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Mohácsik P, Halmos E, Dorogházi B, Ruska Y, Wittmann G, Bianco AC, Fekete C, Gereben B. The Musashi-1-type 2 deiodinase pathway regulates astrocyte proliferation. J Biol Chem 2024; 300:107477. [PMID: 38879014 PMCID: PMC11301063 DOI: 10.1016/j.jbc.2024.107477] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/12/2024] [Revised: 05/14/2024] [Accepted: 06/10/2024] [Indexed: 07/14/2024] Open
Abstract
Thyroid hormone (TH) is a critical regulator of cellular function and cell fate. The circulating TH level is relatively stable, while tissue TH action fluctuates according to cell type-specific mechanisms. Here, we focused on identifying mechanisms that regulate TH action through the type 2 deiodinase (D2) in glial cells. Dio2 mRNA has an unusually long 3'UTR where we identified multiple putative MSI1 binding sites for Musashi-1 (MSI1), a highly conserved RNA-binding cell cycle regulator. Binding to these sites was confirmed through electrophoretic mobility shift assay. In H4 glioma cells, shRNA-mediated MSI1 knockdown increased endogenous D2 activity, whereas MSI1 overexpression in HEK293T cells decreased D2 expression. This latter effect could be prevented by the deletion of a 3.6 kb region of the 3'UTR of Dio2 mRNA containing MSI1 binding sites. MSI1 immunoreactivity was observed in 2 mouse Dio2-expressing cell types, that is, cortical astrocytes and hypothalamic tanycytes, establishing the anatomical basis for a potential in vivo interaction of Dio2 mRNA and MSl1. Indeed, increased D2 expression was observed in the cortex of mice lacking MSI1 protein. Furthermore, MSI1 knockdown-induced D2 expression slowed down cell proliferation by 56% in primary cultures of mouse cortical astrocytes, establishing the functionality of the MSI1-D2-T3 pathway. In summary, Dio2 mRNA is a target of MSI1 and the MSI1-D2-T3 pathway is a novel regulatory mechanism of astrocyte proliferation with the potential to regulate the pathogenesis of human glioblastoma.
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Affiliation(s)
- Petra Mohácsik
- Laboratory of Molecular Cell Metabolism, HUN-REN Institute of Experimental Medicine, Budapest, Hungary
| | - Emese Halmos
- Laboratory of Molecular Cell Metabolism, HUN-REN Institute of Experimental Medicine, Budapest, Hungary
| | - Beáta Dorogházi
- Laboratory of Molecular Cell Metabolism, HUN-REN Institute of Experimental Medicine, Budapest, Hungary
| | - Yvette Ruska
- Laboratory of Integrative Neuroendocrinology, HUN-REN Institute of Experimental Medicine, Budapest, Hungary
| | - Gábor Wittmann
- Laboratory of Integrative Neuroendocrinology, HUN-REN Institute of Experimental Medicine, Budapest, Hungary
| | - Antonio C Bianco
- Section of Adult and Pediatric Endocrinology and Metabolism, University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois, USA
| | - Csaba Fekete
- Laboratory of Integrative Neuroendocrinology, HUN-REN Institute of Experimental Medicine, Budapest, Hungary
| | - Balázs Gereben
- Laboratory of Molecular Cell Metabolism, HUN-REN Institute of Experimental Medicine, Budapest, Hungary.
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Ma X, Guo J, Tian M, Fu Y, Jiang P, Zhang Y, Chai R. Advance and Application of Single-cell Transcriptomics in Auditory Research. Neurosci Bull 2024; 40:963-980. [PMID: 38015350 PMCID: PMC11250760 DOI: 10.1007/s12264-023-01149-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/27/2023] [Accepted: 08/03/2023] [Indexed: 11/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Hearing loss and deafness, as a worldwide disability disease, have been troubling human beings. However, the auditory organ of the inner ear is highly heterogeneous and has a very limited number of cells, which are largely uncharacterized in depth. Recently, with the development and utilization of single-cell RNA sequencing (scRNA-seq), researchers have been able to unveil the complex and sophisticated biological mechanisms of various types of cells in the auditory organ at the single-cell level and address the challenges of cellular heterogeneity that are not resolved through by conventional bulk RNA sequencing (bulk RNA-seq). Herein, we reviewed the application of scRNA-seq technology in auditory research, with the aim of providing a reference for the development of auditory organs, the pathogenesis of hearing loss, and regenerative therapy. Prospects about spatial transcriptomic scRNA-seq, single-cell based genome, and Live-seq technology will also be discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiangyu Ma
- State Key Laboratory of Digital Medical Engineering, Department of Otolaryngology Head and Neck Surgery, Zhongda Hospital, School of Life Sciences and Technology, Advanced Institute for Life and Health, Jiangsu Province High-Tech Key Laboratory for Bio-Medical Research, Southeast University, Nanjing, 210096, China
| | - Jiamin Guo
- State Key Laboratory of Digital Medical Engineering, Department of Otolaryngology Head and Neck Surgery, Zhongda Hospital, School of Life Sciences and Technology, Advanced Institute for Life and Health, Jiangsu Province High-Tech Key Laboratory for Bio-Medical Research, Southeast University, Nanjing, 210096, China
| | - Mengyao Tian
- State Key Laboratory of Digital Medical Engineering, Department of Otolaryngology Head and Neck Surgery, Zhongda Hospital, School of Life Sciences and Technology, Advanced Institute for Life and Health, Jiangsu Province High-Tech Key Laboratory for Bio-Medical Research, Southeast University, Nanjing, 210096, China
| | - Yaoyang Fu
- Department of Psychiatry, Affiliated Hangzhou First People's Hospital, Zhejiang University school of Medicine, Hangzhou, 310030, China
| | - Pei Jiang
- State Key Laboratory of Digital Medical Engineering, Department of Otolaryngology Head and Neck Surgery, Zhongda Hospital, School of Life Sciences and Technology, Advanced Institute for Life and Health, Jiangsu Province High-Tech Key Laboratory for Bio-Medical Research, Southeast University, Nanjing, 210096, China
| | - Yuan Zhang
- Department of Otolaryngology Head and Neck Surgery, Affiliated Drum Tower Hospital of Nanjing University Medical School, Jiangsu Provincial Key Medical Discipline (Laboratory), Nanjing, China
- Research Institute of Otolaryngology, Nanjing, 210008, China
| | - Renjie Chai
- State Key Laboratory of Digital Medical Engineering, Department of Otolaryngology Head and Neck Surgery, Zhongda Hospital, School of Life Sciences and Technology, Advanced Institute for Life and Health, Jiangsu Province High-Tech Key Laboratory for Bio-Medical Research, Southeast University, Nanjing, 210096, China.
- Department of Otolaryngology Head and Neck Surgery, Sichuan Provincial People's Hospital, University of Electronic Science and Technology of China, Chengdu, 610072, China.
- Co-Innovation Center of Neuroregeneration, Nantong University, Nantong, 226001, China.
- Institute for Stem Cell and Regeneration, Chinese Academy of Science, Beijing, 101408, China.
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Neural Regeneration and Repair, Capital Medical University, Beijing, 100069, China.
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Virk SM, Trujillo-Provencio C, Serrano EE. Transcriptomic Analysis Identifies Candidate Genes for Differential Expression during Xenopus laevis Inner Ear Development. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2024:2023.12.29.573599. [PMID: 38260420 PMCID: PMC10802236 DOI: 10.1101/2023.12.29.573599] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/24/2024]
Abstract
Background The genes involved in inner ear development and maintenance of the adult organ have yet to be fully characterized. Previous genetic analysis has emphasized the early development that gives rise to the otic vesicle. This study aimed to bridge the knowledge gap and identify candidate genes that are expressed as the auditory and vestibular sensory organs continue to grow and develop until the systems reach postmetamorphic maturity. Methods Affymetrix microarrays were used to assess inner ear transcriptome profiles from three Xenopus laevis developmental ages where all eight endorgans comprise mechanosensory hair cells: larval stages 50 and 56, and the post-metamorphic juvenile. Pairwise comparisons were made between the three developmental stages and the resulting differentially expressed X. laevis Probe Set IDs (Xl-PSIDs) were assigned to four groups based on differential expression patterns. DAVID analysis was undertaken to impart functional annotation to the differentially regulated Xl-PSIDs. Results Analysis identified 1510 candidate genes for differential gene expression in one or more pairwise comparison. Annotated genes not previously associated with inner ear development emerged from this analysis, as well as annotated genes with established inner ear function, such as oncomodulin, neurod1, and sp7. Notably, 36% of differentially expressed Xl-PSIDs were unannotated. Conclusions Results draw attention to the complex gene regulatory patterns that characterize Xenopus inner ear development, and underscore the need for improved annotation of the X. laevis genome. Outcomes can be utilized to select candidate inner ear genes for functional analysis, and to promote Xenopus as a model organism for biomedical studies of hearing and balance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Selene M Virk
- Biology Department, New Mexico State University, Las Cruces NM USA 88003
| | | | - Elba E Serrano
- Biology Department, New Mexico State University, Las Cruces NM USA 88003
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Hidalgo-Álvarez J, Salas-Lucia F, Vera Cruz D, Fonseca TL, Bianco AC. Localized T3 production modifies the transcriptome and promotes the hepatocyte-like lineage in iPSC-derived hepatic organoids. JCI Insight 2023; 8:e173780. [PMID: 37856222 PMCID: PMC10795825 DOI: 10.1172/jci.insight.173780] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/10/2023] [Accepted: 10/17/2023] [Indexed: 10/21/2023] Open
Abstract
Thyroid hormone (TH) levels are low during development, and the deiodinases control TH signaling through tissue-specific activation or inactivation of TH. Here, we studied human induced pluripotent stem cell-derived (iPSC-derived) hepatic organoids and identified a robust induction of DIO2 expression (the deiodinase that activates T4 to T3) that occurs in hepatoblasts. The surge in DIO2-T3 (the deiodinase that activates thyroxine [T4] to triiodothyronine [T3]) persists until the hepatoblasts differentiate into hepatocyte- or cholangiocyte-like cells, neither of which expresses DIO2. Preventing the induction of the DIO2-T3 signaling modified the expression of key transcription factors, decreased the number of hepatocyte-like cells by ~60%, and increased the number of cholangiocyte-like cells by ~55% without affecting the growth or the size of the mature liver organoid. Physiological levels of T3 could not fully restore the transition from hepatoblasts to mature cells. This indicates that the timed surge in DIO2-T3 signaling critically determines the fate of developing human hepatoblasts and the transcriptome of the maturing hepatocytes, with physiological and clinical implications for how the liver handles energy substrates.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Diana Vera Cruz
- Center for Research Informatics, The University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois, USA
| | - Tatiana L. Fonseca
- Section of Adult and Pediatric Endocrinology, Diabetes and Metabolism, and
| | - Antonio C. Bianco
- Section of Adult and Pediatric Endocrinology, Diabetes and Metabolism, and
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Van Dingenen I, Vergauwen L, Haigis AC, Blackwell BR, Stacy E, Villeneuve DL, Knapen D. Deiodinase inhibition impairs the formation of the three posterior swim bladder tissue layers during early embryonic development in zebrafish. AQUATIC TOXICOLOGY (AMSTERDAM, NETHERLANDS) 2023; 261:106632. [PMID: 37451188 PMCID: PMC10949247 DOI: 10.1016/j.aquatox.2023.106632] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/23/2023] [Revised: 06/28/2023] [Accepted: 07/06/2023] [Indexed: 07/18/2023]
Abstract
Thyroid hormone system disruption (THSD) negatively affects multiple developmental processes and organs. In fish, inhibition of deiodinases, which are enzymes crucial for (in)activating thyroid hormones (THs), leads to impaired swim bladder inflation. Until now, the underlying mechanism has remained largely unknown. Therefore, the objective of this study was to identify the process during swim bladder development that is impacted by deiodinase inhibition. Zebrafish embryos were exposed to 6 mg/L iopanoic acid (IOP), a model deiodinase inhibitor, during 8 different exposure windows (0-60, 60-120, 24-48, 48-72, 72-96, 96-120, 72-120 and 0-120 h post fertilization (hpf)). Exposure windows were chosen based on the three stages of swim bladder development: budding (24-48 hpf), pre-inflation, i.e., the formation of the swim bladder tissue layers (48-72 hpf), and inflation phase (72-120 hpf). Exposures prior to 72 hpf, during either the budding or pre-inflation phase (or both), impaired swim bladder inflation, while exposure during the inflation phase did not. Based on our results, we hypothesize that DIO inhibition before 72 hpf leads to a local decrease in T3 levels in the developing swim bladder. Gene transcript analysis showed that these TH level alterations disturb both Wnt and hedgehog signaling, known to be essential for swim bladder formation, eventually resulting in impaired development of the swim bladder tissue layers. Improper development of the swim bladder impairs swim bladder inflation, leading to reduced swimming performance. This study demonstrates that deiodinase inhibition impacts processes underlying the formation of the swim bladder and not the inflation process, suggesting that these processes primarily rely on maternal rather than endogenously synthetized THs since TH measurements showed that THs were not endogenously synthetized during the sensitive period.
