Science, King Saud
University, P.O. Box. 2455, Riyadh 11451, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
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2
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Barua H, Svärd M, Rasmuson ÅC, Hudson SP, Cookman J. Mesoscale Clusters in the Crystallisation of Organic Molecules. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2024; 63:e202312100. [PMID: 38055699 DOI: 10.1002/anie.202312100] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/18/2023] [Revised: 12/05/2023] [Accepted: 12/05/2023] [Indexed: 12/08/2023]
Abstract
The early stages of the molecular self-assembly pathway leading to crystal nucleation have a significant influence on the properties and purity of organic materials. This mini review collates the work on organic mesoscale clusters and discusses their importance in nucleation processes, with a particular focus on their critical properties and susceptibility to sample treatment parameters. This is accomplished by a review of detection methods, including dynamic light scattering, nanoparticle tracking analysis, small angle X-ray scattering, and transmission electron microscopy. Considering the challenges associated with crystallisation of flexible and large-molecule active pharmaceutical ingredients, the dynamic nature of mesoscale clusters has the potential to expand the discovery of novel crystal forms. By collating literature on mesoscale clusters for organic molecules, a more comprehensive understanding of their role in nucleation will evolve and can guide further research efforts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Harsh Barua
- Chemical Sciences Department, SSPC, The Science Foundation Ireland Research Centre for Pharmaceuticals, Bernal Institute, University of Limerick Castletroy, Limerick, V94 T9PX, Ireland
| | - Michael Svärd
- KTH Royal Institute of Technology, Department of Chemical Engineering, 10044, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Åke C Rasmuson
- Chemical Sciences Department, SSPC, The Science Foundation Ireland Research Centre for Pharmaceuticals, Bernal Institute, University of Limerick Castletroy, Limerick, V94 T9PX, Ireland
- KTH Royal Institute of Technology, Department of Chemical Engineering, 10044, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Sarah P Hudson
- Chemical Sciences Department, SSPC, The Science Foundation Ireland Research Centre for Pharmaceuticals, Bernal Institute, University of Limerick Castletroy, Limerick, V94 T9PX, Ireland
| | - Jennifer Cookman
- Chemical Sciences Department, SSPC, The Science Foundation Ireland Research Centre for Pharmaceuticals, Bernal Institute, University of Limerick Castletroy, Limerick, V94 T9PX, Ireland
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3
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Zschiesche H, Soroka IL, Jonsson M, Tarakina NV. Non-classical crystallization of CeO 2 by means of in situ electron microscopy. NANOSCALE 2023; 15:14595-14605. [PMID: 37610726 PMCID: PMC10500627 DOI: 10.1039/d3nr02400h] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/24/2023] [Accepted: 08/15/2023] [Indexed: 08/24/2023]
Abstract
During in situ liquid-phase electron microscopy (LP-EM) observations, the application of different irradiation dose rates may considerably alter the chemistry of the studied solution and influence processes, in particular growth pathways. While many processes have been studied using LP-EM in the last decade, the extent of the influence of the electron beam is not always understood and comparisons with corresponding bulk experiments are lacking. Here, we employ the radiolytic oxidation of Ce3+ in aqueous solution as a model reaction for the in situ LP-EM study of the formation of CeO2 particles. We compare our findings to the results from our previous study where a larger volume of Ce3+ precursor solution was subjected to γ-irradiation. We systematically analyze the effects of the applied irradiation dose rates and the induced diffusion of Ce ions on the growth mechanisms and the morphology of ceria particles. Our results show that an eight orders of magnitude higher dose rate applied during homogeneous electron-radiation in LP-EM compared to the dose rate using gamma-radiation does not affect the CeO2 particle growth pathway despite the significant higher Ce3+ to Ce4+ oxidation rate. Moreover, in both cases highly ordered structures (mesocrystals) are formed. This finding is explained by the stepwise formation of ceria particles via an intermediate phase, a signature of non-classical crystallization. Furthermore, when irradiation is applied locally using LP scanning transmission electron microscopy (LP-STEM), the higher conversion rate induces Ce-ion concentration gradients affecting the CeO2 growth. The appearance of branched morphologies is associated with the change to diffusion limited growth.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hannes Zschiesche
- Max Planck Institute of Colloids and Interfaces, Department of Colloid Chemistry, Potsdam, Germany.
| | - Inna L Soroka
- Applied Physical Chemistry, School of Engineering Sciences in Chemistry, Biotechnology and Health, KTH Royal Institute of Technology, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Mats Jonsson
- Applied Physical Chemistry, School of Engineering Sciences in Chemistry, Biotechnology and Health, KTH Royal Institute of Technology, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Nadezda V Tarakina
- Max Planck Institute of Colloids and Interfaces, Department of Colloid Chemistry, Potsdam, Germany.
