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Mohammed S, Çon AH. Postbiotic nanoparticles (postbiotics-NPs): a novel strategy for providing probiotics' health advantages through food consumption. Food Sci Biotechnol 2024; 33:2729-2736. [PMID: 39184983 PMCID: PMC11339192 DOI: 10.1007/s10068-024-01629-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/08/2024] [Revised: 05/21/2024] [Accepted: 06/03/2024] [Indexed: 08/27/2024] Open
Abstract
In recent years, the term "postbiotics" has become increasingly popular in food microbiology, food science, and commercial products. This importance has been raised due to the safety issues associated with live bacterial cells. Postbiotics are defined as bioactive substances of probiotics. It confers unique health-promoting functions with its chemical structure, safe profile, and long shelf life. Meanwhile, postbiotics nanoparticles (postbiotics-NPs) can be considered novel postbiotic delivery systems to deliver bioactive components with health benefits and therapeutic aims, promote the shelf-life of food products, and develop novel functional foods. The present scientific literature shows that nanotechnology approaches are not yet mature enough to be used in postbiotic delivery systems. For all of that, the potential applications of postbiotics-NPs in the food industry and biomedical fields will be a new trend in the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarhan Mohammed
- Department of Food Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Ondokuz Mayis University, 55139 Atakum, Samsun Turkey
| | - Ahmet Hilmi Çon
- Department of Food Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Ondokuz Mayis University, 55139 Atakum, Samsun Turkey
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2
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Li N, Wu M, Wang L, Tang M, Xin H, Deng K. Efficient Isolation of Outer Membrane Vesicles (OMVs) Secreted by Gram-Negative Bacteria via a Novel Gradient Filtration Method. MEMBRANES 2024; 14:135. [PMID: 38921502 PMCID: PMC11205348 DOI: 10.3390/membranes14060135] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/12/2024] [Revised: 06/02/2024] [Accepted: 06/05/2024] [Indexed: 06/27/2024]
Abstract
Bacterial extracellular vesicles (bEVs) secreted by Gram-negative bacteria are referred to as outer membrane vesicles (OMVs) because they originate in the outer membrane. OMVs are membrane-coated vesicles 20-250 nm in size. They contain lipopolysaccharide (LPS), peptidoglycan, proteins, lipids, nucleic acids, and other substances derived from their parent bacteria and participate in the transmission of information to host cells. OMVs have broad prospects in terms of potential application in the fields of adjuvants, vaccines, and drug delivery vehicles. Currently, there remains a lack of efficient and convenient methods to isolate OMVs, which greatly limits OMV-related research. In this study, we developed a fast, convenient, and low-cost gradient filtration method to separate OMVs that can achieve industrial-scale production while maintaining the biological activity of the isolated OMVs. We compared the gradient filtration method with traditional ultracentrifugation to isolate OMVs from probiotic Escherichia coli Nissle 1917 (EcN) bacteria. Then, we used RAW264.7 macrophages as an in vitro model to study the influence on the immune function of EcN-derived OMVs obtained through the gradient filtration method. Our results indicated that EcN-derived OMVs were efficiently isolated using our gradient filtration method. The level of OMV enrichment obtained via our gradient filtration method was about twice as efficient as that achieved through traditional ultracentrifugation. The EcN-derived OMVs enriched through the gradient filtration method were successfully taken up by RAW264.7 macrophages and induced them to secrete pro-inflammatory cytokines such as tumor necrosis factor α (TNF-α) and interleukins (ILs) 6 and 1β, as well as anti-inflammatory cytokine IL-10. Furthermore, EcN-derived OMVs induced more anti-inflammatory response (i.e., IL-10) than pro-inflammatory response (i.e., TNF-α, IL-6, and IL-1β). These results were consistent with those reported in the literature. The related literature reported that EcN-derived OMVs obtained through ultracentrifugation could induce stronger anti-inflammatory responses than pro-inflammatory responses in RAW264.7 macrophages. Our simple and novel separation method may therefore have promising prospects in terms of applications involving the study of OMVs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ning Li
- The National Engineering Research Center for Bioengineering Drugs and the Technologies, Institute of Translational Medicine, Nanchang University, Nanchang 330031, China; (M.W.); (L.W.); (M.T.); (H.X.)
| | | | | | | | | | - Keyu Deng
- The National Engineering Research Center for Bioengineering Drugs and the Technologies, Institute of Translational Medicine, Nanchang University, Nanchang 330031, China; (M.W.); (L.W.); (M.T.); (H.X.)
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3
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Liu C, Yazdani N, Moran CS, Salomon C, Seneviratne CJ, Ivanovski S, Han P. Unveiling clinical applications of bacterial extracellular vesicles as natural nanomaterials in disease diagnosis and therapeutics. Acta Biomater 2024; 180:18-45. [PMID: 38641182 DOI: 10.1016/j.actbio.2024.04.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/18/2023] [Revised: 03/03/2024] [Accepted: 04/11/2024] [Indexed: 04/21/2024]
Abstract
Bacterial extracellular vesicles (BEVs) are naturally occurring bioactive membrane-bound nanoparticles released by both gram-negative and gram-positive bacterial species, exhibiting a multifaceted role in mediating host-microbe interactions across various physiological conditions. Increasing evidence supports BEVs as essential mediators of cell-to-cell communicaiton, influencing bacterial pathogenicity, disease mechanisms, and modulating the host immune response. However, the extent to which these BEV-mediated actions can be leveraged to predict disease onset, guide treatment strategies, and determine clinical outcomes remains uncertain, particularly in terms of their clinical translation potentials. This review briefly describes BEV biogenesis and their internalisation by recipient cells and summarises methods for isolation and characterization, essential for understanding their composition and cargo. Further, it discusses the potential of biofluid-associated BEVs as biomarkers for various diseases, spanning both cancer and non-cancerous conditions. Following this, we outline the ongoing human clinical trials of using BEVs for vaccine development. In addition to disease diagnostics, this review explores the emerging research of using natural or engineered BEVs as smart nanomaterials for applications in anti-cancer therapy and bone regeneration. This discussion extends to key factors for unlocking the clinical potential of BEVs, such as standardization of BEV isolation and characterisation, as well as other hurdles in translating these findings to the clinical setting. We propose that addressing these hurdles through collaborative research efforts and well-designed clinical trials holds the key to fully harnessing the clinical potential of BEVs. As this field advances, this review suggests that BEV-based nanomedicine has the potential to revolutionize disease management, paving the way for innovative diagnosis, therapeutics, and personalized medicine approaches. STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE: Extracellular vesicles (EVs) from both host cells and bacteria serve as multifunctional biomaterials and are emerging in the fields of biomedicine, bioengineering, and biomaterials. However, the majority of current studies focus on host-derived EVs, leaving a gap in comprehensive research on bacteria-derived EVs (BEVs). Although BEVs offer an attractive option as nanomaterials for drug delivery systems, their unique nanostructure and easy-to-modify functions make them a potential method for disease diagnosis and treatment as well as vaccine development. Our work among the pioneering studies investigating the potential of BEVs as natural nanobiomaterials plays a crucial role in both understanding the development of diseases and therapeutic interventions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chun Liu
- The University of Queensland, School of Dentistry, Centre for Oralfacial Regeneration, Rehabilitation and Reconstruction (COR3), Epigenetics Nanodiagnostic and Therapeutic Group, Brisbane, QLD 4006, Australia
| | - Negar Yazdani
- The University of Queensland, School of Dentistry, Centre for Oralfacial Regeneration, Rehabilitation and Reconstruction (COR3), Epigenetics Nanodiagnostic and Therapeutic Group, Brisbane, QLD 4006, Australia
| | - Corey S Moran
- The University of Queensland, School of Dentistry, Centre for Oralfacial Regeneration, Rehabilitation and Reconstruction (COR3), Epigenetics Nanodiagnostic and Therapeutic Group, Brisbane, QLD 4006, Australia
| | - Carlos Salomon
- Translational Extracellular Vesicles in Obstetrics and Gynae-Oncology Group, The University of Queensland Centre for Clinical Research, Royal Brisbane and Women's Hospital, Faculty of Medicine, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD, 4029 Australia
| | - Chaminda Jayampath Seneviratne
- The University of Queensland, School of Dentistry, Centre for Oralfacial Regeneration, Rehabilitation and Reconstruction (COR3), Epigenetics Nanodiagnostic and Therapeutic Group, Brisbane, QLD 4006, Australia
| | - Sašo Ivanovski
- The University of Queensland, School of Dentistry, Centre for Oralfacial Regeneration, Rehabilitation and Reconstruction (COR3), Epigenetics Nanodiagnostic and Therapeutic Group, Brisbane, QLD 4006, Australia.
| | - Pingping Han
- The University of Queensland, School of Dentistry, Centre for Oralfacial Regeneration, Rehabilitation and Reconstruction (COR3), Epigenetics Nanodiagnostic and Therapeutic Group, Brisbane, QLD 4006, Australia.