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Affiliation(s)
- Imke Van Dingenen
- Zebrafishlab, Veterinary Physiology and Biochemistry, Department of Veterinary Sciences, University of Antwerp, Universiteitsplein 1, Wilrijk 2610, Belgium
| | - Lucia Vergauwen
- Zebrafishlab, Veterinary Physiology and Biochemistry, Department of Veterinary Sciences, University of Antwerp, Universiteitsplein 1, Wilrijk 2610, Belgium
| | - Ann-Cathrin Haigis
- Zebrafishlab, Veterinary Physiology and Biochemistry, Department of Veterinary Sciences, University of Antwerp, Universiteitsplein 1, Wilrijk 2610, Belgium
| | - Brett R Blackwell
- United States Environmental Protection Agency, Great Lakes Toxicology and Ecology Division, Duluth, MN 55804, United States
| | - Emma Stacy
- United States Environmental Protection Agency, Great Lakes Toxicology and Ecology Division, Duluth, MN 55804, United States
| | - Daniel L Villeneuve
- United States Environmental Protection Agency, Great Lakes Toxicology and Ecology Division, Duluth, MN 55804, United States
| | - Dries Knapen
- Zebrafishlab, Veterinary Physiology and Biochemistry, Department of Veterinary Sciences, University of Antwerp, Universiteitsplein 1, Wilrijk 2610, Belgium.
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Ren J, Flamant F. Thyroid hormone as a temporal switch in mouse development. Eur Thyroid J 2023; 12:e220225. [PMID: 36715693 PMCID: PMC10083660 DOI: 10.1530/etj-22-0225] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/23/2023] [Accepted: 01/30/2023] [Indexed: 01/31/2023] Open
Abstract
Thyroid hormones are known to trigger metamorphosis in an amphibian. This review discusses the hypothesis according to which they act in a similar manner to synchronize the post-natal development of mice, using brain, brown adipose tissue, and heart as examples.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juan Ren
- ENS de Lyon, INRAE, CNRS, Institut de Génomique Fonctionnelle de Lyon, Lyon, France
| | - Frédéric Flamant
- ENS de Lyon, INRAE, CNRS, Institut de Génomique Fonctionnelle de Lyon, Lyon, France
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Deng Y, Han Y, Gao S, Dong W, Yu Y. The Physiological Functions and Polymorphisms of Type II Deiodinase. Endocrinol Metab (Seoul) 2023; 38:190-202. [PMID: 37150515 PMCID: PMC10164501 DOI: 10.3803/enm.2022.1599] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/04/2022] [Accepted: 02/21/2023] [Indexed: 05/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Type II deiodinase (DIO2) is thought to provide triiodothyronine (T3) to the nucleus to meet intracellular needs by deiodinating the prohormone thyroxine. DIO2 is expressed widely in many tissues and plays an important role in a variety of physiological processes, such as controlling T3 content in developing tissues (e.g., bone, muscles, and skin) and the adult brain, and regulating adaptive thermogenesis in brown adipose tissue (BAT). However, the identification and cloning of DIO2 have been challenging. In recent years, several clinical investigations have focused on the Thr92Ala polymorphism, which is closely correlated with clinical syndromes such as type 2 diabetes, obesity, hypertension, and osteoarthritis. Thr92Ala-DIO2 was also found to be related to bone and neurodegenerative diseases and tumors. However, relatively few reviews have synthesized research on individual deiodinases, especially DIO2, in the past 5 years. This review summarizes current knowledge regarding the physiological functions of DIO2 in thyroid hormone signaling and adaptive thermogenesis in BAT and the brain, as well as the associations between Thr92Ala-DIO2 and bone and neurodegenerative diseases and tumors. This discussion is expected to provide insights into the physiological functions of DIO2 and the clinical syndromes associated with Thr92Ala-DIO2.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yan Deng
- Department of Histology and Embryology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Southwest Medical University, China
| | - Yi Han
- Department of Histology and Embryology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Southwest Medical University, China
| | - Sheng Gao
- Key Laboratory of Medical Electrophysiology of Ministry of Education and Medical Electrophysiological Key Laboratory of Sichuan Province, Institute of Cardiovascular Research, Southwest Medical University, Luzhou, China
| | - Wei Dong
- Key Laboratory of Medical Electrophysiology of Ministry of Education and Medical Electrophysiological Key Laboratory of Sichuan Province, Institute of Cardiovascular Research, Southwest Medical University, Luzhou, China
| | - Yang Yu
- Department of Histology and Embryology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Southwest Medical University, China
- Key Laboratory of Medical Electrophysiology of Ministry of Education and Medical Electrophysiological Key Laboratory of Sichuan Province, Institute of Cardiovascular Research, Southwest Medical University, Luzhou, China
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Okada S, Isoda A, Hoshi H, Okada J, Okada K, Yamada E, Saito T, Watanabe T, Kikkawa K, Ohshima K. The ratio of free triiodothyronine to free thyroxine is regulated differently in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus treated and not treated with sodium glucose cotransporter 2 inhibitors. Diabetes Metab Syndr 2023; 17:102704. [PMID: 36621107 DOI: 10.1016/j.dsx.2022.102704] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/24/2022] [Revised: 12/29/2022] [Accepted: 12/31/2022] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND AIMS Triiodothyronine reduces sodium glucose cotransporter 2 expression in the kidney and increased glucose excretion in urine of alloxan-induced diabetic rats. Free thyroxine is also negatively associated with islet beta-cell function in euthyroid subjects. However, the influence of sodium glucose cotransporter 2 inhibitor on thyroid function in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus has not been established. METHODS We investigated thyroid function in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus in the presence or absence of sodium glucose cotransporter 2 inhibitor in a multicenter retrospective study conducted between 2019 and 2021. All participants visited the hospital monthly for type 2 diabetes mellitus treatment and plasma glucose and glycated hemoglobin level measurements. Furthermore, thyroid-stimulating hormone, free triiodothyronine, and free thyroxine levels were measured annually. RESULTS Free triiodothyronine level and the free triiodothyronine:free thyroxine ratio in the group treated with sodium glucose cotransporter 2 inhibitor were significantly higher than the levels in the group not treated with sodium glucose cotransporter 2 inhibitor. Free triiodothyronine levels in the group treated with sodium glucose cotransporter 2 inhibitor were significantly higher than the levels in the group not treated with sodium glucose cotransporter 2 inhibitor (p = 0.040). Free thyroxine levels in the group treated with sodium glucose cotransporter 2 inhibitor were significantly lower than the levels in the group not treated with sodium glucose cotransporter 2 inhibitor (p = 0.002). Thyroid-stimulating hormone levels did not differ significantly between the two groups. CONCLUSIONS Our findings show that sodium glucose cotransporter 2 inhibitor affects free triiodothyronine levels free thyroxine levels, and the free triiodothyronine:free thyroxine ratio.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shuichi Okada
- Hoshi-Iin, 204-1 Nishizen-machi, Maebashi, Gunma, 379-2131, Japan; Hidaka Hospital, 886 Nakao-machi, Takasaki, Gunma, 370-0001, Japan.
| | - Atsushi Isoda
- Hoshi-Iin, 204-1 Nishizen-machi, Maebashi, Gunma, 379-2131, Japan
| | - Hiroto Hoshi
- Hoshi-Iin, 204-1 Nishizen-machi, Maebashi, Gunma, 379-2131, Japan
| | - Junichi Okada
- Department of Medicine, Division of Endocrinology, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, 1301 Morris Park Ave., Price 369, Bronx, NY, 10461, USA
| | - Kazuya Okada
- Department of Orthopedic Surgery, Gunma University, 3-39-15 Showa-machi, Maebashi, Gunma, 371-8511, Japan
| | - Eijiro Yamada
- Department of Medicine and Molecular Science, Gunma University Graduate School of Medicine, Maebashi, Gunma, 371-8511, Japan
| | - Tsugumichi Saito
- Department of Medicine and Molecular Science, Gunma University Graduate School of Medicine, Maebashi, Gunma, 371-8511, Japan
| | - Takuya Watanabe
- Endocrinology and Metabolism, Saku Central Hospital Advanced Care Center, 28-3400 Nakagomi, Saku, Nagano, 385-0051, Japan
| | - Koji Kikkawa
- Hidaka Hospital, 886 Nakao-machi, Takasaki, Gunma, 370-0001, Japan
| | - Kihachi Ohshima
- Hidaka Hospital, 886 Nakao-machi, Takasaki, Gunma, 370-0001, Japan
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Wibowo A, Hidayat T, Wahyuningrum SN. Type 2 Deiodinase A/G (Thr92Ala) Polymorphism and Circulating Thyroid Hormone Level of Childbearing Age Women in Area Replete with Iodine Deficiency Disorders. Open Access Maced J Med Sci 2022. [DOI: 10.3889/oamjms.2022.11017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND: Iodothyronine deiodinase (DIO) is an enzyme that regulates thyroid hormone activity. DIO consists of three types: deiodinase 1 (D1), 2 (D2), and 3 (D3). D2 is a gene that plays an important role in regulation of the biochemistry of the thyroid hormone in several tissues. D2 also plays a role in the production of triiodothyronine and controlling thyroid hormone signals. This study measured the observation that about 15% of the normal population show that D2 gene polymorphism (Thr92Ala) potentially affects the activity of D2.
AIM: This study aimed to determine D2 polymorphisms and their association with thyroid hormone levels in women of childbearing age in replete iodine deficiency disorder areas.
METHODS: Total number of subjects was 131. Analysis of serum TSH, T3, fT3, T4, and fT4 levels was done using ELISA. Polymorphism of Thr92Ala was analyzed by PCR-RFLP method.
RESULTS: The results showed that the frequencies of the genotypes Thr92Ala were AA 16.79%, AG 41.22%, and GG 41.99%, whereas the allele frequency A 37.5% and G 62.5% (p HWE = 0.171). In this study, we found no differences of TSH and thyroid hormone level between group of each allel. Mean of TSH and thyroid hormone level was on normal range.
CONCLUSION: This D2 polymorphism is associated with fT4 levels rather than fT3 but not statistically significant. Heterozygous alleles at D2 AG have higher TSH levels compared with homozygous alleles.
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Köhrle J, Frädrich C. Deiodinases control local cellular and systemic thyroid hormone availability. Free Radic Biol Med 2022; 193:59-79. [PMID: 36206932 DOI: 10.1016/j.freeradbiomed.2022.09.024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/17/2022] [Revised: 09/21/2022] [Accepted: 09/21/2022] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Iodothyronine deiodinases (DIO) are a family of selenoproteins controlling systemic and local availability of the major thyroid hormone l-thyroxine (T4), a prohormone secreted by the thyroid gland. T4 is activated to the active 3,3'-5-triiodothyronine (T3) by two 5'-deiodinases, DIO1 and DIO2. DIO3, a 5-deiodinase selenoenzyme inactivates both the prohormone T4 and its active form T3. DIOs show species-specific different patterns of temporo-spatial expression, regulation and function and exhibit different mechanisms of reaction and inhibitor sensitivities. The main regulators of DIO expression and function are the thyroid hormone status, several growth factors, cytokines and altered pathophysiological conditions. Selenium (Se) status has a modest impact on DIO expression and translation. DIOs rank high in the priority of selenium supply to various selenoproteins; thus, their function is impaired only during severe selenium deficiency. DIO variants, polymorphisms, SNPs and rare mutations have been identified. Development of DIO isozyme selective drugs is ongoing. A first X-ray structure has been reported for DIO3. This review focusses on the biochemical characteristics and reaction mechanisms, the relationships between DIO selenoproteins and their importance for local and systemic provision of the active hormone T3. Nutritional, pharmacological, and environmental factors and inhibitors, such as endocrine disruptors, impact DIO functions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Josef Köhrle
- Charité-Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Corporate Member of Freie Universität Berlin and Humboldt- Universität zu Berlin, Max Rubner Center (MRC) für Kardiovaskuläre-metabolische-renale Forschung in Berlin, Institut für Experimentelle Endokrinologie, 10115, Berlin, Germany.