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4
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Vratsanos M, Xue W, Rosenmann ND, Zarzar LD, Gianneschi NC. Ouzo Effect Examined at the Nanoscale via Direct Observation of Droplet Nucleation and Morphology. ACS CENTRAL SCIENCE 2023; 9:457-465. [PMID: 36968532 PMCID: PMC10037490 DOI: 10.1021/acscentsci.2c01194] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/09/2022] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Herein, we present the direct observation via liquid-phase transmission electron microscopy (LPTEM) of the nucleation and growth pathways of structures formed by the so-called "ouzo effect", which is a classic example of surfactant-free, spontaneous emulsification. Such liquid-liquid phase separation occurs in ternary systems with an appropriate cosolvent such that the addition of the third component extracts the cosolvent and makes the other component insoluble. Such droplets are homogeneously sized, stable, and require minimal energy to disperse compared to conventional emulsification methods. Thus, ouzo precipitation processes are an attractive, straightforward, and energy-efficient technique for preparing dispersions, especially those made on an industrial scale. While this process and the resulting emulsions have been studied by numerous indirect techniques (e.g., X-ray and light scattering), direct observation of such structures and their formation at the nanoscale has remained elusive. Here, we employed the nascent technique of LPTEM to simultaneously evaluate droplet growth and nanostructure. Observation of such emulsification and its rate dependence is a promising indication that similar LPTEM methodologies may be used to investigate emulsion formation and kinetics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria
A. Vratsanos
- Department
of Materials Science & Engineering, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois 60208, United States
| | - Wangyang Xue
- Department
of Chemistry, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania 16802, United States
| | - Nathan D. Rosenmann
- Department
of Materials Science & Engineering, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois 60208, United States
| | - Lauren D. Zarzar
- Department
of Chemistry, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania 16802, United States
- Department
of Materials Science and Engineering, The
Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania 16802, United States
- Materials
Research Institute, The Pennsylvania State
University, University Park, Pennsylvania 16802, United States
| | - Nathan C. Gianneschi
- Department
of Materials Science & Engineering, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois 60208, United States
- International
Institute for Nanotechnology, Simpson Querrey Institute, Chemistry
of Life Processes Institute, Northwestern
University, Evanston, Illinois 60208, United
States
- Department
of Chemistry, Department of Biomedical Engineering, Department of
Pharmacology, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois 60208, United States
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5
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Merkens S, De Salvo G, Kruse J, Modin E, Tollan C, Grzelczak M, Chuvilin A. Quantification of reagent mixing in liquid flow cells for Liquid Phase-TEM. Ultramicroscopy 2023; 245:113654. [PMID: 36470094 DOI: 10.1016/j.ultramic.2022.113654] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/09/2022] [Revised: 11/11/2022] [Accepted: 11/20/2022] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Liquid-Phase Transmission Electron Microscopy (LP-TEM) offers the opportunity to study nanoscale dynamics of phenomena related to materials and life science in a native liquid environment and in real time. Until now, the opportunity to control/induce such dynamics by changing the chemical environment in the liquid flow cell (LFC) has rarely been exploited due to an incomplete understanding of hydrodynamic properties of LP-TEM flow systems. This manuscript introduces a method for hydrodynamic characterization of LP-TEM flow systems based on monitoring transmitted intensity while flowing a strongly electron scattering contrast agent solution. Key characteristic temporal indicators of solution replacement for various channel geometries were experimentally measured. A numerical physical model of solute transport based on realistic flow channel geometries was successfully implemented and validated against experiments. The model confirmed the impact of flow channel geometry on the importance of convective and diffusive solute transport, deduced by experiment, and could further extend understanding of hydrodynamics in LP-TEM flow systems. We emphasize that our approach can be applied to hydrodynamic characterization of any customized LP-TEM flow system. We foresee the implemented predictive model driving the future design of application-specific LP-TEM flow systems and, when combined with existing chemical reaction models, to a flourishing of the planning and interpretation of experimental observations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stefan Merkens
- Electron Microscopy Laboratory, CIC nanoGUNE BRTA, Tolosa Hiribidea 76, Donostia, San Sebastián 20018, Spain; Department of Physics, Euskal Herriko Unibertsitatea (UPV/EHU), Donostia, San Sebastián 20018, Spain.
| | - Giuseppe De Salvo
- Electron Microscopy Laboratory, CIC nanoGUNE BRTA, Tolosa Hiribidea 76, Donostia, San Sebastián 20018, Spain; Department of Physics, Euskal Herriko Unibertsitatea (UPV/EHU), Donostia, San Sebastián 20018, Spain
| | - Joscha Kruse
- Electron Microscopy Laboratory, CIC nanoGUNE BRTA, Tolosa Hiribidea 76, Donostia, San Sebastián 20018, Spain; Donostia International Physics Center (DIPC), Paseo Manuel de Lardizabal 4, Donostia, San Sebastián 20018, Spain
| | - Evgenii Modin
- Electron Microscopy Laboratory, CIC nanoGUNE BRTA, Tolosa Hiribidea 76, Donostia, San Sebastián 20018, Spain
| | - Christopher Tollan
- Electron Microscopy Laboratory, CIC nanoGUNE BRTA, Tolosa Hiribidea 76, Donostia, San Sebastián 20018, Spain
| | - Marek Grzelczak
- Donostia International Physics Center (DIPC), Paseo Manuel de Lardizabal 4, Donostia, San Sebastián 20018, Spain; Centro de Física de Materiales CSIC-UPV/EHU, Paseo Manuel de Lardizabal 5, Donostia, San Sebastián 20018, Spain