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Fang Z, Zhao X, Zhang Z, Wu J, Cheng J, Lei D, Li N, Ge R, He QY, Sun X. Unveiling a novel mechanism for competitive advantage of ciprofloxacin-resistant bacteria in the environment through bacterial membrane vesicles. JOURNAL OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS 2024; 466:133453. [PMID: 38246062 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2024.133453] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/29/2023] [Revised: 12/17/2023] [Accepted: 01/03/2024] [Indexed: 01/23/2024]
Abstract
Ciprofloxacin (CIP) is a prevalent environmental contaminant that poses a high risk of antibiotic resistance. High concentrations of antibiotics can lead to the development of resistant bacteria with high fitness costs, which often face a competitive disadvantage. However, it is unclear whether low-cost resistant bacteria formed by exposure to sub-MIC CIP in the environment can evolve competitive mechanisms against sensitive Escherichia coli (SEN) other than stronger resistance to CIP. Our study exposed E. coli to sub-MIC CIP levels, resulting in the development of CIP-resistant E. coli (CIPr). In antibiotic-free co-culture assays, CIPr outcompeted SEN. This indicates that CIPr is very likely to continue to develop and spread in antibiotic-free environments such as drinking water and affect human health. Further mechanism investigation revealed that bacterial membrane vesicles (BMVs) in CIPr, functioning as substance delivery couriers, mediated a cleavage effect on SEN. Proteomic analysis identified Entericidin B (EcnB) within CIPr-BMVs as a key factor in this competitive interaction. RT-qPCR analysis showed that the transcription of its negative regulator ompR/envZ was down-regulated. Moreover, EcnB plays a crucial role in the development of CIP resistance, and some resistance-related proteins and pathways have also been discovered. Metabolomics analysis highlighted the ability of CIPr-BMVs to acidify SEN, increasing the lytic efficiency of EcnB through cationization. Overall, our study reveals the importance of BMVs in mediating bacterial resistance and competition, suggesting that regulating BMVs production may be a new strategy for controlling the spread of drug-resistant bacteria.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zuye Fang
- MOE Key Laboratory of Tumor Molecular Biology and Key Laboratory of Functional Protein Research of Guangdong Higher Education Institutes, Institute of Life and Health Engineering, Jinan University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Xinlu Zhao
- MOE Key Laboratory of Tumor Molecular Biology and Key Laboratory of Functional Protein Research of Guangdong Higher Education Institutes, Institute of Life and Health Engineering, Jinan University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Ziyuan Zhang
- MOE Key Laboratory of Tumor Molecular Biology and Key Laboratory of Functional Protein Research of Guangdong Higher Education Institutes, Institute of Life and Health Engineering, Jinan University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Jiayi Wu
- MOE Key Laboratory of Tumor Molecular Biology and Key Laboratory of Functional Protein Research of Guangdong Higher Education Institutes, Institute of Life and Health Engineering, Jinan University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Jiliang Cheng
- Guangdong Provincial Research Center for Environment Pollution Control and Remediation Materials, College of Life Science and Technology, Jinan University, Guangzhou 510632, China
| | - Dan Lei
- MOE Key Laboratory of Tumor Molecular Biology and Key Laboratory of Functional Protein Research of Guangdong Higher Education Institutes, Institute of Life and Health Engineering, Jinan University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Nan Li
- MOE Key Laboratory of Tumor Molecular Biology and Key Laboratory of Functional Protein Research of Guangdong Higher Education Institutes, Institute of Life and Health Engineering, Jinan University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Ruiguang Ge
- Key Laboratory of Gene Engineering of the Ministry of Education and State Key Laboratory of Biocontrol, College of Life Sciences, Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou 510275, China.
| | - Qing-Yu He
- MOE Key Laboratory of Tumor Molecular Biology and Key Laboratory of Functional Protein Research of Guangdong Higher Education Institutes, Institute of Life and Health Engineering, Jinan University, Guangzhou, China.
| | - Xuesong Sun
- MOE Key Laboratory of Tumor Molecular Biology and Key Laboratory of Functional Protein Research of Guangdong Higher Education Institutes, Institute of Life and Health Engineering, Jinan University, Guangzhou, China.
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5
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Verbunt J, Jocken J, Blaak E, Savelkoul P, Stassen F. Gut-bacteria derived membrane vesicles and host metabolic health: a narrative review. Gut Microbes 2024; 16:2359515. [PMID: 38808455 PMCID: PMC11141482 DOI: 10.1080/19490976.2024.2359515] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/09/2024] [Accepted: 05/21/2024] [Indexed: 05/30/2024] Open
Abstract
The intestinal microbiota, consisting of an estimated 10^10-10^11 organisms, regulate physiological processes involved in digestion, metabolism, and immunity. Surprisingly, these intestinal microorganisms have been found to influence tissues that are not directly in contact with the gut, such as adipose tissue, the liver, skeletal muscle, and the brain. This interaction takes place even when intestinal barrier function is uncompromised. An increasing body of evidence suggests that bacterial membrane vesicles (bMVs), in addition to bacterial metabolites such as short-chain fatty acids, are able to mediate effects of the microbiota on these host tissues. The ability of bMVs to dissipate from the intestinal lumen into systemic circulation hereby facilitates the transport and presentation of bacterial components and metabolites to host organs. Importantly, there are indications that the interaction between bMVs and tissues or immune cells may play a role in the etiology of (chronic metabolic) disease. For example, the gut-derived bMV-mediated induction of insulin resistance in skeletal muscle cells and pro-inflammatory signaling by adipocytes possibly underlies diseases such as type 2 diabetes and obesity. Here, we review the current knowledge on bMVs in the microbiota's effects on host energy/substrate metabolism with a focus on etiological roles in the onset and progression of metabolic disease. We furthermore illustrate that vesicle production by bacterial microbiota could potentially be modulated through lifestyle intervention to improve host metabolism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jari Verbunt
- Department of Medical Microbiology, Infectious Diseases & Infection Prevention, School of Nutrition and Translational Research in Metabolism (NUTRIM), Maastricht University Medical Center+, Maastricht, The Netherlands
- Department of Human Biology, School of Nutrition and Translational Research in Metabolism (NUTRIM), Maastricht University Medical Center+, Maastricht, The Netherlands
| | - Johan Jocken
- Department of Human Biology, School of Nutrition and Translational Research in Metabolism (NUTRIM), Maastricht University Medical Center+, Maastricht, The Netherlands
| | - Ellen Blaak
- Department of Human Biology, School of Nutrition and Translational Research in Metabolism (NUTRIM), Maastricht University Medical Center+, Maastricht, The Netherlands
| | - Paul Savelkoul
- Department of Medical Microbiology, Infectious Diseases & Infection Prevention, School of Nutrition and Translational Research in Metabolism (NUTRIM), Maastricht University Medical Center+, Maastricht, The Netherlands
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Infection Control, Amsterdam University Medical Centers, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Frank Stassen
- Department of Medical Microbiology, Infectious Diseases & Infection Prevention, School of Nutrition and Translational Research in Metabolism (NUTRIM), Maastricht University Medical Center+, Maastricht, The Netherlands
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6
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Meng R, Zeng M, Ji Y, Huang X, Xu M. The potential role of gut microbiota outer membrane vesicles in colorectal cancer. Front Microbiol 2023; 14:1270158. [PMID: 38029123 PMCID: PMC10661380 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2023.1270158] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2023] [Accepted: 10/02/2023] [Indexed: 12/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Colorectal cancer (CRC) is a common malignant digestive tract tumor in colorectal regions. Considerable evidence now shows that the gut microbiota have essential roles in CRC occurrence and development. Most Gram-negative bacteria release outer membrane vesicles (OMVs) via outer membrane blistering, which contain specific cargoes which interact with host cells via intercellular communications, host immune regulation, and gut microbiota homeostasis. Studies have also shown that OMVs selectively cluster near tumor cells, thus cancer treatment strategies based on OMVs have attracted considerable research attention. However, little is known about the possible impact of gut microbiota OMVs in CRC pathophysiology. Therefore, in this review, we summarize the research progress on molecular composition and function of OMV, and review the microbial dysbiosis in CRC. We then focus on the potential role of gut microbiota OMVs in CRC. Finally, we examine the clinical potential of OMVs in CRC treatment, and their main advantages and challenges in tumor therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ran Meng
- Department of Gastroenterology, Affiliated Hospital of Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang, Jiangsu, China
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, School of Medicine, Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang, Jiangsu, China
| | - Minmin Zeng
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, School of Medicine, Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang, Jiangsu, China
| | - Ying Ji