| | - Caroline Frädrich
- Charité-Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Corporate Member of Freie Universität Berlin and Humboldt- Universität zu Berlin, Max Rubner Center (MRC) für Kardiovaskuläre-metabolische-renale Forschung in Berlin, Institut für Experimentelle Endokrinologie, 10115, Berlin, Germany
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11
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Sun X, Zhuang S, Xiao Z, Luo J, Long Z, Lan L, Zhang H, Zhang G. Autoimmune thyroiditis in patients with sudden sensorineural hearing loss. Laryngoscope Investig Otolaryngol 2022; 7:571-577. [PMID: 35434320 PMCID: PMC9008166 DOI: 10.1002/lio2.755] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/03/2021] [Revised: 11/09/2021] [Accepted: 01/31/2022] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Xiao‐Mei Sun
- Department of Otolaryngology Head and Neck Surgery The Sixth Affiliated Hospital of Sun Yat‐sen University Guangzhou China
| | - Shi‐Min Zhuang
- Department of Otolaryngology Head and Neck Surgery The Sixth Affiliated Hospital of Sun Yat‐sen University Guangzhou China
| | - Zhi‐Wen Xiao
- Department of Otolaryngology Head and Neck Surgery The Sixth Affiliated Hospital of Sun Yat‐sen University Guangzhou China
| | - Jia‐Qi Luo
- Department of Otolaryngology Head and Neck Surgery The Sixth Affiliated Hospital of Sun Yat‐sen University Guangzhou China
| | - Zhen Long
- Department of Otolaryngology Head and Neck Surgery The Sixth Affiliated Hospital of Sun Yat‐sen University Guangzhou China
| | - Lin‐Chan Lan
- Department of Otolaryngology Head and Neck Surgery The Sixth Affiliated Hospital of Sun Yat‐sen University Guangzhou China
| | - Hui‐Qing Zhang
- Department of Otolaryngology Head and Neck Surgery The Sixth Affiliated Hospital of Sun Yat‐sen University Guangzhou China
| | - Guan‐Ping Zhang
- Department of Otolaryngology Head and Neck Surgery The Sixth Affiliated Hospital of Sun Yat‐sen University Guangzhou China
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12
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Ng L, Liu Y, Liu H, Forrest D. Cochlear Fibrocyte and Osteoblast Lineages Expressing Type 2 Deiodinase Identified with a Dio2CreERt2 Allele. Endocrinology 2021; 162:bqab179. [PMID: 34436572 PMCID: PMC8475715 DOI: 10.1210/endocr/bqab179] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/27/2021] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Type 2 deiodinase (Dio2) amplifies levels of 3,5,3'-L-triiodothyronine (T3), the active form of thyroid hormone, and is essential for cochlear maturation and auditory development. However, cellular routes for endocrine signaling in the compartmentalized, anatomically complex cochlea are little understood. Dio2 generates T3 from thyroxine (T4), a more abundant thyroid hormone precursor in the circulation, and is dramatically induced in the cochlea before the onset of hearing. The evidence implies that specific Dio2-expressing cell types critically mediate T3 signaling but these cell types are poorly defined because Dio2 is expressed transiently at low levels. Here, using a Dio2CreERt2 knockin that activates a fluorescent reporter, we define Dio2-expressing cochlear cell types at high resolution in male or female mice. Dio2-positive cells were detected in vascularized supporting tissues but not in avascular internal epithelia, indicating segregation of T3-generating and T3-responding tissues. In the spiral ligament and spiral limbus, Dio2-positive fibrocytes clustered around vascular networks that convey T4 into cochlear tissues. In the otic capsule, Dio2-positive osteoblasts localized at cartilage surfaces as the bony labyrinth matures. We corroborated the identities of Dio2-positive lineages by RNA-sequencing of individual cells. The results suggest a previously unrecognized role for fibrocytes in mediating hormonal signaling. We discuss a model whereby fibrocytes mediate paracrine-like control of T3 signaling to the organ of Corti and epithelial target tissues.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lily Ng
- Laboratory of Endocrinology and Receptor Biology, NIDDK, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
| | - Ye Liu
- Laboratory of Endocrinology and Receptor Biology, NIDDK, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
| | - Hong Liu
- Laboratory of Endocrinology and Receptor Biology, NIDDK, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
| | - Douglas Forrest
- Laboratory of Endocrinology and Receptor Biology, NIDDK, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
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13
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Sabatino L, Vassalle C, Del Seppia C, Iervasi G. Deiodinases and the Three Types of Thyroid Hormone Deiodination Reactions. Endocrinol Metab (Seoul) 2021; 36:952-964. [PMID: 34674502 PMCID: PMC8566136 DOI: 10.3803/enm.2021.1198] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/20/2021] [Accepted: 09/15/2021] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Thyroid hormone (TH) signaling is strictly regulated by iodothyronine deiodinase activity, which both preserves the circulating levels of the biologically active triiodothyronine (T3) and regulates TH homeostasis at the local level, in a cell- and time-dependent manner. Three deiodinases have been identified-namely iodothyronine deiodinase 1 (DIO1), DIO2, and DIO3-that differ in their catalytic properties and tissue distribution. The deiodinases represent a dynamic system that changes in the different stages of life according to their functions and roles in various cell types and tissues. Deiodinase activity at the tissue level permits cell-targeted fine regulation of TH homeostasis, mediating the activation (DIO1 and DIO2) and inactivation (DIO3) of THs. Deiodinase homeostasis is the driving force that leads T3-target cells towards customized TH signaling, which takes into account both the hormonal circulating levels and the tissue-specific response. This review analyzes the complex role of deiodinases in physiological and pathological contexts, exploring new challenges and opportunities deriving from a deeper knowledge of the dynamics underlying their roles and functions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laura Sabatino
- Institute of Clinical Physiology, National Research Council of Italy (CNR), Pisa,
Italy
| | | | - Cristina Del Seppia
- Institute of Clinical Physiology, National Research Council of Italy (CNR), Pisa,
Italy
| | - Giorgio Iervasi
- Institute of Clinical Physiology, National Research Council of Italy (CNR), Pisa,
Italy
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14
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Hernandez A, Martinez ME, Ng L, Forrest D. Thyroid Hormone Deiodinases: Dynamic Switches in Developmental Transitions. Endocrinology 2021; 162:bqab091. [PMID: 33963379 PMCID: PMC8248586 DOI: 10.1210/endocr/bqab091] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/26/2021] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Thyroid hormones exert pleiotropic, essential actions in mammalian, including human, development. These actions depend on provision of thyroid hormones in the circulation but also to a remarkable extent on deiodinase enzymes in target tissues that amplify or deplete the local concentration of the primary active form of the hormone T3 (3,5,3'-triiodothyronine), the high affinity ligand for thyroid hormone receptors. Genetic analyses in mice have revealed key roles for activating (DIO2) and inactivating (DIO3) deiodinases in cell differentiation fates and tissue maturation, ultimately promoting neonatal viability, growth, fertility, brain development, and behavior, as well as metabolic, endocrine, and sensory functions. An emerging paradigm is how the opposing activities of DIO2 and DIO3 are coordinated, providing a dynamic switch that controls the developmental timing of a tissue response, often during neonatal and maturational transitions. A second paradigm is how cell to cell communication within a tissue determines the response to T3. Deiodinases in specific cell types, often strategically located near to blood vessels that convey thyroid hormones into the tissue, can regulate neighboring cell types, suggesting a paracrine-like layer of control of T3 action. We discuss deiodinases as switches for developmental transitions and their potential to influence tissue dysfunction in human thyroid disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Arturo Hernandez
- Department of Molecular Medicine, Maine Medical Center Research Institute, Maine Health, Scarborough, Maine 04074, USA
- Department of Medicine, Tufts University School of Medicine, Boston, Massachusetts 02111, USA
- Graduate School of Biomedical Science and Engineering, University of Maine, Orono, Maine 04469, USA
| | - M Elena Martinez
- Department of Molecular Medicine, Maine Medical Center Research Institute, Maine Health, Scarborough, Maine 04074, USA
| | - Lily Ng
- National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases, Laboratory of Endocrinology and Receptor Biology, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland 20892, USA
| | - Douglas Forrest
- National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases, Laboratory of Endocrinology and Receptor Biology, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland 20892, USA
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15
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Abstract
Deiodinases modify the biological activity of thyroid hormone (TH) molecules, ie, they may activate thyroxine (T4) to 3,5,3'-triiodothyronine (T3), or they may inactivate T3 to 3,3'-diiodo-L-thyronine (T2) or T4 to reverse triiodothyronine (rT3). Although evidence of deiodination of T4 to T3 has been available since the 1950s, objective evidence of TH metabolism was not established until the 1970s. The modern paradigm considers that the deiodinases not only play a role in the homeostasis of circulating T3, but they also provide dynamic control of TH signaling: cells that express the activating type 2 deiodinase (D2) have enhanced TH signaling due to intracellular build-up of T3; the opposite is seen in cells that express type 3 deiodinase (D3), the inactivating deiodinase. D2 and D3 are expressed in metabolically relevant tissues such as brown adipose tissue, skeletal muscle and liver, and their roles have been investigated using cell, animal, and human models. During development, D2 and D3 expression customize for each tissue/organ the timing and intensity of TH signaling. In adult cells, D2 is induced by cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP), and its expression is invariably associated with enhanced T3 signaling, expression of PGC1 and accelerated energy expenditure. In contrast, D3 expression is induced by hypoxia-inducible factor 1α (HIF-1a), dampening T3 signaling and the metabolic rate. The coordinated expression of these enzymes adjusts TH signaling in a time- and tissue-specific fashion, affecting metabolic pathways in health and disease states.
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Affiliation(s)
- Samuel C Russo
- Section of Endocrinology, Diabetes & Metabolism, University of Chicago Medical Center, Chicago, IL 60637, USA
| | - Federico Salas-Lucia
- Section of Endocrinology, Diabetes & Metabolism, University of Chicago Medical Center, Chicago, IL 60637, USA
| | - Antonio C Bianco
- Section of Endocrinology, Diabetes & Metabolism, University of Chicago Medical Center, Chicago, IL 60637, USA
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16
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Fonseca TL, Garcia T, Fernandes GW, Nair TM, Bianco AC. Neonatal thyroxine activation modifies epigenetic programming of the liver. Nat Commun 2021; 12:4446. [PMID: 34290257 PMCID: PMC8295303 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-021-24748-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/11/2020] [Accepted: 06/24/2021] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
The type 2 deiodinase (D2) in the neonatal liver accelerates local thyroid hormone triiodothyronine (T3) production and expression of T3-responsive genes. Here we show that this surge in T3 permanently modifies hepatic gene expression. Liver-specific Dio2 inactivation (Alb-D2KO) transiently increases H3K9me3 levels during post-natal days 1-5 (P1-P5), and results in methylation of 1,508 DNA sites (H-sites) in the adult mouse liver. These sites are associated with 1,551 areas of reduced chromatin accessibility (RCA) within core promoters and 2,426 within intergenic regions, with reduction in the expression of 1,363 genes. There is strong spatial correlation between density of H-sites and RCA sites. Chromosome conformation capture (Hi-C) data reveals a set of 81 repressed genes with a promoter RCA in contact with an intergenic RCA ~300 Kbp apart, within the same topologically associating domain (χ2 = 777; p < 0.00001). These data explain how the systemic hormone T3 acts locally during development to define future expression of hepatic genes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tatiana L Fonseca
- Section of Adult and Pediatric Endocrinology, Diabetes & Metabolism, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA
| | - Tzintzuni Garcia
- Center for Translational Data Science, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA
| | - Gustavo W Fernandes
- Section of Adult and Pediatric Endocrinology, Diabetes & Metabolism, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA
| | - T Murlidharan Nair
- Department of Biological Sciences and CS/Informatics, Indiana University South Bend, South Bend, IN, USA
| | - Antonio C Bianco
- Section of Adult and Pediatric Endocrinology, Diabetes & Metabolism, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA.
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17
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McNerney C, Johnston RJ. Thyroid hormone signaling specifies cone photoreceptor subtypes during eye development: Insights from model organisms and human stem cell-derived retinal organoids. VITAMINS AND HORMONES 2021; 116:51-90. [PMID: 33752828 DOI: 10.1016/bs.vh.2021.03.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/09/2023]
Abstract
Cones are the color-detecting photoreceptors of the vertebrate eye. Cones are specialized into subtypes whose functions are determined by the expression of color-sensitive opsin proteins. Organisms differ greatly in the number and patterning of cone subtypes. Despite these differences, thyroid hormone is an important regulator of opsin expression in most vertebrates. In this chapter, we outline how the timing of thyroid hormone signaling controls cone subtype fates during retinal development. We first examine our current understanding of cone subtype specification in model organisms and then describe advances in human stem cell-derived organoid technology that identified mechanisms controlling development of the human retina.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christina McNerney
- Department of Biology, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, United States
| | - Robert J Johnston
- Department of Biology, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, United States.
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18
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Bianco AC, Dumitrescu A, Gereben B, Ribeiro MO, Fonseca TL, Fernandes GW, Bocco BMLC. Paradigms of Dynamic Control of Thyroid Hormone Signaling. Endocr Rev 2019; 40:1000-1047. [PMID: 31033998 PMCID: PMC6596318 DOI: 10.1210/er.2018-00275] [Citation(s) in RCA: 140] [Impact Index Per Article: 28.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2018] [Accepted: 03/15/2019] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Thyroid hormone (TH) molecules enter cells via membrane transporters and, depending on the cell type, can be activated (i.e., T4 to T3 conversion) or inactivated (i.e., T3 to 3,3'-diiodo-l-thyronine or T4 to reverse T3 conversion). These reactions are catalyzed by the deiodinases. The biologically active hormone, T3, eventually binds to intracellular TH receptors (TRs), TRα and TRβ, and initiate TH signaling, that is, regulation of target genes and other metabolic pathways. At least three families of transmembrane transporters, MCT, OATP, and LAT, facilitate the entry of TH into cells, which follow the gradient of free hormone between the extracellular fluid and the cytoplasm. Inactivation or marked downregulation of TH transporters can dampen TH signaling. At the same time, dynamic modifications in the expression or activity of TRs and transcriptional coregulators can affect positively or negatively the intensity of TH signaling. However, the deiodinases are the element that provides greatest amplitude in dynamic control of TH signaling. Cells that express the activating deiodinase DIO2 can rapidly enhance TH signaling due to intracellular buildup of T3. In contrast, TH signaling is dampened in cells that express the inactivating deiodinase DIO3. This explains how THs can regulate pathways in development, metabolism, and growth, despite rather stable levels in the circulation. As a consequence, TH signaling is unique for each cell (tissue or organ), depending on circulating TH levels and on the exclusive blend of transporters, deiodinases, and TRs present in each cell. In this review we explore the key mechanisms underlying customization of TH signaling during development, in health and in disease states.