| | - Andrey Chuvilin
- Electron Microscopy Laboratory, CIC nanoGUNE BRTA, Tolosa Hiribidea 76, Donostia, San Sebastián 20018, Spain; Ikerbasque, Basque Foundation for Science, 48013 Bilbao, Spain
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6
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Yoshida K, Sasaki Y, Kuwabara A, Ikuhara Y. Reliable Electrochemical Setup for in situ Observations with an Atmospheric SEM. Microscopy (Oxf) 2022; 71:311-314. [PMID: 35689557 DOI: 10.1093/jmicro/dfac028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/03/2022] [Revised: 05/07/2022] [Accepted: 06/10/2022] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
A novel setup for the in situ observation of electrochemical reactions in liquids through atmospheric scanning electron microscopy is presented. The proposed liquid-phase electrochemical SEM system consists of a working electrode (WE) on an electrochemical chip (e-chip) and other two electrodes inserted into a liquid electrolyte; electrochemical reactions occurring at the WE are controlled precisely with an external potentiostat/galvanostat connected to the three electrodes. Copper deposition from a CuSO4 aqueous solution was conducted onto the WE, and simultaneous acquisition of nanoscale images and reliable electrochemical data was achieved with the proposed setup.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kaname Yoshida
- Nanostructures Research Laboratory, Japan Fine Ceramics Center, 2-4-1 Mutsuno, Atsuta-ku, Nagoya 456-8587, Japan
| | - Yuki Sasaki
- Nanostructures Research Laboratory, Japan Fine Ceramics Center, 2-4-1 Mutsuno, Atsuta-ku, Nagoya 456-8587, Japan
| | - Akihide Kuwabara
- Nanostructures Research Laboratory, Japan Fine Ceramics Center, 2-4-1 Mutsuno, Atsuta-ku, Nagoya 456-8587, Japan
| | - Yuichi Ikuhara
- Nanostructures Research Laboratory, Japan Fine Ceramics Center, 2-4-1 Mutsuno, Atsuta-ku, Nagoya 456-8587, Japan.,Institute of Engineering Innovation, School of Engineering, The University of Tokyo, 2-11-16 Yayoi, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 113-8656, Japan
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7
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Cotin G, Heinrich B, Perton F, Kiefer C, Francius G, Mertz D, Freis B, Pichon B, Strub JM, Cianférani S, Ortiz Peña N, Ihiawakrim D, Portehault D, Ersen O, Khammari A, Picher M, Banhart F, Sanchez C, Begin-Colin S. A Confinement-Driven Nucleation Mechanism of Metal Oxide Nanoparticles Obtained via Thermal Decomposition in Organic Media. SMALL (WEINHEIM AN DER BERGSTRASSE, GERMANY) 2022; 18:e2200414. [PMID: 35426247 DOI: 10.1002/smll.202200414] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/19/2022] [Revised: 03/06/2022] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Thermal decomposition is a very efficient synthesis strategy to obtain nanosized metal oxides with controlled structures and properties. For the iron oxide nanoparticle synthesis, it allows an easy tuning of the nanoparticle's size, shape, and composition, which is often explained by the LaMer theory involving a clear separation between nucleation and growth steps. Here, the events before the nucleation of iron oxide nanocrystals are investigated by combining different complementary in situ characterization techniques. These characterizations are carried out not only on powdered iron stearate precursors but also on a preheated liquid reaction mixture. They reveal a new nucleation mechanism for the thermal decomposition method: instead of a homogeneous nucleation, the nucleation occurs within vesicle-like-nanoreactors confining the reactants. The different steps are: 1) the melting and coalescence of iron stearate particles, leading to "droplet-shaped nanostructures" acting as nanoreactors; 2) the formation of a hitherto unobserved iron stearate crystalline phase within the nucleation temperature range, simultaneously with stearate chains loss and Fe(III) to Fe(II) reduction; 3) the formation of iron oxide nuclei inside the nanoreactors, which are then ejected from them. This mechanism paves the way toward a better mastering of the metal oxide nanoparticles synthesis and the control of their properties.
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Affiliation(s)
- Geoffrey Cotin
- Université de Strasbourg, CNRS, Institut de Physique et Chimie des Matériaux de Strasbourg, UMR 7504, Strasbourg, F-67034, France
- Labex CSC, Fondation IcFRC/Université de Strasbourg, 8 allée Gaspard Monge BP 70028, Strasbourg Cedex, F-67083, France
| | - Benoît Heinrich
- Université de Strasbourg, CNRS, Institut de Physique et Chimie des Matériaux de Strasbourg, UMR 7504, Strasbourg, F-67034, France
| | - Francis Perton
- Université de Strasbourg, CNRS, Institut de Physique et Chimie des Matériaux de Strasbourg, UMR 7504, Strasbourg, F-67034, France
- Labex CSC, Fondation IcFRC/Université de Strasbourg, 8 allée Gaspard Monge BP 70028, Strasbourg Cedex, F-67083, France
| | - Céline Kiefer
- Université de Strasbourg, CNRS, Institut de Physique et Chimie des Matériaux de Strasbourg, UMR 7504, Strasbourg, F-67034, France
- Labex CSC, Fondation IcFRC/Université de Strasbourg, 8 allée Gaspard Monge BP 70028, Strasbourg Cedex, F-67083, France
| | - Gregory Francius
- Université de Lorraine and CNRS, LPCME UMR 7564, Nancy, F-54000, France
| | - Damien Mertz
- Université de Strasbourg, CNRS, Institut de Physique et Chimie des Matériaux de Strasbourg, UMR 7504, Strasbourg, F-67034, France
- Labex CSC, Fondation IcFRC/Université de Strasbourg, 8 allée Gaspard Monge BP 70028, Strasbourg Cedex, F-67083, France
| | - Barbara Freis
- Université de Strasbourg, CNRS, Institut de Physique et Chimie des Matériaux de Strasbourg, UMR 7504, Strasbourg, F-67034, France
| | - Benoit Pichon
- Université de Strasbourg, CNRS, Institut de Physique et Chimie des Matériaux de Strasbourg, UMR 7504, Strasbourg, F-67034, France
- Labex CSC, Fondation IcFRC/Université de Strasbourg, 8 allée Gaspard Monge BP 70028, Strasbourg Cedex, F-67083, France
| | - Jean-Marc Strub
- Université Strasbourg, CNRS, IPHC, Laboratoire de Spectrométrie de Masse BioOrganique, UMR 7178, Strasbourg, F-67000, France
| | - Sarah Cianférani
- Université Strasbourg, CNRS, IPHC, Laboratoire de Spectrométrie de Masse BioOrganique, UMR 7178, Strasbourg, F-67000, France