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, School of Medicine, Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang, Jiangsu, China
| | - Xinxiang Huang
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, School of Medicine, Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang, Jiangsu, China
| | - Min Xu
- Department of Gastroenterology, Affiliated Hospital of Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang, Jiangsu, China
- Institute of Digestive Diseases, Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang, Jiangsu, China
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7
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Techawiwattanaboon T, Phanchamnan E, Iadsee N, Makjaroen J, Pisitkun T, Patarakul K. Proteomic profile of naturally released extracellular vesicles secreted from Leptospira interrogans serovar Pomona in response to temperature and osmotic stresses. Sci Rep 2023; 13:18601. [PMID: 37903905 PMCID: PMC10616267 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-023-45863-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/26/2023] [Accepted: 10/25/2023] [Indexed: 11/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Bacterial extracellular vesicles (EVs) are generally formed by pinching off outer membrane leaflets while simultaneously releasing multiple active molecules into the external environment. In this study, we aimed to identify the protein cargo of leptospiral EVs released from intact leptospires grown under three different conditions: EMJH medium at 30 °C, temperature shifted to 37 °C, and physiologic osmolarity (EMJH medium with 120 mM NaCl). The naturally released EVs observed under transmission electron microscopy were spherical in shape with an approximate diameter of 80-100 nm. Quantitative proteomics and bioinformatic analysis indicated that the EVs were formed primarily from the outer membrane and the cytoplasm. The main functional COG categories of proteins carried in leptospiral EVs might be involved in cell growth, survival and adaptation, and pathogenicity. Relative to their abundance in EVs grown in EMJH medium at 30 °C, 39 and 69 proteins exhibited significant changes in response to the temperature shift and the osmotic change, respectively. During exposure to both stresses, Leptospira secreted several multifunctional proteins via EVs, while preserving certain virulence proteins within whole cells. Therefore, leptospiral EVs may serve as a decoy structure for host responses, whereas some virulence factors necessary for direct interaction with the host environment are reserved in leptospiral cells. This knowledge will be useful for understanding the pathogenesis of leptospirosis and developing as one of vaccine platforms against leptospirosis in the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Teerasit Techawiwattanaboon
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Medicine, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok, Thailand
- Chula Vaccine Research Center (Chula VRC), Center of Excellence in Vaccine Research and Development, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok, Thailand
| | - Eakalak Phanchamnan
- Chula Vaccine Research Center (Chula VRC), Center of Excellence in Vaccine Research and Development, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok, Thailand
- Medical Microbiology, Interdisciplinary Program, Graduate School, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok, Thailand
| | - Nutta Iadsee
- Chula Vaccine Research Center (Chula VRC), Center of Excellence in Vaccine Research and Development, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok, Thailand
- Medical Microbiology, Interdisciplinary Program, Graduate School, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok, Thailand
| | - Jiradej Makjaroen
- Center of Excellence in Systems Biology, Faculty of Medicine, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok, Thailand
- Department of Transfusion Medicine and Clinical Microbiology, Faculty of Allied Health Sciences, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok, Thailand
| | - Trairak Pisitkun
- Center of Excellence in Systems Biology, Faculty of Medicine, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok, Thailand
| | - Kanitha Patarakul
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Medicine, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok, Thailand.
- Chula Vaccine Research Center (Chula VRC), Center of Excellence in Vaccine Research and Development, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok, Thailand.
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8
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Lakes JE, Fu X, Harvey BT, Neupane KR, Aryal SP, Ferrell JL, Flythe MD, Richards CI. Impact of nicotine and cotinine on macrophage inflammatory plasticity via vesicular modifications in gastrointestinal bacteria. Anaerobe 2023; 83:102787. [PMID: 37827238 PMCID: PMC10841519 DOI: 10.1016/j.anaerobe.2023.102787] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2023] [Revised: 09/26/2023] [Accepted: 10/03/2023] [Indexed: 10/14/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES This study aimed to elucidate mechanistic explanation(s) for compositional changes to enteric microbiota by determining the impacts of continuous nicotine/cotinine exposure on representative gastrointestinal bacteria and how these alterations impact innate immune cell plasticity. METHODS In vitro cultures of the gastrointestinal bacteria (Bacteroides fragilis 25285, Prevotella bryantii B14, and Acetoanaerobium sticklandii SR) were continuously exposed to nicotine or cotinine. Supernatant samples were collected for fermentation acid analysis. Vesicles were collected and analyzed for physiological changes in number, size, and total protein cargo. Cultured macrophages were stimulated to a tolerogenic phenotype, exposed to control or altered (nicotine or cotinine - exposed) vesicles, and inflammatory plasticity assessed via inflammatory cytokine production. RESULTS Nicotine/cotinine exposure differentially affected metabolism of all bacteria tested in a Gram (nicotine) and concentration-dependent (cotinine) manner. Physiological studies demonstrated changes in vesiculation number and protein cargo following nicotine/cotinine exposures. Continuous exposure to 1 μM nicotine and 10 μM cotinine concentrations reduced total protein cargo of Gram (-) - 25285 and B14 vesicles, while cotinine generally increased total protein in Gram (+) - SR vesicles. We found that theses physiological changes to the vesicles of 25285 and SR formed under nicotine and cotinine, respectively, challenged the plasticity of tolerogenic macrophages. Tolerogenic macrophages exposed to vesicles from 1 μM nicotine, and 5 or 10 μΜ cotinine cultures produced significantly less IL-12p70, TNFα, or KC/GRO, regardless of macrophage exposure to nicotine/cotinine. CONCLUSIONS Nicotine/cotinine exposure differentially alters bacterial metabolism and vesicle physiology, ultimately impacting the inflammatory response of tolerogenic macrophages.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jourdan E Lakes
- Department of Chemistry, College of Arts & Sciences, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY, USA.
| | - Xu Fu
- Department of Chemistry, College of Arts & Sciences, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY, USA.
| | - Brock T Harvey
- Department of Chemistry, College of Arts & Sciences, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY, USA.
| | - Khaga R Neupane
- Department of Chemistry, College of Arts & Sciences, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY, USA.
| | - Surya P Aryal
- Department of Chemistry, College of Arts & Sciences, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY, USA.
| | - Jessica L Ferrell
- USDA Agricultural Research Service Forage-Animal Production Research Unit, Lexington, KY, USA.
| | - Michael D Flythe
- USDA Agricultural Research Service Forage-Animal Production Research Unit, Lexington, KY, USA; Department of Animal and Food Sciences, College of Agriculture, Food and Environment, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY, USA.
| | - Christopher I Richards
- Department of Chemistry, College of Arts & Sciences, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY, USA.
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Gurunathan S, Kim JH. Bacterial extracellular vesicles: Emerging nanoplatforms for biomedical applications. Microb Pathog 2023; 183:106308. [PMID: 37595812 DOI: 10.1016/j.micpath.2023.106308] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/12/2023] [Revised: 08/13/2023] [Accepted: 08/14/2023] [Indexed: 08/20/2023]
Abstract
Bacterial extracellular vesicles (BEVs) are nanosized lipid bilayers generated from membranes that are filled with components derived from bacteria. BEVs are important for the physiology, pathogenicity, and interactions between bacteria and their hosts as well. BEVs represent an important mechanism of transport and interaction between cells. Recent advances in biomolecular nanotechnology have enabled the desired properties to be engineered on the surface of BEVs and decoration with desired and diverse biomolecules and nanoparticles, which have potential biomedical applications. BEVs have been the focus of various fields, including nanovaccines, therapeutic agents, and drug delivery vehicles. In this review, we delineate the fundamental aspects of BEVs, including their biogenesis, cargo composition, function, and interactions with host cells. We comprehensively summarize the factors influencing the biogenesis of BEVs. We further highlight the importance of the isolation, purification, and characterization of BEVs because they are essential processes for potential benefits related to host-microbe interactions. In addition, we address recent advancements in BEVs in biomedical applications. Finally, we provide conclusions and future perspectives as well as highlight the remaining challenges of BEVs for different biomedical applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sangiliyandi Gurunathan
- Department of Biotechnology, Rathinam College of Arts and Science, Rathinam Techzone Campus, Eachanari, Coimbatore, 641 021, Tamil Nadu, India.
| | - Jin-Hoi Kim
- Department of Stem Cell and Regenerative Biotechnology, Konkuk University, Seoul, 05029, Korea.