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Affiliation(s)
- Antonio C Bianco
- Section of Endocrinology, Diabetes, and Metabolism, University of Chicago Medical Center, Chicago, Illinois
| | - Alexandra Dumitrescu
- Section of Endocrinology, Diabetes, and Metabolism, University of Chicago Medical Center, Chicago, Illinois
| | - Balázs Gereben
- Department of Endocrine Neurobiology, Institute of Experimental Medicine, Hungarian Academy of Sciences, Budapest, Hungary
| | - Miriam O Ribeiro
- Developmental Disorders Program, Center of Biologic Sciences and Health, Mackenzie Presbyterian University, São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Tatiana L Fonseca
- Section of Endocrinology, Diabetes, and Metabolism, University of Chicago Medical Center, Chicago, Illinois
| | - Gustavo W Fernandes
- Section of Endocrinology, Diabetes, and Metabolism, University of Chicago Medical Center, Chicago, Illinois
| | - Barbara M L C Bocco
- Section of Endocrinology, Diabetes, and Metabolism, University of Chicago Medical Center, Chicago, Illinois
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19
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Hernandez A. Thyroid Hormone and Alcoholic Fatty Liver: The Developmental Input. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 2019; 43:1834-1837. [PMID: 31283013 DOI: 10.1111/acer.14145] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/16/2019] [Accepted: 06/28/2019] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Arturo Hernandez
- Center for Molecular Medicine, Maine Medical Center Research Institute, Maine Medical Center, Scarborough, Maine.,Graduate School for Biomedical Science and Engineering, University of Maine, Orono, Maine.,Department of Medicine, Tufts University School of Medicine, Boston, Massachusetts
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20
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Carlsson G, Pohl J, Athanassiadis I, Norrgren L, Weiss J. Thyroid disruption properties of three indoor dust chemicals tested in Silurana tropicalis tadpoles. J Appl Toxicol 2019; 39:1248-1256. [PMID: 31066086 DOI: 10.1002/jat.3810] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/19/2019] [Revised: 03/20/2019] [Accepted: 03/20/2019] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Indoor dust contains a multitude of industrial chemicals, and ingestion of dust is considered an important exposure route to organic contaminants. Some of these contaminants have been shown to interfere with the thyroid system, which may result in significant consequences on public health. The amphibian metamorphosis is a thyroid hormone-dependent process, which can be used as an in vivo model for studies on thyroid hormone-disrupting potency. Three contaminants of indoor dust were tested on metamorphosing Silurana (Xenopus) tropicalis tadpoles. The tested chemicals were Tris (1,3-dichloroisopropyl) phosphate (TDCiPP), tetrabromobisphenol-A (TBBPA) and propylparaben (PrP). Measurements reflecting general growth, development progress and thyroid epithelial cell height were performed on the exposed tadpoles as well as chemical analyses of the exposure water. It was shown that TDCiPP acts as a thyroid hormone-disrupting chemical in metamorphosing tadpoles by causing increased epithelial cell height in thyroid glands after exposure to a nominal concentration of 0.010 mg/L and in higher concentrations. TBBPA caused reductions in general growth of tadpoles at the nominal concentration 0.125 mg/L, and PrP caused acute toxicity at the nominal concentration 12.5 mg/L. However, no evident indications of specific thyroid-disrupting effects caused by TBBPA or PrP were observed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gunnar Carlsson
- Department of Biomedical Sciences and Veterinary Public Health, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Johannes Pohl
- Department of Biomedical Sciences and Veterinary Public Health, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Ioannis Athanassiadis
- Department of Environmental Science and Analytical Chemistry, Stockholm University, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Leif Norrgren
- Department of Biomedical Sciences and Veterinary Public Health, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Jana Weiss
- Department of Environmental Science and Analytical Chemistry, Stockholm University, Stockholm, Sweden.,Department of Aquatic Sciences and Assessment, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Uppsala, Sweden
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21
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Hernandez A. Thyroid Hormone Deiodination and Action in the Gonads. CURRENT OPINION IN ENDOCRINE AND METABOLIC RESEARCH 2018; 2:18-23. [PMID: 30547141 PMCID: PMC6287753 DOI: 10.1016/j.coemr.2018.01.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
Alterations in thyroid hormone (TH) status during developmental or adult age are associated with abnormal gonadal development and function in human and animal models. In the developing testis, aberrant levels of TH action lead to disruptions in cell proliferation and differentiation, ultimately influencing testicular size, spermatogenesis, steroidogenesis and male fertility. Recent work is increasingly identifying the systems and signaling pathways in gonadal cells that are affected by TH, as well as delineating the major factors that determine TH signaling in gonadal tissue. The TH receptor alpha, the monocarboxylate transporter 8 and the type 3 deiodinase appear to be major contributors to the timely regulation of TH action in the developing testis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Arturo Hernandez
- Maine Medical Center Research Institute, Center for Molecular Medicine, Scarborough, Maine, USA
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22
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Deafness and loss of cochlear hair cells in the absence of thyroid hormone transporters Slc16a2 (Mct8) and Slc16a10 (Mct10). Sci Rep 2018. [PMID: 29535325 PMCID: PMC5849681 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-018-22553-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Transmembrane proteins that mediate the cellular uptake or efflux of thyroid hormone potentially provide a key level of control over neurodevelopment. In humans, defects in one such protein, solute carrier SLC16A2 (MCT8) are associated with psychomotor retardation. Other proteins that transport the active form of thyroid hormone triiodothyronine (T3) or its precursor thyroxine (T4) have been identified in vitro but the wider significance of such transporters in vivo is unclear. The development of the auditory system requires thyroid hormone and the cochlea is a primary target tissue. We have proposed that the compartmental anatomy of the cochlea would necessitate transport mechanisms to convey blood-borne hormone to target tissues. We report hearing loss in mice with mutations in Slc16a2 and a related gene Slc16a10 (Mct10, Tat1). Deficiency of both transporters results in retarded development of the sensory epithelium similar to impairment caused by hypothyroidism, compounded with a progressive degeneration of cochlear hair cells and loss of endocochlear potential. Administration of T3 largely restores the development of the sensory epithelium and limited auditory function, indicating the T3-sensitivity of defects in the sensory epithelium. The results indicate a necessity for thyroid hormone transporters in cochlear development and function.
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23
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Sawant OB, Horton AM, Zucaro OF, Chan R, Bonilha VL, Samuels IS, Rao S. The Circadian Clock Gene Bmal1 Controls Thyroid Hormone-Mediated Spectral Identity and Cone Photoreceptor Function. Cell Rep 2017; 21:692-706. [PMID: 29045837 PMCID: PMC5647869 DOI: 10.1016/j.celrep.2017.09.069] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2017] [Revised: 08/15/2017] [Accepted: 09/20/2017] [Indexed: 10/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Circadian clocks regulate various aspects of photoreceptor physiology, but their contribution to photoreceptor development and function is unclear. Cone photoreceptors are critical for color vision. Here, we define the molecular function of circadian activity within cone photoreceptors and reveal a role for the clock genes Bmal1 and Per2 in regulating cone spectral identity. ChIP analysis revealed that BMAL1 binds to the promoter region of the thyroid hormone (TH)-activating enzyme type 2 iodothyronine deiodinase (Dio2) and thus regulates the expression of Dio2. TH treatment resulted in a partial rescue of the phenotype caused by the loss of Bmal1, thus revealing a functional relationship between Bmal1 and Dio2 in establishing cone photoreceptor identity. Furthermore, Bmal1 and Dio2 are required to maintain cone photoreceptor functional integrity. Overall, our results suggest a mechanism by which circadian proteins can locally regulate the availability of TH and influence tissue development and function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Onkar B Sawant
- Department of Ophthalmic Research, Cole Eye Institute, Cleveland Clinic, 9500 Euclid Avenue, Cleveland, OH 44195, USA
| | - Amanda M Horton
- Department of Ophthalmic Research, Cole Eye Institute, Cleveland Clinic, 9500 Euclid Avenue, Cleveland, OH 44195, USA
| | - Olivia F Zucaro
- Department of Ophthalmic Research, Cole Eye Institute, Cleveland Clinic, 9500 Euclid Avenue, Cleveland, OH 44195, USA
| | - Ricky Chan
- Institute for Computational Biology, Case Western Reserve University School of Medicine, Cleveland, OH 44106, USA
| | - Vera L Bonilha
- Department of Ophthalmic Research, Cole Eye Institute, Cleveland Clinic, 9500 Euclid Avenue, Cleveland, OH 44195, USA; Department of Molecular Medicine, Cleveland Clinic Lerner College of Medicine of Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, OH, USA
| | - Ivy S Samuels
- Department of Ophthalmic Research, Cole Eye Institute, Cleveland Clinic, 9500 Euclid Avenue, Cleveland, OH 44195, USA; Research Service, Louis Stokes Cleveland Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Cleveland, OH 44106, USA
| | - Sujata Rao
- Department of Ophthalmic Research, Cole Eye Institute, Cleveland Clinic, 9500 Euclid Avenue, Cleveland, OH 44195, USA; Department of Molecular Medicine, Cleveland Clinic Lerner College of Medicine of Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, OH, USA.
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24
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Ng L, Liu H, St. Germain DL, Hernandez A, Forrest D. Deletion of the Thyroid Hormone-Activating Type 2 Deiodinase Rescues Cone Photoreceptor Degeneration but Not Deafness in Mice Lacking Type 3 Deiodinase. Endocrinology 2017; 158:1999-2010. [PMID: 28324012 PMCID: PMC5460942 DOI: 10.1210/en.2017-00055] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/11/2017] [Accepted: 03/01/2017] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Type 2 deiodinase amplifies and type 3 deiodinase depletes levels of the active form of thyroid hormone, triiodothyronine. Given the opposing activities of these enzymes, we tested the hypothesis that they counteract each other's developmental functions by investigating whether deletion of type 2 deiodinase (encoded by Dio2) modifies sensory phenotypes in type 3 deiodinase-deficient (Dio3-/-) mice. Dio3-/- mice display degeneration of retinal cones, the photoreceptors that mediate daylight and color vision. In Dio2-/- mice, cone function was largely normal but deletion of Dio2 in Dio3-/- mice markedly recovered cone numbers and electroretinogram responses, suggesting counterbalancing roles for both enzymes in cone survival. Both Dio3-/- and Dio2-/- strains exhibit deafness with cochlear abnormalities. In Dio3-/-;Dio2-/- mice, deafness was exacerbated rather than alleviated, suggesting unevenly balanced actions by these enzymes during auditory development. Dio3-/- mice also exhibit an atrophic thyroid gland, low thyroxine, and high triiodothyronine levels, but this phenotype was ameliorated in Dio3-/-;Dio2-/- mice, indicating counterbalancing roles for the enzymes in determining the thyroid hormone status. The results suggest that the composite action of these two enzymes is a critical determinant in visual and auditory development and in setting the systemic thyroid hormone status.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lily Ng
- Laboratory of Endocrinology and Receptor Biology, National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Disorders, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland 20892
| | - Hong Liu
- Laboratory of Endocrinology and Receptor Biology, National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Disorders, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland 20892
| | | | - Arturo Hernandez
- Maine Medical Center Research Institute, Scarborough, Maine 04074
| | - Douglas Forrest
- Laboratory of Endocrinology and Receptor Biology, National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Disorders, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland 20892
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25
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Yu J, Fu Y, Shi Z. Coordinated expression and regulation of deiodinases and thyroid hormone receptors during metamorphosis in the Japanese flounder (Paralichthys olivaceus). FISH PHYSIOLOGY AND BIOCHEMISTRY 2017; 43:321-336. [PMID: 27620185 DOI: 10.1007/s10695-016-0289-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/05/2016] [Accepted: 09/06/2016] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
In vertebrates, thyroid hormone receptors (TRs) and deiodinases are essential for developmental events driven by the thyroid hormones (THs). However, the significance of deiodinases during the metamorphosis of the Japanese flounder (Paralichthys olivaceus) remains unclear. Moreover, regulation and response of the TRs and deiodinases to THs in this fish are poorly understood. Therefore, we detected the expression patterns of THs, deiodinases, and TRs in drug-treated larvae and untreated larvae of P. olivaceus by using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay and quantitative real-time PCR during P. olivaceus metamorphosis. To further understand the roles of these elements, a rescue assay was performed. Our results show the importance of THs, TRs, and deiodinases in flatfish metamorphosis. Our results also confirm that D1 and D2 activate THs and D3 plays the opposite and complementary role. Moreover, we demonstrated that both TRα and TRβ have important but different roles during P. olivaceus metamorphosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jie Yu
- Key Laboratory of Genetic Resources for Freshwater Aquaculture and Fisheries, Shanghai Ocean University, 999, Hu-Cheng-Huan Road, Lingang New City, Shanghai, 201306, China
| | - Yuanshuai Fu
- Key Laboratory of Genetic Resources for Freshwater Aquaculture and Fisheries, Shanghai Ocean University, 999, Hu-Cheng-Huan Road, Lingang New City, Shanghai, 201306, China
| | - Zhiyi Shi
- Key Laboratory of Genetic Resources for Freshwater Aquaculture and Fisheries, Shanghai Ocean University, 999, Hu-Cheng-Huan Road, Lingang New City, Shanghai, 201306, China.