| | - Nathalie Ortiz Peña
- Université de Strasbourg, CNRS, Institut de Physique et Chimie des Matériaux de Strasbourg, UMR 7504, Strasbourg, F-67034, France
| | - Dris Ihiawakrim
- Université de Strasbourg, CNRS, Institut de Physique et Chimie des Matériaux de Strasbourg, UMR 7504, Strasbourg, F-67034, France
| | - David Portehault
- Sorbonne Université, CNRS UMR 7574, Collège de France, LCMCP, 4 place Jussieu, Paris cedex 05, 75252, France
| | - Ovidiu Ersen
- Université de Strasbourg, CNRS, Institut de Physique et Chimie des Matériaux de Strasbourg, UMR 7504, Strasbourg, F-67034, France
- Labex CSC, Fondation IcFRC/Université de Strasbourg, 8 allée Gaspard Monge BP 70028, Strasbourg Cedex, F-67083, France
| | - Amir Khammari
- Université de Strasbourg, CNRS, Institut de Physique et Chimie des Matériaux de Strasbourg, UMR 7504, Strasbourg, F-67034, France
| | - Matthieu Picher
- Université de Strasbourg, CNRS, Institut de Physique et Chimie des Matériaux de Strasbourg, UMR 7504, Strasbourg, F-67034, France
| | - Florian Banhart
- Université de Strasbourg, CNRS, Institut de Physique et Chimie des Matériaux de Strasbourg, UMR 7504, Strasbourg, F-67034, France
| | - Clement Sanchez
- Sorbonne Université, CNRS UMR 7574, Collège de France, LCMCP, 4 place Jussieu, Paris cedex 05, 75252, France
- USIAS Chair of Chemistry of ultradivided matter, University of Strasbourg Institut of Advanced Study, Strasbourg, 67000, France
| | - Sylvie Begin-Colin
- Université de Strasbourg, CNRS, Institut de Physique et Chimie des Matériaux de Strasbourg, UMR 7504, Strasbourg, F-67034, France
- Labex CSC, Fondation IcFRC/Université de Strasbourg, 8 allée Gaspard Monge BP 70028, Strasbourg Cedex, F-67083, France
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8
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Yamazaki T, Niinomi H, Kimura Y. Feasibility of Control of Particle Assembly by Dielectrophoresis in Liquid-Cell Transmission Electron Microscopy. Microscopy (Oxf) 2022; 71:231-237. [PMID: 35459948 PMCID: PMC9340798 DOI: 10.1093/jmicro/dfac021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/02/2021] [Revised: 03/23/2022] [Accepted: 04/20/2022] [Indexed: 11/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Liquid-cell transmission electron microscopy (LC-TEM) is a useful technique for observing phenomena in liquid samples with spatial and temporal resolutions similar to those of conventional transmission electron microscopy (TEM). This method is therefore expected to permit the visualization of phenomena previously inaccessible to conventional optical microscopy. However, dynamic processes such as nucleation are difficult to observe by this method because of difficulties in controlling the condition of the sample liquid in the observation area. To approach this problem, we focused on dielectrophoresis, in which electrodes are used to assemble particles, and we investigated the phenomena that occurred when an alternating-current signal was applied to an electrode in an existing liquid cell by using a phase-contrast optical microscope (PCM) and TEM. In PCM, we observed that colloidal particles in a solution were attracted to the electrodes to form assemblies, that the particles aligned along the electric field to form pearl chains and that the pearl chains accumulated to form colloidal crystals. However, these phenomena were not observed in the TEM study because of differences in the design of the relevant holders. The results of our study imply that the particle assembly by using dielectrophoretic forces in LC-TEM should be possible, but further studies, including electric device development, will be required to realize this in practice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tomoya Yamazaki
- Institute of Low Temperature Science, Hokkaido University, Kita 19 Nishi 8, Kita-ku, Sapporo, 060-0819, Japan
| | - Hiromasa Niinomi
- Institute of Multidisciplinary Research for Advanced Materials, Tohoku University, 2-1-1 Katahira, Aoba-ku, Sendai, 980-8577, Japan
| | - Yuki Kimura
- Institute of Low Temperature Science, Hokkaido University, Kita 19 Nishi 8, Kita-ku, Sapporo, 060-0819, Japan
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9
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Ilett M, Freeman HM, Aslam Z, Galloway JM, Klebl DP, Muench SP, McPherson IJ, Cespedes O, Kim Y, Meldrum FC, Yeandel SR, Freeman CL, Harding JH, Brydson RMD. Evaluation of correlated studies using liquid cell‐ and cryo‐transmission electron microscopy: Hydration of calcium sulfate and the phase transformation pathways of bassanite to gypsum. J Microsc 2022; 288:155-168. [PMID: 35348205 PMCID: PMC10084335 DOI: 10.1111/jmi.13102] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/26/2022] [Revised: 03/10/2022] [Accepted: 03/15/2022] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Insight into the nucleation, growth and phase transformations of calcium sulphate could improve the performance of construction materials, reduce scaling in industrial processes and aid understanding of its formation in the natural environment. Recent studies have suggested that the calcium sulphate pseudo polymorph, gypsum (CaSO4 ·2H2 O) can form in aqueous solution via a bassanite (CaSO4 ·0.5H2 O) intermediate. Some in situ experimental work has also suggested that the transformation of bassanite to gypsum can occur through an oriented assembly mechanism. In this work, we have exploited liquid cell transmission electron microscopy (LCTEM) to study the transformation of bassanite to gypsum in an undersaturated aqueous solution of calcium sulphate. This was benchmarked against cryogenic TEM (cryo-TEM) studies to validate internally the data obtained from the two microscopy techniques. When coupled with Raman spectroscopy, the real-time data generated by LCTEM, and structural data obtained from cryo-TEM show that bassanite can transform to gypsum via more than one pathway, the predominant one being dissolution/reprecipitation. Comparisons between LCTEM and cryo-TEM also show that the transformation is slower within the confined region of the liquid cell as compared to a bulk solution. This work highlights the important role of a correlated microscopy approach for the study of dynamic processes such as crystallisation from solution if we are to extract true mechanistic understanding.