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Fordjour E, Bai Z, Li S, Li S, Sackey I, Yang Y, Liu CL. Improved Membrane Permeability via Hypervesiculation for In Situ Recovery of Lycopene in Escherichia coli. ACS Synth Biol 2023; 12:2725-2739. [PMID: 37607052 DOI: 10.1021/acssynbio.3c00306] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 08/24/2023]
Abstract
Lycopene biosynthesis is frequently hampered by downstream processing hugely due to its inability to be secreted out from the producing chassis. Engineering cell factories can resolve this issue by secreting this hydrophobic compound. A highly permeable E. coli strain was developed for a better release rate of lycopene. Specifically, the heterologous mevalonate pathway and crtEBI genes from Corynebacterium glutamicum were overexpressed in Escherichia coli BL21 (DE3) for lycopene synthesis. To ensure in situ lycopene production, murein lipoprotein, lipoprotein NlpI, inner membrane permease protein, and membrane-anchored protein in TolA-TolQ-TolR were deleted for improved membrane permeability. The final strain, LYC-8, produced 438.44 ± 8.11 and 136.94 ± 1.94 mg/L of extracellular and intracellular lycopene in fed-batch fermentation. Both proteomics and lipidomics analyses of secreted outer membrane vesicles were perfect indicators of hypervesiculation. Changes in the ratio of saturated fatty acids, unsaturated fatty acids, and cyclopropane fatty acids coupled with the branching and acyl chain lengths altered the membrane fatty acid composition. This ensured membrane fluidity and permeability for in situ lycopene release. The combinatorial deletion of these genes altered the cellular morphology. The structural and morphological changes in cell shape, size, and length were associated with changes in the mechanical strength of the cell envelope. The enhanced lycopene production and secretion mediated by improved membrane permeability established a cell lysis-free system for an efficient releasing rate and downstream processing, demonstrating the importance of vesicle-associated membrane permeability in efficient lycopene production.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eric Fordjour
- The Key Laboratory of Industrial Biotechnology, Ministry of Education, School of Biotechnology, Jiangnan University, Wuxi 214122, China
- National Engineering Research Center of Cereal Fermentation, and Food Biomanufacturing, Jiangnan University, Wuxi 214122, China
- Jiangsu Provincial Research Centre for Bioactive Product Processing Technology, Jiangnan University, Wuxi 214122, China
| | - Zhonghu Bai
- The Key Laboratory of Industrial Biotechnology, Ministry of Education, School of Biotechnology, Jiangnan University, Wuxi 214122, China
- National Engineering Research Center of Cereal Fermentation, and Food Biomanufacturing, Jiangnan University, Wuxi 214122, China
- Jiangsu Provincial Research Centre for Bioactive Product Processing Technology, Jiangnan University, Wuxi 214122, China
| | - Sihan Li
- The Key Laboratory of Industrial Biotechnology, Ministry of Education, School of Biotechnology, Jiangnan University, Wuxi 214122, China
- National Engineering Research Center of Cereal Fermentation, and Food Biomanufacturing, Jiangnan University, Wuxi 214122, China
- Jiangsu Provincial Research Centre for Bioactive Product Processing Technology, Jiangnan University, Wuxi 214122, China
| | - Shijie Li
- The Key Laboratory of Industrial Biotechnology, Ministry of Education, School of Biotechnology, Jiangnan University, Wuxi 214122, China
- National Engineering Research Center of Cereal Fermentation, and Food Biomanufacturing, Jiangnan University, Wuxi 214122, China
- Jiangsu Provincial Research Centre for Bioactive Product Processing Technology, Jiangnan University, Wuxi 214122, China
| | - Isaac Sackey
- Department of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Biosciences, University for Development Studies, P.O. Box TL1350, NT-0272-1946 Tamale, Ghana
| | - Yankun Yang
- The Key Laboratory of Industrial Biotechnology, Ministry of Education, School of Biotechnology, Jiangnan University, Wuxi 214122, China
- National Engineering Research Center of Cereal Fermentation, and Food Biomanufacturing, Jiangnan University, Wuxi 214122, China
- Jiangsu Provincial Research Centre for Bioactive Product Processing Technology, Jiangnan University, Wuxi 214122, China
| | - Chun-Li Liu
- The Key Laboratory of Industrial Biotechnology, Ministry of Education, School of Biotechnology, Jiangnan University, Wuxi 214122, China
- National Engineering Research Center of Cereal Fermentation, and Food Biomanufacturing, Jiangnan University, Wuxi 214122, China
- Jiangsu Provincial Research Centre for Bioactive Product Processing Technology, Jiangnan University, Wuxi 214122, China
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11
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Fang Y, Yang G, Wu X, Qin B, Xie Y, Zhuang L. Sub-MIC antibiotics affect microbial ferrihydrite reduction by extracellular membrane vesicles. JOURNAL OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS 2023; 458:131876. [PMID: 37379597 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2023.131876] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/06/2023] [Revised: 06/08/2023] [Accepted: 06/14/2023] [Indexed: 06/30/2023]
Abstract
Environmental concentrations of antibiotics, usually below MIC, have significant biological effects on bacterial cells. Sub-MIC antibiotics exposure induces bacteria to produce outer membrane vesicles (OMVs). Recently, OMVs is discovered as a novel pathway for dissimilatory iron reducing bacteria (DIRB) to mediate extracellular electron transfer (EET). Whether and how the antibiotic-induced OMVs modulate iron oxides reduction by DIRB have not been studied. This study showed the sub-MIC antibiotics (ampicillin or ciprofloxacin) increased OMVs secretion in Geobacter sulfurreducens, and the antibiotic-induced OMVs contained more redox active cytochromes facilitating iron oxides reduction, especially for the ciprofloxacin-induced OMVs. Deduced from a combination of electron microscopy and proteomic analysis, the influence of ciprofloxacin on SOS response triggered prophage induction and led to the formation of outer-inner membrane vesicles (OIMVs) in, which was a first report in Geobacter species. While ampicillin disrupting cell membrane integrity resulted in more formation of classic OMVs from outer membrane blebbing. The results indicated that the different structure and composition of vesicles were responsible for the antibiotic-dependent regulation on iron oxides reduction. This newly identified regulation on EET-mediated redox reactions by sub-MIC antibiotics expands our knowledge about the impact of antibiotics on microbial processes or "non-target" organisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yanlun Fang
- Guangdong Key Laboratory of Environmental Pollution and Health, School of Environment, Jinan University, Guangzhou 510632, China
| | - Guiqin Yang
- Guangdong Key Laboratory of Environmental Pollution and Health, School of Environment, Jinan University, Guangzhou 510632, China.
| | - Xian Wu
- Guangdong Key Laboratory of Environmental Pollution and Health, School of Environment, Jinan University, Guangzhou 510632, China
| | - Baoli Qin
- Guangdong Key Laboratory of Environmental Pollution and Health, School of Environment, Jinan University, Guangzhou 510632, China
| | - Yiqiao Xie
- Guangdong Key Laboratory of Environmental Pollution and Health, School of Environment, Jinan University, Guangzhou 510632, China
| | - Li Zhuang
- Guangdong Key Laboratory of Environmental Pollution and Health, School of Environment, Jinan University, Guangzhou 510632, China.