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26
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Abstract
The skeleton is an exquisitely sensitive and archetypal T3-target tissue that demonstrates the critical role for thyroid hormones during development, linear growth, and adult bone turnover and maintenance. Thyrotoxicosis is an established cause of secondary osteoporosis, and abnormal thyroid hormone signaling has recently been identified as a novel risk factor for osteoarthritis. Skeletal phenotypes in genetically modified mice have faithfully reproduced genetic disorders in humans, revealing the complex physiological relationship between centrally regulated thyroid status and the peripheral actions of thyroid hormones. Studies in mutant mice also established the paradigm that T3 exerts anabolic actions during growth and catabolic effects on adult bone. Thus, the skeleton represents an ideal physiological system in which to characterize thyroid hormone transport, metabolism, and action during development and adulthood and in response to injury. Future analysis of T3 action in individual skeletal cell lineages will provide new insights into cell-specific molecular mechanisms and may ultimately identify novel therapeutic targets for chronic degenerative diseases such as osteoporosis and osteoarthritis. This review provides a comprehensive analysis of the current state of the art.
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Affiliation(s)
- J H Duncan Bassett
- Molecular Endocrinology Laboratory, Department of Medicine, Imperial College London, Hammersmith Campus, London W12 0NN, United Kingdom
| | - Graham R Williams
- Molecular Endocrinology Laboratory, Department of Medicine, Imperial College London, Hammersmith Campus, London W12 0NN, United Kingdom
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Sundaresan S, Balasubbu S, Mustapha M. Thyroid hormone is required for the pruning of afferent type II spiral ganglion neurons in the mouse cochlea. Neuroscience 2015; 312:165-78. [PMID: 26592716 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2015.11.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/17/2015] [Revised: 11/09/2015] [Accepted: 11/10/2015] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Afferent connections to the sensory inner (IHCs) and outer hair cells (OHCs) in the cochlea refine and functionally mature during the thyroid hormone (TH)-critical period of inner ear development that occurs perinatally in rodents. In this study, we investigated the effects of hypothyroidism on afferent type II innervation to outer hair cells using the Snell dwarf mouse (Pit1(dw)). Using a transgenic approach to specifically label type II spiral ganglion neurons (SGNs), we found that lack of TH causes persistence of excess type II SGN connections to the OHCs, as well as continued expression of the hair cell functional marker, otoferlin (OTOF), in the OHCs beyond the maturation period. We also observed a concurrent delay in efferent attachment to the OHCs. Supplementing with TH during the early postnatal period from postnatal day (P) 3 to P4 reversed the defect in type II SGN pruning but did not alter OTOF expression. Our results show that hypothyroidism causes a defect in the large-scale pruning of afferent type II SGNs in the cochlea, and a delay in efferent attachment and the maturation of OTOF expression. Our data suggest that the state of maturation of hair cells, as determined by OTOF expression, may not regulate the pruning of their afferent innervation.
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Affiliation(s)
- S Sundaresan
- Department of Otolaryngology-Head & Neck Surgery, 300 Pasteur Drive, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94035, United States
| | - S Balasubbu
- Department of Otolaryngology-Head & Neck Surgery, 300 Pasteur Drive, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94035, United States
| | - M Mustapha
- Department of Otolaryngology-Head & Neck Surgery, 300 Pasteur Drive, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94035, United States.
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Gereben B, McAninch EA, Ribeiro MO, Bianco AC. Scope and limitations of iodothyronine deiodinases in hypothyroidism. Nat Rev Endocrinol 2015; 11:642-652. [PMID: 26416219 PMCID: PMC5003781 DOI: 10.1038/nrendo.2015.155] [Citation(s) in RCA: 87] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
The coordinated expression and activity of the iodothyronine deiodinases regulate thyroid hormone levels in hypothyroidism. Once heralded as the pathway underpinning adequate thyroid-hormone replacement therapy with levothyroxine, the role of these enzymes has come into question as they have been implicated in both an inability to normalize serum levels of tri-iodothyronine (T3) and the incomplete resolution of hypothyroid symptoms. These observations, some of which were validated in animal models of levothyroxine monotherapy, challenge the paradigm that tissue levels of T3 and thyroid-hormone signalling can be fully restored by administration of levothyroxine alone. The low serum levels of T3 observed among patients receiving levothyroxine monotherapy occur as a consequence of type 2 iodothyronine deiodinase (DIO2) in the hypothalamus being fairly insensitive to ubiquitination. In addition, residual symptoms of hypothyroidism have been linked to a prevalent polymorphism in the DIO2 gene that might be a risk factor for neurodegenerative disease. Here, we discuss how these novel findings underscore the clinical importance of iodothyronine deiodinases in hypothyroidism and how an improved understanding of these enzymes might translate to therapeutic advances in the care of millions of patients with this condition.
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Affiliation(s)
- Balázs Gereben
- Department of Endocrine Neurobiology, Institute of Experimental Medicine, Hungarian Academy of Sciences, Szigony Street 43, Budapest H-1083, Hungary
| | - Elizabeth A McAninch
- Division of Endocrinology and Metabolism, Rush University Medical Center, 212 Cohn Building, 1735 West Harrison Street, Chicago, IL 60612, USA
| | - Miriam O Ribeiro
- Developmental Disorders Program, Center for Biological and Health Science, Mackenzie Presbyterian University, Rua da Consolação 930, Building 16, São Paulo, SP 01302, Brazil
| | - Antonio C Bianco
- Division of Endocrinology and Metabolism, Rush University Medical Center, 212 Cohn Building, 1735 West Harrison Street, Chicago, IL 60612, USA
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Sundaresan S, Kong JH, Fang Q, Salles FT, Wangsawihardja F, Ricci AJ, Mustapha M. Thyroid hormone is required for pruning, functioning and long-term maintenance of afferent inner hair cell synapses. Eur J Neurosci 2015; 43:148-61. [PMID: 26386265 DOI: 10.1111/ejn.13081] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/26/2015] [Revised: 09/09/2015] [Accepted: 09/14/2015] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Functional maturation of afferent synaptic connections to inner hair cells (IHCs) involves pruning of excess synapses formed during development, as well as the strengthening and survival of the retained synapses. These events take place during the thyroid hormone (TH)-critical period of cochlear development, which is in the perinatal period for mice and in the third trimester for humans. Here, we used the hypothyroid Snell dwarf mouse (Pit1(dw)) as a model to study the role of TH in afferent type I synaptic refinement and functional maturation. We observed defects in afferent synaptic pruning and delays in calcium channel clustering in the IHCs of Pit1(dw) mice. Nevertheless, calcium currents and capacitance reached near normal levels in Pit1(dw) IHCs by the age of onset of hearing, despite the excess number of retained synapses. We restored normal synaptic pruning in Pit1(dw) IHCs by supplementing with TH from postnatal day (P)3 to P8, establishing this window as being critical for TH action on this process. Afferent terminals of older Pit1(dw) IHCs showed evidence of excitotoxic damage accompanied by a concomitant reduction in the levels of the glial glutamate transporter, GLAST. Our results indicate that a lack of TH during a critical period of inner ear development causes defects in pruning and long-term homeostatic maintenance of afferent synapses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Srividya Sundaresan
- Department of Otolaryngology-Head & Neck Surgery, Stanford University, 300 Pasteur Drive, Room R111A, Stanford, CA, 94035, USA
| | - Jee-Hyun Kong
- Department of Otolaryngology-Head & Neck Surgery, Stanford University, 300 Pasteur Drive, Room R111A, Stanford, CA, 94035, USA
| | - Qing Fang
- Department of Human Genetics, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA
| | - Felipe T Salles
- Department of Otolaryngology-Head & Neck Surgery, Stanford University, 300 Pasteur Drive, Room R111A, Stanford, CA, 94035, USA
| | - Felix Wangsawihardja
- Department of Otolaryngology-Head & Neck Surgery, Stanford University, 300 Pasteur Drive, Room R111A, Stanford, CA, 94035, USA
| | - Anthony J Ricci
- Department of Otolaryngology-Head & Neck Surgery, Stanford University, 300 Pasteur Drive, Room R111A, Stanford, CA, 94035, USA
| | - Mirna Mustapha
- Department of Otolaryngology-Head & Neck Surgery, Stanford University, 300 Pasteur Drive, Room R111A, Stanford, CA, 94035, USA
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Ng L, Cordas E, Wu X, Vella KR, Hollenberg AN, Forrest D. Age-Related Hearing Loss and Degeneration of Cochlear Hair Cells in Mice Lacking Thyroid Hormone Receptor β1. Endocrinology 2015; 156:3853-65. [PMID: 26241124 PMCID: PMC4588828 DOI: 10.1210/en.2015-1468] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
A key function of the thyroid hormone receptor β (Thrb) gene is in the development of auditory function. However, the roles of the 2 receptor isoforms, TRβ1 and TRβ2, expressed by the Thrb gene are unclear, and it is unknown whether these isoforms promote the maintenance as well as development of hearing. We investigated the function of TRβ1 in mice with a Thrb(b1) reporter allele that expresses β-galactosidase instead of TRβ1. In the immature cochlea, β-galactosidase was detected in the greater epithelial ridge, sensory hair cells, spiral ligament, and spiral ganglion and in adulthood, at low levels in the hair cells, support cells and root cells of the outer sulcus. Although deletion of all TRβ isoforms causes severe, early-onset deafness, deletion of TRβ1 or TRβ2 individually caused no obvious hearing loss in juvenile mice. However, over subsequent months, TRβ1 deficiency resulted in progressive loss of hearing and loss of hair cells. TRβ1-deficient mice had minimal changes in serum thyroid hormone and thyrotropin levels, indicating that hormonal imbalances were unlikely to cause hearing loss. The results suggest mutually shared roles for TRβ1 and TRβ2 in cochlear development and an unexpected requirement for TRβ1 in the maintenance of hearing in adulthood.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lily Ng
- Laboratory of Endocrinology and Receptor Biology (L.N., E.C., X.W., D.F.), National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland 20892; and Division of Endocrinology, Diabetes and Metabolism (K.R.V., A.N.H.), Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts 02215
| | - Emily Cordas
- Laboratory of Endocrinology and Receptor Biology (L.N., E.C., X.W., D.F.), National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland 20892; and Division of Endocrinology, Diabetes and Metabolism (K.R.V., A.N.H.), Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts 02215
| | - Xuefeng Wu
- Laboratory of Endocrinology and Receptor Biology (L.N., E.C., X.W., D.F.), National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland 20892; and Division of Endocrinology, Diabetes and Metabolism (K.R.V., A.N.H.), Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts 02215
| | - Kristen R Vella
- Laboratory of Endocrinology and Receptor Biology (L.N., E.C., X.W., D.F.), National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland 20892; and Division of Endocrinology, Diabetes and Metabolism (K.R.V., A.N.H.), Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts 02215
| | - Anthony N Hollenberg
- Laboratory of Endocrinology and Receptor Biology (L.N., E.C., X.W., D.F.), National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland 20892; and Division of Endocrinology, Diabetes and Metabolism (K.R.V., A.N.H.), Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts 02215
| | - Douglas Forrest
- Laboratory of Endocrinology and Receptor Biology (L.N., E.C., X.W., D.F.), National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland 20892; and Division of Endocrinology, Diabetes and Metabolism (K.R.V., A.N.H.), Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts 02215
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Huang CCJ, Kraft C, Moy N, Ng L, Forrest D. A Novel Population of Inner Cortical Cells in the Adrenal Gland That Displays Sexually Dimorphic Expression of Thyroid Hormone Receptor-β1. Endocrinology 2015; 156:2338-48. [PMID: 25774556 PMCID: PMC4430604 DOI: 10.1210/en.2015-1118] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
The development of the adrenal cortex involves the formation and then subsequent regression of immature or fetal inner cell layers as the mature steroidogenic outer layers expand. However, controls over this remodeling, especially in the immature inner layer, are incompletely understood. Here we identify an inner cortical cell population that expresses thyroid hormone receptor-β1 (TRβ1), one of two receptor isoforms encoded by the Thrb gene. Using mice with a Thrb(b1) reporter allele that expresses lacZ instead of TRβ1, β-galactosidase was detected in the inner cortex from early stages. Expression peaked at juvenile ages in an inner zone that included cells expressing 20-α-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase, a marker of the transient, so-called X-zone in mice. The β-galactosidase-positive zone displayed sexually dimorphic regression in males after approximately 4 weeks of age but persisted in females into adulthood in either nulliparous or parous states. T3 treatment promoted hypertrophy of inner cortical cells, induced some markers of mature cortical cells, and, in males, delayed the regression of the TRβ1-positive zone, suggesting that TRβ1 could partly divert the differentiation fate and counteract male-specific regression of inner zone cells. TRβ1-deficient mice were resistant to these actions of T3, supporting a functional role for TRβ1 in the inner cortex.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chen-Che Jeff Huang
- Laboratory of Endocrinology and Receptor Biology, National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland 20892
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Peeters RP, Ng L, Ma M, Forrest D. The timecourse of apoptotic cell death during postnatal remodeling of the mouse cochlea and its premature onset by triiodothyronine (T3). Mol Cell Endocrinol 2015; 407:1-8. [PMID: 25737207 PMCID: PMC4390549 DOI: 10.1016/j.mce.2015.02.025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/27/2014] [Revised: 02/23/2015] [Accepted: 02/24/2015] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
Apoptosis underlies various forms of tissue remodeling during development. Prior to the onset of hearing, thyroid hormone (T3) promotes cochlear remodeling, which involves regression of the greater epithelial ridge (GER), a transient structure of columnar cells adjacent to the mechanosensory hair cells. We investigated the timecourse of apoptosis in the GER and the influence of ectopic T3 on apoptosis. In saline-treated mice, activated caspase 3-positive cells were detected in the GER between postnatal days 7 and 13 and appeared progressively along the cochlear duct from base to apex over developmental time. T3 given on P0 and P1 advanced the overall program of apoptosis and remodeling by ~4 days. Thyroid hormone receptor β was required for these actions, suggesting a receptor-mediated process of initiation of apoptosis. Finally, T3 given only at P0 or P1 resulted in deafness in adult mice, thus revealing a transient period of susceptibility to long-term damage in the neonatal auditory system.