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Affiliation(s)
- M. Ilett
- The Bragg Centre for Materials Research, School of Chemical and Process Engineering University of Leeds Leeds LS2 9JT UK
| | - H. M. Freeman
- The Bragg Centre for Materials Research, School of Chemical and Process Engineering University of Leeds Leeds LS2 9JT UK
| | - Z. Aslam
- The Bragg Centre for Materials Research, School of Chemical and Process Engineering University of Leeds Leeds LS2 9JT UK
| | - J. M. Galloway
- The Bragg Centre for Materials Research, School of Chemistry University of Leeds Leeds LS2 9JT UK
| | - D. P. Klebl
- The Bragg Centre for Materials Research, School of Biomedical Sciences and Astbury Centre for Structural and Molecular Biology University of Leeds Leeds LS2 9JT UK
| | - S. P. Muench
- The Bragg Centre for Materials Research, School of Biomedical Sciences and Astbury Centre for Structural and Molecular Biology University of Leeds Leeds LS2 9JT UK
| | - I. J. McPherson
- Department of Chemistry University of Warwick Gibbet Hill Coventry CV4 7AL
| | - O. Cespedes
- The Bragg Centre for Materials Research, Department of Physics University of Leeds Leeds LS2 9JT UK
| | - Y‐Y. Kim
- The Bragg Centre for Materials Research, School of Chemistry University of Leeds Leeds LS2 9JT UK
| | - F. C. Meldrum
- The Bragg Centre for Materials Research, School of Chemistry University of Leeds Leeds LS2 9JT UK
| | - S. R. Yeandel
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering University of Sheffield Sheffield S1 3JD
| | - C. L. Freeman
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering University of Sheffield Sheffield S1 3JD
| | - J. H. Harding
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering University of Sheffield Sheffield S1 3JD
| | - R. M. D. Brydson
- The Bragg Centre for Materials Research, School of Chemical and Process Engineering University of Leeds Leeds LS2 9JT UK
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10
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Rizvi A, Mulvey JT, Patterson JP. Observation of Liquid-Liquid-Phase Separation and Vesicle Spreading during Supported Bilayer Formation via Liquid-Phase Transmission Electron Microscopy. NANO LETTERS 2021; 21:10325-10332. [PMID: 34890211 DOI: 10.1021/acs.nanolett.1c03556] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Liquid-phase transmission electron microscopy (LP-TEM) enables the real-time visualization of nanoscale dynamics in solution. This technique has been used to study the formation and transformation mechanisms of organic and inorganic nanomaterials. Here, we study the formation of block-copolymer-supported bilayers using LP-TEM. We observe two formation pathways that involve either liquid droplets or vesicles as intermediates toward supported bilayers. Quantitative image analysis methods are used to characterize vesicle spread rates and show the origin of defect formation in supported bilayers. Our results suggest that bilayer assembly methods that proceed via liquid droplet intermediates should be beneficial for forming pristine supported bilayers. Furthermore, supported bilayers inside the liquid cells may be used to image membrane interactions with proteins and nanoparticles in the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aoon Rizvi
- Department of Chemistry, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, California 92697-2025, United States
| | - Justin T Mulvey
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, California 92697-2025, United States
| | - Joseph P Patterson
- Department of Chemistry, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, California 92697-2025, United States
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, California 92697-2025, United States
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11
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Gnanasekaran K, Korpanty J, Berger O, Hampu N, Halperin-Sternfeld M, Cohen-Gerassi D, Adler-Abramovich L, Gianneschi NC. Dipeptide Nanostructure Assembly and Dynamics via in Situ Liquid-Phase Electron Microscopy. ACS NANO 2021; 15:16542-16551. [PMID: 34623126 PMCID: PMC9836046 DOI: 10.1021/acsnano.1c06130] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/01/2023]
Abstract
In this paper, we report the in situ growth of FF nanotubes examined via liquid-cell transmission electron microscopy (LCTEM). This direct, high spatial, and temporal resolution imaging approach allowed us to observe the growth of peptide-based nanofibrillar structures through directional elongation. Furthermore, the radial growth profile of FF nanotubes through the addition of monomers perpendicular to the tube axis has been observed in real-time with sufficient resolution to directly observe the increase in diameter. Our study demonstrates that the kinetics, dynamics, structure formation, and assembly mechanism of these supramolecular assemblies can be directly monitored using LCTEM. The performance of the peptides and the assemblies they form can be verified and evaluated using post-mortem techniques including time-of-flight secondary ion mass spectrometry (ToF-SIMS).