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12
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von Beck T, Navarrete K, Arce NA, Gao M, Dale GA, Davis-Gardner ME, Floyd K, Mena Hernandez L, Mullick N, Vanderheiden A, Skountzou I, Kuchipudi SV, Saravanan R, Li R, Skolnick J, Suthar MS, Jacob J. A wild boar cathelicidin peptide derivative inhibits severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 and its drifted variants. Sci Rep 2023; 13:14650. [PMID: 37670110 PMCID: PMC10480232 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-023-41850-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2022] [Accepted: 08/31/2023] [Indexed: 09/07/2023] Open
Abstract
The severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) poses a clear threat to humanity. It has infected over 200 million and killed 4 million people worldwide, and infections continue with no end in sight. To control the pandemic, multiple effective vaccines have been developed, and global vaccinations are in progress. However, the virus continues to mutate. Even when full vaccine coverage is achieved, vaccine-resistant mutants will likely emerge, thus requiring new annual vaccines against drifted variants analogous to influenza. A complimentary solution to this problem could be developing antiviral drugs that inhibit SARS CoV-2 and its drifted variants. Host defense peptides represent a potential source for such an antiviral as they possess broad antimicrobial activity and significant diversity across species. We screened the cathelicidin family of peptides from 16 different species for antiviral activity and identified a wild boar peptide derivative that inhibits SARS CoV-2. This peptide, which we named Yongshi and means warrior in Mandarin, acts as a viral entry inhibitor. Following the binding of SARS-CoV-2 to its receptor, the spike protein is cleaved, and heptad repeats 1 and 2 multimerize to form the fusion complex that enables the virion to enter the cell. A deep learning-based protein sequence comparison algorithm and molecular modeling suggest that Yongshi acts as a mimetic to the heptad repeats of the virus, thereby disrupting the fusion process. Experimental data confirm the binding of Yongshi to the heptad repeat 1 with a fourfold higher affinity than heptad repeat 2 of SARS-CoV-2. Yongshi also binds to the heptad repeat 1 of SARS-CoV-1 and MERS-CoV. Interestingly, it inhibits all drifted variants of SARS CoV-2 that we tested, including the alpha, beta, gamma, delta, kappa and omicron variants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Troy von Beck
- Emory Vaccine Center, Emory National Primate Research Center, Emory University, 954 Gatewood Road, Atlanta, GA, 30329, USA
| | - Karla Navarrete
- Emory Vaccine Center, Emory National Primate Research Center, Emory University, 954 Gatewood Road, Atlanta, GA, 30329, USA
| | - Nicholas A Arce
- Department of Pediatrics, Aflac Cancer and Blood Disorders Center, Children's Healthcare of Atlanta, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA, 30322, USA
| | - Mu Gao
- Center for the Study of Systems Biology, School of Biological Sciences, Georgia Institute of Technology, 950 Atlantic Drive, NW, Atlanta, GA, 30332, USA
| | - Gordon A Dale
- Emory Vaccine Center, Emory National Primate Research Center, Emory University, 954 Gatewood Road, Atlanta, GA, 30329, USA
| | - Meredith E Davis-Gardner
- Emory Vaccine Center, Emory National Primate Research Center, Emory University, 954 Gatewood Road, Atlanta, GA, 30329, USA
| | - Katharine Floyd
- Emory Vaccine Center, Emory National Primate Research Center, Emory University, 954 Gatewood Road, Atlanta, GA, 30329, USA
| | - Luis Mena Hernandez
- Emory Vaccine Center, Emory National Primate Research Center, Emory University, 954 Gatewood Road, Atlanta, GA, 30329, USA
| | - Nikita Mullick
- Emory Vaccine Center, Emory National Primate Research Center, Emory University, 954 Gatewood Road, Atlanta, GA, 30329, USA
| | - Abigail Vanderheiden
- Emory Vaccine Center, Emory National Primate Research Center, Emory University, 954 Gatewood Road, Atlanta, GA, 30329, USA
| | - Ioanna Skountzou
- Emory Vaccine Center, Emory National Primate Research Center, Emory University, 954 Gatewood Road, Atlanta, GA, 30329, USA
| | - Suresh V Kuchipudi
- Animal Diagnostic Laboratory, Department of Veterinary and Biomedical Sciences, The Center for Infectious Disease Dynamics, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, 16802, USA
| | - Rathi Saravanan
- Centre of Regulatory Excellence (CoRE), Duke-NUS Medical School, Level 6, 8 College Road, Singapore, 169857, Singapore
| | - Renhao Li
- Department of Pediatrics, Aflac Cancer and Blood Disorders Center, Children's Healthcare of Atlanta, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA, 30322, USA
| | - Jeffrey Skolnick
- Center for the Study of Systems Biology, School of Biological Sciences, Georgia Institute of Technology, 950 Atlantic Drive, NW, Atlanta, GA, 30332, USA
| | - Mehul S Suthar
- Emory Vaccine Center, Emory National Primate Research Center, Emory University, 954 Gatewood Road, Atlanta, GA, 30329, USA
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Pediatrics, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA, 30322, USA
| | - Joshy Jacob
- Emory Vaccine Center, Emory National Primate Research Center, Emory University, 954 Gatewood Road, Atlanta, GA, 30329, USA.
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13
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Sun B, Sawant H, Borthakur A, Bihl JC. Emerging therapeutic role of gut microbial extracellular vesicles in neurological disorders. Front Neurosci 2023; 17:1241418. [PMID: 37621715 PMCID: PMC10445154 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2023.1241418] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/16/2023] [Accepted: 07/21/2023] [Indexed: 08/26/2023] Open
Abstract
Extracellular vesicles (EVs) serve as cell-to-cell and inter-organ communicators by conveying proteins and nucleic acids with regulatory functions. Emerging evidence shows that gut microbial-released EVs play a pivotal role in the gut-brain axis, bidirectional communication, and crosstalk between the gut and the brain. Increasing pre-clinical and clinical evidence suggests that gut bacteria-released EVs are capable of eliciting distinct signaling to the brain with the ability to cross the blood-brain barrier, exerting regulatory function on brain cells such as neurons, astrocytes, and microglia, via their abundant and diversified protein and nucleic acid cargo. Conversely, EVs derived from certain species of bacteria, particularly from gut commensals with probiotic properties, have recently been shown to confer distinct therapeutic effects on various neurological disorders. Thus, gut bacterial EVs may be both a cause of and therapy for neuropathological complications. This review marshals the basic, clinical, and translational studies that significantly contributed to our up-to-date knowledge of the therapeutic potential of gut microbial-derived EVs in treating neurological disorders, including strokes, Alzheimer's and Parkinson's disease, and dementia. The review also discusses the newer insights in recent studies focused on developing superior therapeutic microbial EVs via genetic manipulation and/or dietary intervention.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bowen Sun
- Departments of Biomedical Sciences, Joan C. Edwards School of Medicine, Marshall University, Huntington, WV, United States
- Department of Neurosurgery, The First Affiliated Hospital, Harbin Medical University, Harbin, Heilongjiang, China
| | - Harshal Sawant
- Departments of Biomedical Sciences, Joan C. Edwards School of Medicine, Marshall University, Huntington, WV, United States
| | - Alip Borthakur
- Departments of Clinical and Translational Sciences, Joan C. Edwards School of Medicine, Marshall University, Huntington, WV, United States
| | - Ji Chen Bihl
- Departments of Biomedical Sciences, Joan C. Edwards School of Medicine, Marshall University, Huntington, WV, United States
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14
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Fan X, Zheng S, Chen C, Lin L, Wang H, Shen Y, Pan Y, Li C. Sialidase facilitates Porphyromonas gingivalis immune evasion by reducing M1 polarization, antigen presentation, and phagocytosis of infected macrophages. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2023; 13:1173899. [PMID: 37325520 PMCID: PMC10266273 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2023.1173899] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/25/2023] [Accepted: 05/15/2023] [Indexed: 06/17/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Porphyromonas gingivalis (P. gingivalis), a major pathogen of periodontitis, can evade host immune defenses. Previously, we found that P. gingivalis W83 sialidase gene mutant strain (ΔPG0352) was more easily cleared by macrophages. The aims of this study were to investigate the effects of sialidase in P. gingivalis on the polarization, antigen presentation, and phagocytosis of infected macrophages and to clarify the mechanism of P. gingivalis immune evasion. Methods Human monocytes U937 were differentiated to macrophages and infected with P. gingivalis W83, ΔPG0352, comΔPG0352, and Escherichia coli (E. coli). The phagocytosis of macrophages was observed by transmission electron microscopy and flow cytometry. ELISA or Griess reaction were used to examine the levels of interleukin-12 (IL-12), inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) and interleukin-10 (IL-10), and the expressions of CD68, CD80 and CD206 were determined by flow cytometry. The expression of major histocompatibility complex-II (MHC-II) was detected by immunofluorescence. A rat periodontitis model was established to determine the M1 and M2 polarization of macrophages. Results Compare with P. gingivalis W83, ΔPG0352 increased the levels of IL-12, iNOS, CD80, and MHC-II and inhibited the levels of IL-10 and CD206. Macrophages phagocytosed 75.4% of ΔPG0352 and 59.5% of P. gingivalis W83. In the rat periodontitis model, the levels of M1 and M2 macrophages in P. gingivalis W83 group were both higher than those in ΔPG0352 group, while the ratio of M1/M2 was higher in the ΔPG0352 group. Alveolar bone absorption was lower in ΔPG0352 group. Conclusion Sialidase facilitates P. gingivalis immune evasion by reducing M1 polarization, antigen presentation, and phagocytosis of infected macrophages.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaomiao Fan