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Affiliation(s)
- R P Peeters
- Department of Internal Medicine, Erasmus Medical Center, Rotterdam, The Netherlands; Rotterdam Thyroid Center, Erasmus Medical Center, Rotterdam, The Netherlands; Laboratory of Endocrinology and Receptor Biology, National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland 20892, USA.
| | - L Ng
- Laboratory of Endocrinology and Receptor Biology, National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland 20892, USA
| | - M Ma
- Laboratory of Endocrinology and Receptor Biology, National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland 20892, USA
| | - D Forrest
- Laboratory of Endocrinology and Receptor Biology, National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland 20892, USA
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Bagci E, Heijlen M, Vergauwen L, Hagenaars A, Houbrechts AM, Esguerra CV, Blust R, Darras VM, Knapen D. Deiodinase knockdown during early zebrafish development affects growth, development, energy metabolism, motility and phototransduction. PLoS One 2015; 10:e0123285. [PMID: 25855985 PMCID: PMC4391947 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0123285] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/11/2014] [Accepted: 02/26/2015] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Thyroid hormone (TH) balance is essential for vertebrate development. Deiodinase type 1 (D1) and type 2 (D2) increase and deiodinase type 3 (D3) decreases local intracellular levels of T3, the most important active TH. The role of deiodinase-mediated TH effects in early vertebrate development is only partially understood. Therefore, we investigated the role of deiodinases during early development of zebrafish until 96 hours post fertilization at the level of the transcriptome (microarray), biochemistry, morphology and physiology using morpholino (MO) knockdown. Knockdown of D1+D2 (D1D2MO) and knockdown of D3 (D3MO) both resulted in transcriptional regulation of energy metabolism and (muscle) development in abdomen and tail, together with reduced growth, impaired swim bladder inflation, reduced protein content and reduced motility. The reduced growth and impaired swim bladder inflation in D1D2MO could be due to lower levels of T3 which is known to drive growth and development. The pronounced upregulation of a large number of transcripts coding for key proteins in ATP-producing pathways in D1D2MO could reflect a compensatory response to a decreased metabolic rate, also typically linked to hypothyroidism. Compared to D1D2MO, the effects were more pronounced or more frequent in D3MO, in which hyperthyroidism is expected. More specifically, increased heart rate, delayed hatching and increased carbohydrate content were observed only in D3MO. An increase of the metabolic rate, a decrease of the metabolic efficiency and a stimulation of gluconeogenesis using amino acids as substrates may have been involved in the observed reduced protein content, growth and motility in D3MO larvae. Furthermore, expression of transcripts involved in purine metabolism coupled to vision was decreased in both knockdown conditions, suggesting that both may impair vision. This study provides new insights, not only into the role of deiodinases, but also into the importance of a correct TH balance during vertebrate embryonic development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Enise Bagci
- Systemic Physiological and Ecotoxicological Research (SPHERE), Department of Biology, University of Antwerp, B-2020 Antwerpen, Belgium
- Zebrafishlab, Veterinary Physiology and Biochemistry, Department of Veterinary Sciences, University of Antwerp, B-2160 Wilrijk, Belgium
| | - Marjolein Heijlen
- Laboratory of Comparative Endocrinology, Animal Physiology and Neurobiology Section, Department of Biology, KU Leuven, B-3000 Leuven, Belgium
| | - Lucia Vergauwen
- Zebrafishlab, Veterinary Physiology and Biochemistry, Department of Veterinary Sciences, University of Antwerp, B-2160 Wilrijk, Belgium
| | - An Hagenaars
- Zebrafishlab, Veterinary Physiology and Biochemistry, Department of Veterinary Sciences, University of Antwerp, B-2160 Wilrijk, Belgium
| | - Anne M. Houbrechts
- Laboratory of Comparative Endocrinology, Animal Physiology and Neurobiology Section, Department of Biology, KU Leuven, B-3000 Leuven, Belgium
| | - Camila V. Esguerra
- Laboratory for Molecular Biodiscovery, Department of Pharmaceutical and Pharmacological Sciences, KU Leuven, B-3000 Leuven, Belgium
| | - Ronny Blust
- Zebrafishlab, Veterinary Physiology and Biochemistry, Department of Veterinary Sciences, University of Antwerp, B-2160 Wilrijk, Belgium
| | - Veerle M. Darras
- Laboratory of Comparative Endocrinology, Animal Physiology and Neurobiology Section, Department of Biology, KU Leuven, B-3000 Leuven, Belgium
| | - Dries Knapen
- Systemic Physiological and Ecotoxicological Research (SPHERE), Department of Biology, University of Antwerp, B-2020 Antwerpen, Belgium
- Zebrafishlab, Veterinary Physiology and Biochemistry, Department of Veterinary Sciences, University of Antwerp, B-2160 Wilrijk, Belgium
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Bianco AC, Anderson G, Forrest D, Galton VA, Gereben B, Kim BW, Kopp PA, Liao XH, Obregon MJ, Peeters RP, Refetoff S, Sharlin DS, Simonides WS, Weiss RE, Williams GR. American Thyroid Association Guide to investigating thyroid hormone economy and action in rodent and cell models. Thyroid 2014; 24:88-168. [PMID: 24001133 PMCID: PMC3887458 DOI: 10.1089/thy.2013.0109] [Citation(s) in RCA: 145] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND An in-depth understanding of the fundamental principles that regulate thyroid hormone homeostasis is critical for the development of new diagnostic and treatment approaches for patients with thyroid disease. SUMMARY Important clinical practices in use today for the treatment of patients with hypothyroidism, hyperthyroidism, or thyroid cancer are the result of laboratory discoveries made by scientists investigating the most basic aspects of thyroid structure and molecular biology. In this document, a panel of experts commissioned by the American Thyroid Association makes a series of recommendations related to the study of thyroid hormone economy and action. These recommendations are intended to promote standardization of study design, which should in turn increase the comparability and reproducibility of experimental findings. CONCLUSIONS It is expected that adherence to these recommendations by investigators in the field will facilitate progress towards a better understanding of the thyroid gland and thyroid hormone dependent processes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Antonio C. Bianco
- Division of Endocrinology, Diabetes and Metabolism, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, Florida
| | - Grant Anderson
- Department of Pharmacy Practice and Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, University of Minnesota Duluth, Duluth, Minnesota
| | - Douglas Forrest
- Laboratory of Endocrinology and Receptor Biology, National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland
| | - Valerie Anne Galton
- Department of Physiology and Neurobiology, Dartmouth Medical School, Lebanon, New Hampshire
| | - Balázs Gereben
- Department of Endocrine Neurobiology, Institute of Experimental Medicine, Hungarian Academy of Sciences, Budapest, Hungary
| | - Brian W. Kim
- Division of Endocrinology, Diabetes and Metabolism, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, Florida
| | - Peter A. Kopp
- Division of Endocrinology, Metabolism, and Molecular Medicine, and Center for Genetic Medicine, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, Illinois
| | - Xiao Hui Liao
- Section of Adult and Pediatric Endocrinology, Diabetes, and Metabolism, The University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois
| | - Maria Jesus Obregon
- Institute of Biomedical Investigation (IIB), Spanish National Research Council (CSIC) and Autonomous University of Madrid, Madrid, Spain
| | - Robin P. Peeters
- Division of Endocrinology, Department of Internal Medicine, Erasmus Medical Center, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Samuel Refetoff
- Section of Adult and Pediatric Endocrinology, Diabetes, and Metabolism, The University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois
| | - David S. Sharlin
- Department of Biological Sciences, Minnesota State University, Mankato, Minnesota
| | - Warner S. Simonides
- Laboratory for Physiology, Institute for Cardiovascular Research, VU University Medical Center, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Roy E. Weiss
- Section of Adult and Pediatric Endocrinology, Diabetes, and Metabolism, The University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois
| | - Graham R. Williams
- Department of Medicine, Imperial College London, Hammersmith Campus, London, United Kingdom
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Thyroid hormone receptor activity in the absence of ligand: Physiological and developmental implications. Biochim Biophys Acta Gen Subj 2013; 1830:3893-9. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bbagen.2012.04.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/12/2012] [Revised: 04/11/2012] [Accepted: 04/16/2012] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
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Drigo RA, Fonseca TL, Werneck-de-Castro JPS, Bianco AC. Role of the type 2 iodothyronine deiodinase (D2) in the control of thyroid hormone signaling. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA 2013; 1830:3956-64. [PMID: 22967761 PMCID: PMC4979226 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbagen.2012.08.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 94] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/05/2012] [Revised: 08/11/2012] [Accepted: 08/23/2012] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Thyroid hormone signaling is critical for development, growth and metabolic control in vertebrates. Although serum concentration of thyroid hormone is remarkable stable, deiodinases modulate thyroid hormone signaling on a time- and cell-specific fashion by controlling the activation and inactivation of thyroid hormone. SCOPE OF THE REVIEW This review covers the recent advances in D2 biology, a member of the iodothyronine deiodinase family, thioredoxin fold-containing selenoenzymes that modify thyroid hormone signaling in a time- and cell-specific manner. MAJOR CONCLUSIONS D2-catalyzed T3 production increases thyroid hormone signaling whereas blocking D2 activity or disruption of the Dio2 gene leads to a state of localized hypothyroidism. D2 expression is regulated by different developmental, metabolic or environmental cues such as the hedgehog pathway, the adrenergic- and the TGR5-activated cAMP pathway, by xenobiotic molecules such as flavonols and by stress in the endoplasmic reticulum, which specifically reduces de novo synthesis of D2 via an eIF2a-mediated mechanism. Thus, D2 plays a central role in important physiological processes such as determining T3 content in developing tissues and in the adult brain, and promoting adaptive thermogenesis in brown adipose tissue. Notably, D2 is critical in the T4-mediated negative feed-back at the pituitary and hypothalamic levels, whereby T4 inhibits TSH and TRH expression, respectively. Notably, ubiquitination is a major step in the control of D2 activity, whereby T4 binding to and/or T4 catalysis triggers D2 inactivation by ubiquitination that is mediated by the E3 ubiquitin ligases WSB-1 and/or TEB4. Ubiquitinated D2 can be either targeted to proteasomal degradation or reactivated by deubiquitination, a process that is mediated by the deubiquitinases USP20/33 and is important in adaptive thermogenesis. GENERAL SIGNIFICANCE Here we review the recent advances in the understanding of D2 biology focusing on the mechanisms that regulate its expression and their biological significance in metabolically relevant tissues. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled Thyroid hormone signalling.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rafael Arrojo Drigo
- Division of Endocrinology, Diabetes and Metabolism, University of Miami, Miller School of Medicine, Miami, FL, USA
| | - Tatiana L. Fonseca
- Division of Endocrinology, Diabetes and Metabolism, University of Miami, Miller School of Medicine, Miami, FL, USA
| | - Joao Pedro Saar Werneck-de-Castro
- Division of Endocrinology, Diabetes and Metabolism, University of Miami, Miller School of Medicine, Miami, FL, USA
- Instituto de Biofisica Carlos Chagas, Brazil
- Escola de Educacao Física e Desportos, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil
| | - Antonio C. Bianco
- Division of Endocrinology, Diabetes and Metabolism, University of Miami, Miller School of Medicine, Miami, FL, USA
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Molecular and cellular changes in skin and muscle during metamorphosis of Atlantic halibut (Hippoglossus hippoglossus) are accompanied by changes in deiodinases expression. Cell Tissue Res 2012; 350:333-46. [DOI: 10.1007/s00441-012-1473-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/21/2012] [Accepted: 06/21/2012] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
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Geysens S, Ferran JL, Van Herck SLJ, Tylzanowski P, Puelles L, Darras VM. Dynamic mRNA distribution pattern of thyroid hormone transporters and deiodinases during early embryonic chicken brain development. Neuroscience 2012; 221:69-85. [PMID: 22771619 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2012.06.057] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/16/2012] [Revised: 06/18/2012] [Accepted: 06/26/2012] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
Maternal thyroid hormones (THs) are important in early brain development long before the onset of embryonic TH secretion, but information about the regulation of TH availability in the brain at these early stages is still limited. We therefore investigated in detail the mRNA distribution pattern of the TH activating type 2 and inactivating type 3 deiodinases (D2 and D3) and the TH transporters, organic anion transporting polypeptide 1c1 (Oatp1c1) and monocarboxylate transporter 8 (Mct8), in chicken embryonic brain as well as in retina and inner ear from day 3 to day 10 of development. Oatp1c1, Mct8 and D3 are expressed in the choroid plexus and its precursors allowing selective uptake of THs at the blood-cerebrospinal fluid-barrier with subsequent inactivation of excess hormone. In contrast, the developing blood-brain-barrier does not express Oatp1c1 or Mct8 but appears to be a site for TH activation by D2. Expression of D3 in several sensory brain centers may serve as protection against premature TH action. Expression of D2 and Mct8 but not D3 in the developing pituitary gland allows accumulation of active THs even at early stages. Mct8 is widely expressed in gray matter throughout the brain. This is the first comprehensive study on the dynamic distribution pattern of TH-transporters and deiodinases at stages of embryonic brain development when only maternal THs are available. It provides the essential background for further research aimed at understanding early developmental processes depending on maternal THs.