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Affiliation(s)
- Karthikeyan Gnanasekaran
- Department of Chemistry, International Institute for Nanotechnology, Simpson Querrey Institute, Chemistry of Life Processes Institute, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois 60208, United States
- Department of Materials Science & Engineering, Department of Biomedical Engineering, Department of Pharmacology, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois 60208, United States
| | - Joanna Korpanty
- Department of Chemistry, International Institute for Nanotechnology, Simpson Querrey Institute, Chemistry of Life Processes Institute, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois 60208, United States
| | - Or Berger
- Department of Chemistry, International Institute for Nanotechnology, Simpson Querrey Institute, Chemistry of Life Processes Institute, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois 60208, United States
- Department of Materials Science & Engineering, Department of Biomedical Engineering, Department of Pharmacology, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois 60208, United States
| | - Nicholas Hampu
- Department of Chemistry, International Institute for Nanotechnology, Simpson Querrey Institute, Chemistry of Life Processes Institute, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois 60208, United States
- Department of Materials Science & Engineering, Department of Biomedical Engineering, Department of Pharmacology, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois 60208, United States
| | - Michal Halperin-Sternfeld
- Department of Oral Biology, The Goldschleger School of Dental Medicine, Sackler Faculty of Medicine, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv 6997801, Israel
- The Center for Nanoscience and Nanotechnology, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv 6997801, Israel
| | - Dana Cohen-Gerassi
- Department of Oral Biology, The Goldschleger School of Dental Medicine, Sackler Faculty of Medicine, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv 6997801, Israel
- The Center for Nanoscience and Nanotechnology, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv 6997801, Israel
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Iby and Aladar Fleischman Faculty of Engineering, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv 6997801, Israel
| | - Lihi Adler-Abramovich
- Department of Oral Biology, The Goldschleger School of Dental Medicine, Sackler Faculty of Medicine, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv 6997801, Israel
- The Center for Nanoscience and Nanotechnology, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv 6997801, Israel
| | - Nathan C Gianneschi
- Department of Chemistry, International Institute for Nanotechnology, Simpson Querrey Institute, Chemistry of Life Processes Institute, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois 60208, United States
- Department of Materials Science & Engineering, Department of Biomedical Engineering, Department of Pharmacology, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois 60208, United States
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12
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Dissanayake TU, Wang M, Woehl TJ. Revealing Reactions between the Electron Beam and Nanoparticle Capping Ligands with Correlative Fluorescence and Liquid-Phase Electron Microscopy. ACS APPLIED MATERIALS & INTERFACES 2021; 13:37553-37562. [PMID: 34338503 DOI: 10.1021/acsami.1c10957] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Liquid-phase transmission electron microscopy (LP-TEM) enables real-time imaging of nanoparticle self-assembly, formation, and etching with single nanometer resolution. Despite the importance of organic nanoparticle capping ligands in these processes, the effect of electron beam irradiation on surface-bound and soluble capping ligands during LP-TEM imaging has not been investigated. Here, we use correlative LP-TEM and fluorescence microscopy (FM) to demonstrate that polymeric nanoparticle ligands undergo competing crosslinking and chain scission reactions that nonmonotonically modify ligand coverage over time. Branched polyethylenimine (BPEI)-coated silver nanoparticles were imaged with dose-controlled LP-TEM followed by labeling their primary amine groups with fluorophores to visualize the local thickness of adsorbed capping ligands. FM images showed that free ligands crosslinked in the LP-TEM image area over imaging times of tens of seconds, enhancing local capping ligand coverage on nanoparticles and silicon nitride membranes. Nanoparticle surface ligands underwent chain scission over irradiation times of minutes to tens of minutes, which depleted surface ligands from the nanoparticle and silicon nitride surface. Conversely, solutions of only soluble capping ligand underwent successive crosslinking reactions with no chain scission, suggesting that nanoparticles enhanced the chain scission reactions by acting as radiolysis hotspots. The addition of a hydroxyl radical scavenger, tert-butanol, eliminated chain scission reactions and slowed the progression of crosslinking reactions. These experiments have important implications for performing controlled and reproducible LP-TEM nanoparticle imaging as they demonstrate that the electron beam can significantly alter ligand coverage on nanoparticles in a nonintuitive manner. They emphasize the need to understand and control the electron beam radiation chemistry of a given sample to avoid significant perturbations to the nanoparticle capping ligand chemistry, which are invisible in electron micrographs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thilini U Dissanayake
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, University of Maryland, College Park, College Park, Maryland 20742, United States
| | - Mei Wang
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, University of Maryland, College Park, College Park, Maryland 20742, United States
| | - Taylor J Woehl
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, University of Maryland, College Park, College Park, Maryland 20742, United States
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13
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Tsarfati Y, Biran I, Wiedenbeck E, Houben L, Cölfen H, Rybtchinski B. Continuum Crystallization Model Derived from Pharmaceutical Crystallization Mechanisms. ACS CENTRAL SCIENCE 2021; 7:900-908. [PMID: 34079905 PMCID: PMC8161475 DOI: 10.1021/acscentsci.1c00254] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/24/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