- Department of Periodontology, School and Hospital of Stomatology, China Medical University, Liaoning Provincial Key Laboratory of Oral Disease, Shenyang, Liaoning, China
- Department of Periodontics, Affiliated Stomatology Hospital of Guangzhou Medical University, Guangdong Engineering Research Center of Oral Restoration and Reconstruction, Guangzhou Key Laboratory of Basic and Applied Research of Oral Regenerative Medicine, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
| | - Shaowen Zheng
- Department of Periodontology, School and Hospital of Stomatology, China Medical University, Liaoning Provincial Key Laboratory of Oral Disease, Shenyang, Liaoning, China
| | - Chen Chen
- Department of Periodontology, School and Hospital of Stomatology, China Medical University, Liaoning Provincial Key Laboratory of Oral Disease, Shenyang, Liaoning, China
| | - Li Lin
- Department of Periodontology, School and Hospital of Stomatology, China Medical University, Liaoning Provincial Key Laboratory of Oral Disease, Shenyang, Liaoning, China
| | - Hongyan Wang
- Department of Periodontology, School and Hospital of Stomatology, China Medical University, Liaoning Provincial Key Laboratory of Oral Disease, Shenyang, Liaoning, China
| | - Yuqin Shen
- Department of Periodontics, Affiliated Stomatology Hospital of Guangzhou Medical University, Guangdong Engineering Research Center of Oral Restoration and Reconstruction, Guangzhou Key Laboratory of Basic and Applied Research of Oral Regenerative Medicine, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
| | - Yaping Pan
- Department of Periodontology, School and Hospital of Stomatology, China Medical University, Liaoning Provincial Key Laboratory of Oral Disease, Shenyang, Liaoning, China
| | - Chen Li
- Department of Periodontology, School and Hospital of Stomatology, China Medical University, Liaoning Provincial Key Laboratory of Oral Disease, Shenyang, Liaoning, China
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15
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Wu J, Ma Y, Chen Y. Extracellular vesicles and COPD: foe or friend? J Nanobiotechnology 2023; 21:147. [PMID: 37147634 PMCID: PMC10161449 DOI: 10.1186/s12951-023-01911-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/03/2022] [Accepted: 04/25/2023] [Indexed: 05/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) is a chronic inflammatory airway disease characterized by progressive airflow limitation. The complex biological processes of COPD include protein hydrolysis tissue remodeling, innate immune inflammation, disturbed host-pathogen response, abnormal cellular phenotype conversion, and cellular senescence. Extracellular vesicles (EVs) (including apoptotic vesicles, microvesicles and exosomes), are released by almost all cell types and can be found in a variety of body fluids including blood, sputum and urine. EVs are key mediators in cell-cell communication and can be used by using their bioactive substances (DNA, RNA, miRNA, proteins and other metabolites) to enable cells in adjacent and distant tissues to perform a wide variety of functions, which in turn affect the physiological and pathological functions of the body. Thus, EVs is expected to play an important role in the pathogenesis of COPD, which in turn affects its acute exacerbations and may serve as a diagnostic marker for it. Furthermore, recent therapeutic approaches and advances have introduced EVs into the treatment of COPD, such as the modification of EVs into novel drug delivery vehicles. Here, we discuss the role of EVs from cells of different origins in the pathogenesis of COPD and explore their possible use as biomarkers in diagnosis, and finally describe their role in therapy and future prospects for their application. Graphical Abstract.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jiankang Wu
- Department of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, The Second Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, 139 Middle Renmin Road, Changsha, 410011, Hunan, China
| | - Yiming Ma
- Department of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, The Second Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, 139 Middle Renmin Road, Changsha, 410011, Hunan, China.
| | - Yan Chen
- Department of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, The Second Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, 139 Middle Renmin Road, Changsha, 410011, Hunan, China.
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16
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Palacios E, Lobos-González L, Guerrero S, Kogan MJ, Shao B, Heinecke JW, Quest AFG, Leyton L, Valenzuela-Valderrama M. Helicobacter pylori outer membrane vesicles induce astrocyte reactivity through nuclear factor-κappa B activation and cause neuronal damage in vivo in a murine model. J Neuroinflammation 2023; 20:66. [PMID: 36895046 PMCID: PMC9996972 DOI: 10.1186/s12974-023-02728-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/07/2022] [Accepted: 02/10/2023] [Indexed: 03/11/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Helicobacter pylori (Hp) infects the stomach of 50% of the world's population. Importantly, chronic infection by this bacterium correlates with the appearance of several extra-gastric pathologies, including neurodegenerative diseases. In such conditions, brain astrocytes become reactive and neurotoxic. However, it is still unclear whether this highly prevalent bacterium or the nanosized outer membrane vesicles (OMVs) they produce, can reach the brain, thus affecting neurons/astrocytes. Here, we evaluated the effects of Hp OMVs on astrocytes and neurons in vivo and in vitro. METHODS Purified OMVs were characterized by mass spectrometry (MS/MS). Labeled OMVs were administered orally or injected into the mouse tail vein to study OMV-brain distribution. By immunofluorescence of tissue samples, we evaluated: GFAP (astrocytes), βIII tubulin (neurons), and urease (OMVs). The in vitro effect of OMVs in astrocytes was assessed by monitoring NF-κB activation, expression of reactivity markers, cytokines in astrocyte-conditioned medium (ACM), and neuronal cell viability. RESULTS Urease and GroEL were prominent proteins in OMVs. Urease (OMVs) was present in the mouse brain and its detection coincided with astrocyte reactivity and neuronal damage. In vitro, OMVs induced astrocyte reactivity by increasing the intermediate filament proteins GFAP and vimentin, the plasma membrane αVβ3 integrin, and the hemichannel connexin 43. OMVs also produced neurotoxic factors and promoted the release of IFNγ in a manner dependent on the activation of the transcription factor NF-κB. Surface antigens on reactive astrocytes, as well as secreted factors in response to OMVs, were shown to inhibit neurite outgrowth and damage neurons. CONCLUSIONS OMVs administered orally or injected into the mouse bloodstream reach the brain, altering astrocyte function and promoting neuronal damage in vivo. The effects of OMVs on astrocytes were confirmed in vitro and shown to be NF-κB-dependent. These findings suggest that Hp could trigger systemic effects by releasing nanosized vesicles that cross epithelial barriers and access the CNS, thus altering brain cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Esteban Palacios
- Laboratorio de Microbiología Celular, Instituto de Investigación y Postgrado, Facultad de Ciencias de La Salud, Universidad Central de Chile, 8330546, Santiago, Chile.,Laboratory of Cellular Communication, Center for Studies On Exercise Metabolism and Cancer (CEMC), Institute of Biomedical Sciences (ICBM), Facultad de Medicina, Universidad de Chile, 8380453, Santiago, Chile.,Advanced Center for Chronic Diseases (ACCDiS), Facultad de Ciencias Químicas y Farmacéuticas, Universidad de Chile, 8380494, Santiago, Chile
| | - Lorena Lobos-González
- Advanced Center for Chronic Diseases (ACCDiS), Facultad de Ciencias Químicas y Farmacéuticas, Universidad de Chile, 8380494, Santiago, Chile.,Centro de Medicina Regenerativa, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad del Desarrollo-Clínica Alemana, 7590943, Santiago, Chile
| | - Simón Guerrero
- Advanced Center for Chronic Diseases (ACCDiS), Facultad de Ciencias Químicas y Farmacéuticas, Universidad de Chile, 8380494, Santiago, Chile.,Departamento de Química Farmacológica y Toxicológica, Facultad de Ciencias Químicas y Farmacéuticas, Universidad de Chile, 8380494, Santiago, Chile.,Facultad de Medicina, Universidad de Atacama, 153601, Copiapó, Chile
| | - Marcelo J Kogan
- Advanced Center for Chronic Diseases (ACCDiS), Facultad de Ciencias Químicas y Farmacéuticas, Universidad de Chile, 8380494, Santiago, Chile.,Departamento de Química Farmacológica y Toxicológica, Facultad de Ciencias Químicas y Farmacéuticas, Universidad de Chile, 8380494, Santiago, Chile
| | - Baohai Shao
- Division of Metabolism, Endocrinology and Nutrition, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, 98195-8055, USA
| | - Jay W Heinecke
- Division of Metabolism, Endocrinology and Nutrition, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, 98195-8055, USA
| | - Andrew F G Quest
- Laboratory of Cellular Communication, Center for Studies On Exercise Metabolism and Cancer (CEMC), Institute of Biomedical Sciences (ICBM), Facultad de Medicina, Universidad de Chile, 8380453, Santiago, Chile.,Advanced Center for Chronic Diseases (ACCDiS), Facultad de Ciencias Químicas y Farmacéuticas, Universidad de Chile, 8380494, Santiago, Chile
| | - Lisette Leyton
- Laboratory of Cellular Communication, Center for Studies On Exercise Metabolism and Cancer (CEMC), Institute of Biomedical Sciences (ICBM), Facultad de Medicina, Universidad de Chile, 8380453, Santiago, Chile. .,Advanced Center for Chronic Diseases (ACCDiS), Facultad de Ciencias Químicas y Farmacéuticas, Universidad de Chile, 8380494, Santiago, Chile.