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Affiliation(s)
- S Geysens
- Laboratory of Comparative Endocrinology, Animal Physiology and Neurobiology Section, Department of Biology, KU Leuven, B-3000 Leuven, Belgium
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Dentice M, Marsili A, Zavacki A, Larsen PR, Salvatore D. The deiodinases and the control of intracellular thyroid hormone signaling during cellular differentiation. Biochim Biophys Acta Gen Subj 2012; 1830:3937-45. [PMID: 22634734 PMCID: PMC3670672 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbagen.2012.05.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 97] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/23/2012] [Revised: 05/15/2012] [Accepted: 05/17/2012] [Indexed: 12/04/2022]
Abstract
Background Thyroid hormone influences gene expression in virtually all vertebrates. Its action is initiated by the activation of T4 to T3, an outer ring deiodination reaction that is catalyzed by the type 1 or the type 2 iodothyronine selenodeiodinases (D1 or D2). Inactivation of T4 and T3 occurs via inner ring deiodination catalyzed by the type 3 iodothyronine selenodeiodinases (D3). The T4 concentration is generally quite stable in human plasma, with T3 levels also remaining constant. Deiodinase actions are tightly regulated in both pre- and post-natal life when they are required to make local adjustments of intracellular T3 concentrations in a precise spatio- and temporal manner. Although all the signals governing the dynamic expression of deiodinases in specific cell types are not known, many important regulatory factors have been deciphered. Scope of review This review provides striking examples from the recent literature illustrating how the expression of D2 and D3 is finely tuned during maturation of different organs, and how their action play a critical role in different settings to control intracellular T3 availability. Major conclusions Emerging evidence indicates that in various cell contexts, D2 and D3 are expressed in a dynamic balance, in which the expression of one enzyme is coordinately regulated with that of the other to tightly control intracellular T3 levels commensurate with cell requirements at that time. General significance Deiodinases control TH action in a precise spatio-temporal fashion thereby providing a novel mechanism for the local paracrine and autocrine regulation of TH action. This remarkable tissue-specific regulation of intracellular thyroid status remains hidden due to the maintenance of constant circulating TH concentrations by the hypothalamic–pituitary–thyroid axis. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled Thyroid hormone signalling.
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Affiliation(s)
- Monica Dentice
- Department of Molecular and Clinical Endocrinology and Oncology, University of Naples Federico II, Italy
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Hamajima T, Mushimoto Y, Kobayashi H, Saito Y, Onigata K. Novel compound heterozygous mutations in the SBP2 gene: characteristic clinical manifestations and the implications of GH and triiodothyronine in longitudinal bone growth and maturation. Eur J Endocrinol 2012; 166:757-64. [PMID: 22247018 DOI: 10.1530/eje-11-0812] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Mutations in the selenocysteine insertion sequence binding protein 2 gene (SECISBP2 also known as SBP2) lead to a multisystemic disorder. Our objectives are to examine the clinical manifestations of the present patient and evaluate the effects of GH and triiodothyronine (T(3)) for longitudinal bone growth and maturation. METHODS A Japanese boy presented with unusual thyroid function tests (normal or slightly elevated TSH, low-normal or slightly decreased free T(3) (FT(3)), and elevated free thyroxine (FT(4))), short stature without GH deficiency, and delayed bone maturation. The entire coding region of the patient's SBP2 was analyzed. GH treatment was initiated when the patient was 4 years old, and combination therapy with GH plus T(3) was started when the patient was 10 years old. We monitored the patient's height and bone age until he was 11 years old. RESULTS The patient showed typical symptoms of SBP2 deficiency, and novel compound heterozygous mutations were identified in SBP2 (p.M515fsX563/p.Q79X). Six years of GH monotherapy improved the patient's height s.d. from -3.4 to -1.7 without accelerating bone maturation, whereas 6 months of T(3) treatment combined with GH almost normalized the thyroid function tests and improved both longitudinal bone growth and maturation. CONCLUSIONS In the growth plate, GH may compensate for decreased local T(3) effects on longitudinal bone growth; however, GH does not appear to compensate for the effects of T(3) on bone maturation. We believe that the present case has important implications for understanding the mechanism of thyroid hormone and GH on longitudinal bone growth and maturation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Takashi Hamajima
- Department of Pediatric Endocrinology and Metabolism, Aichi Children's Health and Medical Center, 1-2 Osakada, Morioka-cho, Obu, Aichi, Japan.
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Understanding selenoprotein function and regulation through the use of rodent models. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA-MOLECULAR CELL RESEARCH 2012; 1823:1633-42. [PMID: 22440326 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbamcr.2012.02.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 69] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/06/2012] [Revised: 02/27/2012] [Accepted: 02/29/2012] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
Abstract
Selenium (Se) is an essential micronutrient. Its biological functions are associated with selenoproteins, which contain this trace element in the form of the 21st amino acid, selenocysteine. Genetic defects in selenocysteine insertion into proteins are associated with severe health issues. The consequences of selenoprotein deficiency are more variable, with several selenoproteins being essential, and several showing no clear phenotypes. Much of these functional studies benefited from the use of rodent models and diets employing variable levels of Se. This review summarizes the data obtained with these models, focusing on mouse models with targeted expression of individual selenoproteins and removal of individual, subsets or all selenoproteins in a systemic or organ-specific manner. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled: Cell Biology of Metals.
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Larsen PR, Zavacki AM. The role of the iodothyronine deiodinases in the physiology and pathophysiology of thyroid hormone action. Eur Thyroid J 2012; 1:232-242. [PMID: 23750337 PMCID: PMC3673746 DOI: 10.1159/000343922] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/27/2012] [Revised: 10/04/2012] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Thyroxine (T4) is a prohormone and must be activated to 3,5,3' triodothyronine (T3) by either the type 1 (D1) or 2 (D2) selenodeiodinase. A third deiodinase (D3) inactivates T3 or T4 by removal of an inner ring iodine. These reactions require both a deiodinase enzyme and a cofactor, probably a thiol, to reduce the oxidized selenolyl group in the active center of each deiodinase. Thus, deiodination rates depend on both the enzyme and cofactor. The source of most of the circulating T3 is D1-mediated, while D2 provides nuclear receptor-bound hormone. Using sensitive and specific assays, it has become apparent that both D2 and D3 are widespread throughout vertebrate tissues. The complex interactions between the activating D2 and the inactivating D3 in tissues expressing these two enzymes determine the intracellular T3 concentration. This provides enormous flexibility for both developmental and tissue regeneration processes, allowing exquisite control of intracellular T3 concentrations. The endogenous factors regulating the activity of these enzymes, such as the hedgehog proteins, FoxO3, or the wnt/β catenin pathway together with the actions of thyroid hormone transporters, direct adjustments of nuclear receptor bound T3 which in turn can control the balance between cellular proliferation and differentiation. Their actions provide dynamic flexibility to what appears on the surface to be a very static hormonal system.
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Affiliation(s)
- P. Reed Larsen
- Department of Medicine, Brigham and Women's Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Harvard Institutes of Medicine, Boston, Mass., USA
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43
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Affiliation(s)
- Heike Heuer
- Leibniz Institute for Age Research/Fritz Lipmann Institute e.V., Beutenbergstrasse 11, D-07745 Jena, Germany.
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Sharlin DS, Visser TJ, Forrest D. Developmental and cell-specific expression of thyroid hormone transporters in the mouse cochlea. Endocrinology 2011; 152:5053-64. [PMID: 21878515 PMCID: PMC3230046 DOI: 10.1210/en.2011-1372] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
Thyroid hormone is essential for the development of the cochlea and auditory function. Cochlear response tissues, which express thyroid hormone receptor β (encoded by Thrb), include the greater epithelial ridge and sensory epithelium residing inside the bony labyrinth. However, these response tissues lack direct blood flow, implying that mechanisms exist to shuttle hormone from the circulation to target tissues. Therefore, we investigated expression of candidate thyroid hormone transporters L-type amino acid transporter 1 (Lat1), monocarboxylate transporter (Mct)8, Mct10, and organic anion transporting polypeptide 1c1 (Oatp1c1) in mouse cochlear development by in situ hybridization and immunofluorescence analysis. L-type amino acid transporter 1 localized to cochlear blood vessels and transiently to sensory hair cells. Mct8 localized to the greater epithelial ridge, tympanic border cells underlying the sensory epithelium, spiral ligament fibrocytes, and spiral ganglion neurons, partly overlapping with the Thrb expression pattern. Mct10 was detected in a highly restricted pattern in the outer sulcus epithelium and weakly in tympanic border cells and hair cells. Organic anion transporting polypeptide 1c1 localized primarily to fibrocytes in vascularized tissues of the spiral limbus and spiral ligament and to tympanic border cells. Investigation of hypothyroid Tshr(-/-) mice showed that transporter expression was delayed consistent with retardation of cochlear tissue maturation but not with compensatory responses to hypothyroidism. The results demonstrate specific expression of thyroid hormone transporters in the cochlea and suggest that a network of thyroid hormone transport underlies cochlear development.
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Affiliation(s)
- David S Sharlin
- National Institutes of Health, National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases, Clinical Endocrinology Branch, Bethesda, Maryland 20892-1772, USA
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45
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Wangemann P. The role of pendrin in the development of the murine inner ear. Cell Physiol Biochem 2011; 28:527-34. [PMID: 22116367 DOI: 10.1159/000335113] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 09/19/2011] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Enlargement of the vestibular aqueduct (EVA) is a common inner ear malformation found in children with sensorineural hearing loss that is frequently associated with loss-of-function or hypo-function mutations of SLC26A4. SLC26A4 codes for pendrin, which is a protein that is expressed in apical membranes of selected epithelia and functions as an anion exchanger. The comparatively high prevalence of EVA provides a strong imperative to develop rational interventions that delay, ameliorate or prevent hearing loss associated with this phenotype. The development of rational interventions requires a fundamental understanding of the role that pendrin plays in the normal development of hearing, as well as a detailed understanding of the pathobiologic mechanisms that, in the absence of fully functional pendrin, lead to an unstable hearing phenotype, with fluctuating or progressive loss of hearing. This review summarizes studies in mouse models that have focused on delineating the role of pendrin in the physiology of the inner ear and the pathobiology that leads to hearing loss.
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Affiliation(s)
- Philine Wangemann
- Anatomy & Physiology Department, Kansas State University, Manhattan, Kansas 66506, USA.
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46
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Griffith AJ, Wangemann P. Hearing loss associated with enlargement of the vestibular aqueduct: mechanistic insights from clinical phenotypes, genotypes, and mouse models. Hear Res 2011; 281:11-7. [PMID: 21669267 PMCID: PMC3183377 DOI: 10.1016/j.heares.2011.05.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/15/2011] [Revised: 05/05/2011] [Accepted: 05/06/2011] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
Enlargement of the vestibular aqueduct (EVA) is one of the most common inner ear malformations associated with sensorineural hearing loss in children. The delayed onset and progressive nature of this phenotype offer a window of opportunity to prevent or retard progression of hearing loss. EVA is not the direct cause of hearing loss in these patients, but rather is a radiologic marker for some underlying pathogenetic defect. Mutations of the SLC26A4 gene are a common cause of EVA. Studies of an Slc26a4 knockout mouse demonstrate that acidification and enlargement of the scala media are early events in the pathogenesis of deafness. The enlargement is driven by fluid secretion in the vestibular labyrinth and a failure of fluid absorption in the embryonic endolymphatic sac. Elucidating the mechanism of hearing loss may offer clues to potential therapeutic strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew J Griffith
- Otolaryngology Branch, National Institute on Deafness and Other Communication Disorders, 5 Research Court, Rockville, Maryland 20850-3320, USA.