The crystallization mechanisms of organic molecules in solution are not well-understood. The mechanistic scenarios where crystalline order evolves directly from the molecularly dissolved state ("classical") and from initially formed amorphous intermediates ("nonclassical") are suggested and debated. Here, we studied crystallization mechanisms of two widely used analgesics, ibuprofen (IbuH) and etoricoxib (ETO), using direct cryogenic transmission electron microscopy (cryo-TEM) imaging. In the IbuH case, parallel crystallization pathways involved diverse phases of high and low density, in which the instantaneous formation of final crystalline order was observed. ETO crystallization started from well-defined round-shaped amorphous intermediates that gradually evolved into crystals. This mechanistic diversity is rationalized by introducing a continuum crystallization paradigm: order evolution depends on ordering in the initially formed intermediates and efficiency of molecular rearrangements within them, and there is a continuum of states related to the initial order and rearrangement rates. This model provides a unified view of crystallization mechanisms, encompassing classical and nonclassical pictures.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yael Tsarfati
- Department
of Molecular Chemistry and Materials Science and Department of
Chemical Research Support, Weizmann Institute
of Science, Rehovot 76100, Israel
| | - Idan Biran
- Department
of Molecular Chemistry and Materials Science and Department of
Chemical Research Support, Weizmann Institute
of Science, Rehovot 76100, Israel
| | - Eduard Wiedenbeck
- Physical
Chemistry, Department of Chemistry, University
of Konstanz, Universitätsstraße 10, 78457 Konstanz, Germany
| | - Lothar Houben
- Department
of Molecular Chemistry and Materials Science and Department of
Chemical Research Support, Weizmann Institute
of Science, Rehovot 76100, Israel
| | - Helmut Cölfen
- Physical
Chemistry, Department of Chemistry, University
of Konstanz, Universitätsstraße 10, 78457 Konstanz, Germany
| | - Boris Rybtchinski
- Department
of Molecular Chemistry and Materials Science and Department of
Chemical Research Support, Weizmann Institute
of Science, Rehovot 76100, Israel
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14
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Gibson W, Patterson JP. Liquid Phase Electron Microscopy Provides Opportunities in Polymer Synthesis and Manufacturing. Macromolecules 2021. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.macromol.0c02710] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Wyeth Gibson
- Department of Chemistry, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, California 92697-2025, United States
| | - Joseph P. Patterson
- Department of Chemistry, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, California 92697-2025, United States
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, California 92697-2025, United States
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15
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Parent LR, Gnanasekaran K, Korpanty J, Gianneschi NC. 100th Anniversary of Macromolecular Science Viewpoint: Polymeric Materials by In Situ Liquid-Phase Transmission Electron Microscopy. ACS Macro Lett 2021; 10:14-38. [PMID: 35548998 DOI: 10.1021/acsmacrolett.0c00595] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
A century ago, Hermann Staudinger proposed the macromolecular theory of polymers, and now, as we enter the second century of polymer science, we face a different set of opportunities and challenges for the development of functional soft matter. Indeed, many fundamental questions remain open, relating to physical structures and mechanisms of phase transformations at the molecular and nanoscale. In this Viewpoint, we describe efforts to develop a dynamic, in situ microscopy tool suited to the study of polymeric materials at the nanoscale that allows for direct observation of discrete structures and processes in solution, as a complement to light, neutron, and X-ray scattering methods. Liquid-phase transmission electron microscopy (LPTEM) is a nascent in situ imaging technique for characterizing and examining solvated nanomaterials in real time. Though still under development, LPTEM has been shown to be capable of several modes of imaging: (1) imaging static solvated materials analogous to cryo-TEM, (2) videography of nanomaterials in motion, (3) observing solutions or nanomaterials undergoing physical and chemical transformations, including synthesis, assembly, and phase transitions, and (4) observing electron beam-induced chemical-materials processes. Herein, we describe opportunities and limitations of LPTEM for polymer science. We review the basic experimental platform of LPTEM and describe the origin of electron beam effects that go hand in hand with the imaging process. These electron beam effects cause perturbation and damage to the sample and solvent that can manifest as artefacts in images and videos. We describe sample-specific experimental guidelines and outline approaches to mitigate, characterize, and quantify beam damaging effects. Altogether, we seek to provide an overview of this nascent field in the context of its potential to contribute to the advancement of polymer science.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lucas R. Parent
- Innovation Partnership Building, The University of Connecticut, Storrs, Connecticut 06269, United States
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16
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Ilett M, S'ari M, Freeman H, Aslam Z, Koniuch N, Afzali M, Cattle J, Hooley R, Roncal-Herrero T, Collins SM, Hondow N, Brown A, Brydson R. Analysis of complex, beam-sensitive materials by transmission electron microscopy and associated techniques. PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. SERIES A, MATHEMATICAL, PHYSICAL, AND ENGINEERING SCIENCES 2020; 378:20190601. [PMID: 33100161 PMCID: PMC7661278 DOI: 10.1098/rsta.2019.0601] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 06/12/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