| | - Manuel Valenzuela-Valderrama
- Laboratorio de Microbiología Celular, Instituto de Investigación y Postgrado, Facultad de Ciencias de La Salud, Universidad Central de Chile, 8330546, Santiago, Chile. .,Advanced Center for Chronic Diseases (ACCDiS), Facultad de Ciencias Químicas y Farmacéuticas, Universidad de Chile, 8380494, Santiago, Chile.
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17
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Niu G, Jian T, Gai Y, Chen J. Microbiota and plant-derived vesicles that serve as therapeutic agents and delivery carriers to regulate metabolic syndrome. Adv Drug Deliv Rev 2023; 196:114774. [PMID: 36906231 DOI: 10.1016/j.addr.2023.114774] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2022] [Revised: 03/02/2023] [Accepted: 03/05/2023] [Indexed: 03/13/2023]
Abstract
The gut is a fundamental organ in controlling human health. Recently, researches showed that substances in the intestine can alter the course of many diseases through the intestinal epithelium, especially intestinal flora and exogenously ingested plant vesicles that can be transported over long distances to various organs. This article reviews the current knowledge on extracellular vesicles in modulating gut homeostasis, inflammatory response and numerous metabolic disease that share obesity as a co-morbidity. These complex systemic diseases that are difficult to cure, but can be managed by some bacterial and plant vesicles. Vesicles, due to their digestive stability and modifiable properties, have emerged as novel and targeted drug delivery vehicles for effective treatment of metabolic diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guanting Niu
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory for the Research and Utilization of Plant Resources, Institute of Botany, Jiangsu Province and Chinese Academy of Sciences, Nanjing 210014, China
| | - Tunyu Jian
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory for the Research and Utilization of Plant Resources, Institute of Botany, Jiangsu Province and Chinese Academy of Sciences, Nanjing 210014, China
| | - Yanan Gai
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory for the Research and Utilization of Plant Resources, Institute of Botany, Jiangsu Province and Chinese Academy of Sciences, Nanjing 210014, China
| | - Jian Chen
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory for the Research and Utilization of Plant Resources, Institute of Botany, Jiangsu Province and Chinese Academy of Sciences, Nanjing 210014, China.
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18
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Shi R, Dong Z, Ma C, Wu R, Lv R, Liu S, Ren Y, Liu Z, van der Mei HC, Busscher HJ, Liu J. High-Yield, Magnetic Harvesting of Extracellular Outer-Membrane Vesicles from Escherichia coli. SMALL (WEINHEIM AN DER BERGSTRASSE, GERMANY) 2022; 18:e2204350. [PMID: 36269872 DOI: 10.1002/smll.202204350] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/14/2022] [Revised: 09/08/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
Extracellular outer-membrane vesicles (OMVs) are attractive for use as drug nanocarriers, because of their high biocompatibility and ability to enter cells. However, widespread use is hampered by low yields. Here, a high-yield method for magnetic harvesting of OMVs from Escherichia coli is described. To this end, E. coli are grown in the presence of magnetic iron-oxide nanoparticles (MNPs). Uptake of MNPs by E. coli is low and does not increase secretion of OMVs. Uptake of MNPs can be enhanced through PEGylation of MNPs. E. coli growth in the presence of PEGylated MNPs increases bacterial MNP-uptake and OMV-secretion, accompanied by upregulation of genes involved in OMV-secretion. OMVs containing MNPs can be magnetically harvested at 60-fold higher yields than achieved by ultracentrifugation. Functionally, magnetically-harvested OMVs and OMVs harvested by ultracentrifugation are both taken-up in similar numbers by bacteria. Uniquely, in an applied magnetic field, magnetically-harvested OMVs with MNPs accumulate over the entire depth of an infectious biofilm. OMVs harvested by ultracentrifugation without MNPs only accumulate near the biofilm surface. In conclusion, PEGylation of MNPs is essential for their uptake in E. coli and yields magnetic OMVs allowing high-yield magnetic-harvesting. Moreover, magnetic OMVs can be magnetically targeted to a cargo delivery site in the human body.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rui Shi
- Institute of Functional Nano and Soft Materials (FUNSOM), Jiangsu Key Laboratory for Carbon-Based Functional Materials and Devices, Soochow University, 199 Ren'ai Rd, Suzhou, Jiangsu, 215123, P. R. China
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Groningen and University Medical Center Groningen, Antonius Deusinglaan 1, Groningen, 9713 AV, The Netherlands
| | - Ziliang Dong
- Institute of Functional Nano and Soft Materials (FUNSOM), Jiangsu Key Laboratory for Carbon-Based Functional Materials and Devices, Soochow University, 199 Ren'ai Rd, Suzhou, Jiangsu, 215123, P. R. China
| | - Chongqing Ma
- Institute of Functional Nano and Soft Materials (FUNSOM), Jiangsu Key Laboratory for Carbon-Based Functional Materials and Devices, Soochow University, 199 Ren'ai Rd, Suzhou, Jiangsu, 215123, P. R. China
| | - Renfei Wu
- Institute of Functional Nano and Soft Materials (FUNSOM), Jiangsu Key Laboratory for Carbon-Based Functional Materials and Devices, Soochow University, 199 Ren'ai Rd, Suzhou, Jiangsu, 215123, P. R. China
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Groningen and University Medical Center Groningen, Antonius Deusinglaan 1, Groningen, 9713 AV, The Netherlands
| | - Rui Lv
- Institute of Functional Nano and Soft Materials (FUNSOM), Jiangsu Key Laboratory for Carbon-Based Functional Materials and Devices, Soochow University, 199 Ren'ai Rd, Suzhou, Jiangsu, 215123, P. R. China
| | - Sidi Liu
- Institute of Functional Nano and Soft Materials (FUNSOM), Jiangsu Key Laboratory for Carbon-Based Functional Materials and Devices, Soochow University, 199 Ren'ai Rd, Suzhou, Jiangsu, 215123, P. R. China
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Groningen and University Medical Center Groningen, Antonius Deusinglaan 1, Groningen, 9713 AV, The Netherlands
| | - Yijin Ren
- Department of Orthodontics, University of Groningen and University Medical Center of Groningen, Hanzeplein 1, Groningen, 9700 RB, The Netherlands
| | - Zhuang Liu
- Institute of Functional Nano and Soft Materials (FUNSOM), Jiangsu Key Laboratory for Carbon-Based Functional Materials and Devices, Soochow University, 199 Ren'ai Rd, Suzhou, Jiangsu, 215123, P. R. China
| | - Henny C van der Mei
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Groningen and University Medical Center Groningen, Antonius Deusinglaan 1, Groningen, 9713 AV, The Netherlands
| | - Henk J Busscher
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Groningen and University Medical Center Groningen, Antonius Deusinglaan 1, Groningen, 9713 AV, The Netherlands
| | - Jian Liu
- Institute of Functional Nano and Soft Materials (FUNSOM), Jiangsu Key Laboratory for Carbon-Based Functional Materials and Devices, Soochow University, 199 Ren'ai Rd, Suzhou, Jiangsu, 215123, P. R. China
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19
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Hosseini-Giv N, Basas A, Hicks C, El-Omar E, El-Assaad F, Hosseini-Beheshti E. Bacterial extracellular vesicles and their novel therapeutic applications in health and cancer. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2022; 12:962216. [PMID: 36439225 PMCID: PMC9691856 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2022.962216] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/14/2022] [Accepted: 10/20/2022] [Indexed: 10/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Bacterial cells communicate with host cells and other bacteria through the release of membrane vesicles known as bacterial extracellular vesicles (BEV). BEV are established mediators of intracellular signaling, stress tolerance, horizontal gene transfer, immune stimulation and pathogenicity. Both Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria produce extracellular vesicles through different mechanisms based on cell structure. BEV contain and transfer different types of cargo such as nucleic acids, proteins and lipids, which are used to interact with and affect host cells such as cytotoxicity and immunomodulation. The role of these membranous microvesicles in host communication, intra- and inter-species cell interaction and signaling, and contribution to various diseases have been well demonstrated. Due to their structure, these vesicles can be easily engineered to be utilized for clinical application, as shown with its role in vaccine therapy, and could be used as a diagnostic and cancer drug delivery tool in the future. However, like other novel therapeutic approaches, further investigation and standardization is imperative for BEV to become a routine vector or a conventional treatment method.