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47
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Tata JR. Looking for the mechanism of action of thyroid hormone. J Thyroid Res 2011; 2011:730630. [PMID: 21804933 PMCID: PMC3143456 DOI: 10.4061/2011/730630] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/08/2011] [Accepted: 03/29/2011] [Indexed: 02/02/2023] Open
Abstract
The mechanisms of action of thyroid hormone (TH), characterized by multiple physiological activities, proposed over the last 80 years are a reflection of the progression of our knowledge about eukaryotic signalling processes. The cumulative knowledge gained raises the question as to what is so special about the action of this hormone. The discovery in the 1980s that TH receptors belong to the family of nuclear transcription factors that regulate the expression of hormonal target genes was an important milestone. TH receptors are highly organized within the chromatin structure, which itself is modified by several chromosomal and nonchromosomal factors, in the presence and absence of the hormone. Recently, some investigators have suggested that TH acts via both genomic and nongenomic mechanisms and introduced the concept of networking within cellular complexes. While one cannot as yet precisely describe the mechanism of thyroid hormone action, I will attempt here to point out the present thinking and future directions to achieve this goal in the light of the historical background.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jamshed R Tata
- Division of Developmental Biology, The National Institute for Medical Research, The Ridgeway, Mill Hill, London NW7 2HA, UK
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48
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Marsili A, Zavacki AM, Harney JW, Larsen PR. Physiological role and regulation of iodothyronine deiodinases: a 2011 update. J Endocrinol Invest 2011; 34:395-407. [PMID: 21427525 PMCID: PMC3687787 DOI: 10.1007/bf03347465] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Abstract
T4 is a prohormone secreted by the thyroid. T4 has a long half life in circulation and it is tightly regulated to remain constant in a variety of circumstances. However, the availability of iodothyronine selenodeiodinases allow both the initiation or the cessation of thyroid hormone action and can result in surprisingly acute changes in the intracellular concentration of the active hormone T3, in a tissue- specific and chronologically-determined fashion, in spite of the constant circulating levels of the prohormone. This fine-tuning of thyroid hormone signaling is becoming widely appreciated in the context of situations where the rapid modifications in intracellular T3 concentrations are necessary for developmental changes or tissue repair. Given the increasing availability of genetic models of deiodinase deficiency, new insights into the role of these important enzymes are being recognized. In this review, we have incorporated new information regarding the special role played by these enzymes into our current knowledge of thyroid physiology, emphasizing the clinical significance of these new insights.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alessandro Marsili
- Thyroid Section, Division of Endocrinology, Diabetes and Hypertension, Brigham and Women’s Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Ann Marie Zavacki
- Thyroid Section, Division of Endocrinology, Diabetes and Hypertension, Brigham and Women’s Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - John W. Harney
- Thyroid Section, Division of Endocrinology, Diabetes and Hypertension, Brigham and Women’s Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - P. Reed Larsen
- Thyroid Section, Division of Endocrinology, Diabetes and Hypertension, Brigham and Women’s Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
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49
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Kim HM, Wangemann P. Failure of fluid absorption in the endolymphatic sac initiates cochlear enlargement that leads to deafness in mice lacking pendrin expression. PLoS One 2010; 5:e14041. [PMID: 21103348 PMCID: PMC2984494 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0014041] [Citation(s) in RCA: 69] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/16/2010] [Accepted: 10/29/2010] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Mutations of SLC26A4 are among the most prevalent causes of hereditary deafness. Deafness in the corresponding mouse model, Slc26a4−/−, results from an abnormally enlarged cochlear lumen. The goal of this study was to determine whether the cochlear enlargement originates with defective cochlear fluid transport or with a malfunction of fluid transport in the connected compartments, which are the vestibular labyrinth and the endolymphatic sac. Embryonic inner ears from Slc26a4+/− and Slc26a4−/− mice were examined by confocal microscopy ex vivo or after 2 days of organ culture. Culture allowed observations of intact, ligated or partially resected inner ears. Cochlear lumen formation was found to begin at the base of the cochlea between embryonic day (E) 13.5 and 14.5. Enlargement was immediately evident in Slc26a4−/− compared to Slc26a4+/− mice. In Slc26a4+/− and Slc26a4−/− mice, separation of the cochlea from the vestibular labyrinth by ligation at E14.5 resulted in a reduced cochlear lumen. Resection of the endolymphatic sacs at E14.5 led to an enlarged cochlear lumen in Slc26a4+/− mice but caused no further enlargement of the already enlarged cochlear lumen in Slc26a4−/− mice. Ligation or resection performed later, at E17.5, did not alter the cochlea lumen. In conclusion, the data suggest that cochlear lumen formation is initiated by fluid secretion in the vestibular labyrinth and temporarily controlled by fluid absorption in the endolymphatic sac. Failure of fluid absorption in the endolymphatic sac due to lack of Slc26a4 expression appears to initiate cochlear enlargement in mice, and possibly humans, lacking functional Slc26a4 expression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hyoung-Mi Kim
- Anatomy and Physiology Department, Kansas State University, Manhattan, Kansas, United States of America
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50
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Dentice M, Marsili A, Ambrosio R, Guardiola O, Sibilio A, Paik JH, Minchiotti G, DePinho RA, Fenzi G, Larsen PR, Salvatore D. The FoxO3/type 2 deiodinase pathway is required for normal mouse myogenesis and muscle regeneration. J Clin Invest 2010; 120:4021-30. [PMID: 20978344 PMCID: PMC2964991 DOI: 10.1172/jci43670] [Citation(s) in RCA: 120] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/11/2010] [Accepted: 08/18/2010] [Indexed: 01/14/2023] Open
Abstract
The active thyroid hormone 3,5,3' triiodothyronine (T3) is a major regulator of skeletal muscle function. The deiodinase family of enzymes controls the tissue-specific activation and inactivation of the prohormone thyroxine (T4). Here we show that type 2 deiodinase (D2) is essential for normal mouse myogenesis and muscle regeneration. Indeed, D2-mediated increases in T3 were essential for the enhanced transcription of myogenic differentiation 1 (MyoD) and for execution of the myogenic program. Conversely, the expression of T3-dependent genes was reduced and after injury regeneration markedly delayed in muscles of mice null for the gene encoding D2 (Dio2), despite normal circulating T3 concentrations. Forkhead box O3 (FoxO3) was identified as a key molecule inducing D2 expression and thereby increasing intracellular T3 production. Accordingly, FoxO3-depleted primary myoblasts also had a differentiation deficit that could be rescued by high levels of T3. In conclusion, the FoxO3/D2 pathway selectively enhances intracellular active thyroid hormone concentrations in muscle, providing a striking example of how a circulating hormone can be tissue-specifically activated to influence development locally.
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Affiliation(s)
- Monica Dentice
- Department of Molecular and Clinical Endocrinology and Oncology, University of Naples “Federico II,” Naples, Italy.
Thyroid Section, Division of Endocrinology, Diabetes and Hypertension, Brigham and Women’s Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA.
IRCCS Fondazione SDN, Naples, Italy.
Stem Cell Fate Laboratory, Institute of Genetics and Biophysics “A. Buzzati-Traverso,” CNR, Naples, Italy.
Belfer Institute for Applied Cancer Science, Departments of Medical Oncology, Medicine and Genetics, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA.
CEINGE–Biotecnologie Avanzate s.c. a r.l., Naples, Italy
| | - Alessandro Marsili
- Department of Molecular and Clinical Endocrinology and Oncology, University of Naples “Federico II,” Naples, Italy.
Thyroid Section, Division of Endocrinology, Diabetes and Hypertension, Brigham and Women’s Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA.
IRCCS Fondazione SDN, Naples, Italy.
Stem Cell Fate Laboratory, Institute of Genetics and Biophysics “A. Buzzati-Traverso,” CNR, Naples, Italy.
Belfer Institute for Applied Cancer Science, Departments of Medical Oncology, Medicine and Genetics, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA.
CEINGE–Biotecnologie Avanzate s.c. a r.l., Naples, Italy
| | - Raffaele Ambrosio
- Department of Molecular and Clinical Endocrinology and Oncology, University of Naples “Federico II,” Naples, Italy.
Thyroid Section, Division of Endocrinology, Diabetes and Hypertension, Brigham and Women’s Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA.
IRCCS Fondazione SDN, Naples, Italy.
Stem Cell Fate Laboratory, Institute of Genetics and Biophysics “A. Buzzati-Traverso,” CNR, Naples, Italy.
Belfer Institute for Applied Cancer Science, Departments of Medical Oncology, Medicine and Genetics, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA.
CEINGE–Biotecnologie Avanzate s.c. a r.l., Naples, Italy
| | - Ombretta Guardiola
- Department of Molecular and Clinical Endocrinology and Oncology, University of Naples “Federico II,” Naples, Italy.
Thyroid Section, Division of Endocrinology, Diabetes and Hypertension, Brigham and Women’s Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA.
IRCCS Fondazione SDN, Naples, Italy.
Stem Cell Fate Laboratory, Institute of Genetics and Biophysics “A. Buzzati-Traverso,” CNR, Naples, Italy.
Belfer Institute for Applied Cancer Science, Departments of Medical Oncology, Medicine and Genetics, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA.
CEINGE–Biotecnologie Avanzate s.c. a r.l., Naples, Italy
| | - Annarita Sibilio
- Department of Molecular and Clinical Endocrinology and Oncology, University of Naples “Federico II,” Naples, Italy.
Thyroid Section, Division of Endocrinology, Diabetes and Hypertension, Brigham and Women’s Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA.
IRCCS Fondazione SDN, Naples, Italy.
Stem Cell Fate Laboratory, Institute of Genetics and Biophysics “A. Buzzati-Traverso,” CNR, Naples, Italy.
Belfer Institute for Applied Cancer Science, Departments of Medical Oncology, Medicine and Genetics, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA.
CEINGE–Biotecnologie Avanzate s.c. a r.l., Naples, Italy
| | - Ji-Hye Paik
- Department of Molecular and Clinical Endocrinology and Oncology, University of Naples “Federico II,” Naples, Italy.
Thyroid Section, Division of Endocrinology, Diabetes and Hypertension, Brigham and Women’s Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA.
IRCCS Fondazione SDN, Naples, Italy.
Stem Cell Fate Laboratory, Institute of Genetics and Biophysics “A. Buzzati-Traverso,” CNR, Naples, Italy.
Belfer Institute for Applied Cancer Science, Departments of Medical Oncology, Medicine and Genetics, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA.
CEINGE–Biotecnologie Avanzate s.c. a r.l., Naples, Italy
| | - Gabriella Minchiotti
- Department of Molecular and Clinical Endocrinology and Oncology, University of Naples “Federico II,” Naples, Italy.
Thyroid Section, Division of Endocrinology, Diabetes and Hypertension, Brigham and Women’s Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA.
IRCCS Fondazione SDN, Naples, Italy.
Stem Cell Fate Laboratory, Institute of Genetics and Biophysics “A. Buzzati-Traverso,” CNR, Naples, Italy.
Belfer Institute for Applied Cancer Science, Departments of Medical Oncology, Medicine and Genetics, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA.
CEINGE–Biotecnologie Avanzate s.c. a r.l., Naples, Italy
| | - Ronald A. DePinho
- Department of Molecular and Clinical Endocrinology and Oncology, University of Naples “Federico II,” Naples, Italy.
Thyroid Section, Division of Endocrinology, Diabetes and Hypertension, Brigham and Women’s Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA.
IRCCS Fondazione SDN, Naples, Italy.
Stem Cell Fate Laboratory, Institute of Genetics and Biophysics “A. Buzzati-Traverso,” CNR, Naples, Italy.
Belfer Institute for Applied Cancer Science, Departments of Medical Oncology, Medicine and Genetics, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA.
CEINGE–Biotecnologie Avanzate s.c. a r.l., Naples, Italy
| | - Gianfranco Fenzi
- Department of Molecular and Clinical Endocrinology and Oncology, University of Naples “Federico II,” Naples, Italy.
Thyroid Section, Division of Endocrinology, Diabetes and Hypertension, Brigham and Women’s Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA.
IRCCS Fondazione SDN, Naples, Italy.
Stem Cell Fate Laboratory, Institute of Genetics and Biophysics “A. Buzzati-Traverso,” CNR, Naples, Italy.
Belfer Institute for Applied Cancer Science, Departments of Medical Oncology, Medicine and Genetics, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA.
CEINGE–Biotecnologie Avanzate s.c. a r.l., Naples, Italy
| | - P. Reed Larsen
- Department of Molecular and Clinical Endocrinology and Oncology, University of Naples “Federico II,” Naples, Italy.
Thyroid Section, Division of Endocrinology, Diabetes and Hypertension, Brigham and Women’s Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA.
IRCCS Fondazione SDN, Naples, Italy.
Stem Cell Fate Laboratory, Institute of Genetics and Biophysics “A. Buzzati-Traverso,” CNR, Naples, Italy.
Belfer Institute for Applied Cancer Science, Departments of Medical Oncology, Medicine and Genetics, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA.
CEINGE–Biotecnologie Avanzate s.c. a r.l., Naples, Italy
| | - Domenico Salvatore
- Department of Molecular and Clinical Endocrinology and Oncology, University of Naples “Federico II,” Naples, Italy.
Thyroid Section, Division of Endocrinology, Diabetes and Hypertension, Brigham and Women’s Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA.
IRCCS Fondazione SDN, Naples, Italy.
Stem Cell Fate Laboratory, Institute of Genetics and Biophysics “A. Buzzati-Traverso,” CNR, Naples, Italy.
Belfer Institute for Applied Cancer Science, Departments of Medical Oncology, Medicine and Genetics, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA.
CEINGE–Biotecnologie Avanzate s.c. a r.l., Naples, Italy
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