We review the use of transmission electron microscopy (TEM) and associated techniques for the analysis of beam-sensitive materials and complex, multiphase systems in-situ or close to their native state. We focus on materials prone to damage by radiolysis and explain that this process cannot be eliminated or switched off, requiring TEM analysis to be done within a dose budget to achieve an optimum dose-limited resolution. We highlight the importance of determining the damage sensitivity of a particular system in terms of characteristic changes that occur on irradiation under both an electron fluence and flux by presenting results from a series of molecular crystals. We discuss the choice of electron beam accelerating voltage and detectors for optimizing resolution and outline the different strategies employed for low-dose microscopy in relation to the damage processes in operation. In particular, we discuss the use of scanning TEM (STEM) techniques for maximizing information content from high-resolution imaging and spectroscopy of minerals and molecular crystals. We suggest how this understanding can then be carried forward for in-situ analysis of samples interacting with liquids and gases, provided any electron beam-induced alteration of a specimen is controlled or used to drive a chosen reaction. Finally, we demonstrate that cryo-TEM of nanoparticle samples snap-frozen in vitreous ice can play a significant role in benchmarking dynamic processes at higher resolution. This article is part of a discussion meeting issue 'Dynamic in situ microscopy relating structure and function'.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - Rik Brydson
- Leeds Electron Microscopy and Spectroscopy (LEMAS) Centre, School of Chemical and Process Engineering, Bragg Centre for Materials Research, University of Leeds, Leeds LS2 9JT, UK
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17
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Cookman J, Hamilton V, Hall SR, Bangert U. Non-classical crystallisation pathway directly observed for a pharmaceutical crystal via liquid phase electron microscopy. Sci Rep 2020; 10:19156. [PMID: 33154480 PMCID: PMC7644682 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-020-75937-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/10/2020] [Accepted: 10/22/2020] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Non-classical crystallisation (NCC) pathways are widely accepted, however there is conflicting evidence regarding the intermediate stages of crystallisation, how they manifest and further develop into crystals. Evidence from direct observations is especially lacking for small organic molecules, as distinguishing these low-electron dense entities from their similar liquid-phase surroundings presents signal-to-noise ratio and contrast challenges. Here, Liquid Phase Electron Microscopy (LPEM) captures the intermediate pre-crystalline stages of a small organic molecule, flufenamic acid (FFA), a common pharmaceutical. High temporospatial imaging of FFA in its native environment, an organic solvent, suggests that in this system a Pre-Nucleation Cluster (PNC) pathway is followed by features exhibiting two-step nucleation. This work adds to the growing body of evidence that suggests nucleation pathways are likely an amalgamation of multiple existing non-classical theories and highlights the need for the direct evidence presented by in situ techniques such as LPEM.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Cookman
- Physics Department & Bernal Institute, University of Limerick, Castletroy, Co. Limerick, Ireland
| | - V Hamilton
- School of Chemistry, University of Bristol, Cantock's Close, Bristol, BS8 1TS, UK
| | - S R Hall
- School of Chemistry, University of Bristol, Cantock's Close, Bristol, BS8 1TS, UK.
| | - U Bangert
- Physics Department & Bernal Institute, University of Limerick, Castletroy, Co. Limerick, Ireland.
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18
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Gnanasekaran K, Vailonis KM, Jenkins DM, Gianneschi NC. In Situ Monitoring of the Seeding and Growth of Silver Metal-Organic Nanotubes by Liquid-Cell Transmission Electron Microscopy. ACS NANO 2020; 14:8735-8743. [PMID: 32578423 PMCID: PMC9836044 DOI: 10.1021/acsnano.0c03209] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/12/2023]
Abstract
Metal-organic nanotubes (MONTs) are highly ordered one-dimensional crystalline porous frameworks. Despite being nanomaterials, virtually all studies of MONTs rely on characterization of the bulk crystalline material (micron-sized) by single-crystal X-ray diffraction. For MONTs to achieve their raison d'être as tunable one-dimensional nanomaterials, individual tubes or small finite bundles of tubes must be synthesized and characterized. Therefore, to directly observe their formation under a variety of reaction conditions in solution, we employ liquid-cell transmission electron microscopy (LCTEM), which allows the early stages of MONT assembly to be monitored in real time. Notably, changing the metal-to-ligand ratio alters the local concentrations of reactant monomers, resulting in multiple nucleation and growth pathways and diverse morphologies at the nanoscale. These various initial seeds grow to form the same nanocrystalline needle phase. This approach of employing LCTEM to study these nanomaterials is analogous to monitoring typical homogeneous solution phase reactions by NMR for controlled nanomaterial formation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karthikeyan Gnanasekaran
- Department of Chemistry, Department of Materials Science & Engineering, Department of Biomedical Engineering, Department of Pharmacology, International Institute for Nanotechnology, Simpson Querrey Institute, and Chemistry of Life Processes Institute, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois 60208, United States
| | - Kristina M Vailonis
- Department of Chemistry, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, Tennessee 37996, United States
| | - David M Jenkins
- Department of Chemistry, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, Tennessee 37996, United States
| | - Nathan C Gianneschi
- Department of Chemistry, Department of Materials Science & Engineering, Department of Biomedical Engineering, Department of Pharmacology, International Institute for Nanotechnology, Simpson Querrey Institute, and Chemistry of Life Processes Institute, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois 60208, United States
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