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Affiliation(s)
- Niloufar Hosseini-Giv
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, Ferdowsi University of Mashhad, Mashhad, Iran
| | - Alyza Basas
- UNSW Microbiome Research Centre, St George and Sutherland Clinical Campuses, School of Clinical Medicine, Faculty of Medicine and Health, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW, Australia
| | - Chloe Hicks
- UNSW Microbiome Research Centre, St George and Sutherland Clinical Campuses, School of Clinical Medicine, Faculty of Medicine and Health, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW, Australia
| | - Emad El-Omar
- UNSW Microbiome Research Centre, St George and Sutherland Clinical Campuses, School of Clinical Medicine, Faculty of Medicine and Health, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW, Australia
| | - Fatima El-Assaad
- UNSW Microbiome Research Centre, St George and Sutherland Clinical Campuses, School of Clinical Medicine, Faculty of Medicine and Health, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW, Australia
| | - Elham Hosseini-Beheshti
- School of Medical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine and Health, University of Sydney, Camperdown, NSW, Australia
- The Sydney Nano Institute, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia
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20
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Srivastava P, Kim KS. Membrane Vesicles Derived from Gut Microbiota and Probiotics: Cutting-Edge Therapeutic Approaches for Multidrug-Resistant Superbugs Linked to Neurological Anomalies. Pharmaceutics 2022; 14:2370. [PMID: 36365188 PMCID: PMC9692612 DOI: 10.3390/pharmaceutics14112370] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/22/2022] [Revised: 11/01/2022] [Accepted: 11/02/2022] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Multidrug-resistant (MDR) superbugs can breach the blood-brain barrier (BBB), leading to a continuous barrage of pro-inflammatory modulators and induction of severe infection-related pathologies, including meningitis and brain abscess. Both broad-spectrum or species-specific antibiotics (β-lactamase inhibitors, polymyxins, vancomycin, meropenem, plazomicin, and sarecycline) and biocompatible poly (lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA) nanoparticles have been used to treat these infections. However, new therapeutic platforms with a broad impact that do not exert off-target deleterious effects are needed. Membrane vesicles or extracellular vesicles (EVs) are lipid bilayer-enclosed particles with therapeutic potential owing to their ability to circumvent BBB constraints. Bacteria-derived EVs (bEVs) from gut microbiota are efficient transporters that can penetrate the central nervous system. In fact, bEVs can be remodeled via surface modification and CRISPR/Cas editing and, thus, represent a novel platform for conferring protection against infections breaching the BBB. Here, we discuss the latest scientific research related to gut microbiota- and probiotic-derived bEVs, and their therapeutic modifications, in terms of regulating neurotransmitters and inhibiting quorum sensing, for the treatment of neurodegenerative diseases, such as Parkinson's and Alzheimer's diseases. We also emphasize the benefits of probiotic-derived bEVs to human health and propose a novel direction for the development of innovative heterologous expression systems to combat BBB-crossing pathogens.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Kwang-sun Kim
- Department of Chemistry and Chemistry Institute of Functional Materials, Pusan National University, Busan 46241, Korea
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21
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Michel LV, Gaborski T. Outer membrane vesicles as molecular biomarkers for Gram-negative sepsis: Taking advantage of nature's perfect packages. J Biol Chem 2022; 298:102483. [PMID: 36108741 PMCID: PMC9576880 DOI: 10.1016/j.jbc.2022.102483] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/19/2022] [Revised: 07/13/2022] [Accepted: 09/08/2022] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Sepsis is an often life-threatening response to infection, occurring when host proinflammatory immune responses become abnormally elevated and dysregulated. To diagnose sepsis, the patient must have a confirmed or predicted infection, as well as other symptoms associated with the pathophysiology of sepsis. However, a recent study found that a specific causal organism could not be determined in the majority (70.1%) of sepsis cases, likely due to aggressive antibiotics or localized infections. The timing of a patient's sepsis diagnosis is often predictive of their clinical outcome, underlining the need for a more definitive molecular diagnostic test. Here, we outline the advantages and challenges to using bacterial outer membrane vesicles (OMVs), nanoscale spherical buds derived from the outer membrane of Gram-negative bacteria, as a diagnostic biomarker for Gram-negative sepsis. Advantages include OMV abundance, their robustness in the presence of antibiotics, and their unique features derived from their parent cell that could allow for differentiation between bacterial species. Challenges include the rigorous purification methods required to isolate OMVs from complex biofluids and the additional need to separate OMVs from similarly sized extracellular vesicles, which can share physical properties with OMVs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lea Vacca Michel
- School of Chemistry and Materials Science, Rochester Institute of Technology, Rochester, New York, USA.
| | - Thomas Gaborski
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Rochester Institute of Technology, Rochester, New York, USA
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22
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Rudnicka M, Noszczyńska M, Malicka M, Kasperkiewicz K, Pawlik M, Piotrowska-Seget Z. Outer Membrane Vesicles as Mediators of Plant-Bacterial Interactions. Front Microbiol 2022; 13:902181. [PMID: 35722319 PMCID: PMC9198584 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2022.902181] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2022] [Accepted: 05/02/2022] [Indexed: 12/05/2022] Open
Abstract
Plants have co-evolved with diverse microorganisms that have developed different mechanisms of direct and indirect interactions with their host. Recently, greater attention has been paid to a direct "message" delivery pathway from bacteria to plants, mediated by the outer membrane vesicles (OMVs). OMVs produced by Gram-negative bacteria play significant roles in multiple interactions with other bacteria within the same community, the environment, and colonized hosts. The combined forces of innovative technologies and experience in the area of plant-bacterial interactions have put pressure on a detailed examination of the OMVs composition, the routes of their delivery to plant cells, and their significance in pathogenesis, protection, and plant growth promotion. This review synthesizes the available knowledge on OMVs in the context of possible mechanisms of interactions between OMVs, bacteria, and plant cells. OMVs are considered to be potential stimulators of the plant immune system, holding potential for application in plant bioprotection.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Monika Malicka
- Institute of Biology, Biotechnology and Environmental Protection, Faculty of Natural Sciences, University of Silesia in Katowice, Katowice, Poland
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23
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Contribution of Membrane Vesicle to Reprogramming of Bacterial Membrane Fluidity in Pseudomonas aeruginosa. mSphere 2022; 7:e0018722. [PMID: 35603537 PMCID: PMC9241526 DOI: 10.1128/msphere.00187-22] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Pseudomonas aeruginosa is an opportunistic pathogen capable of resisting environmental insults by applying various strategies, including regulating membrane fluidity and producing membrane vesicles (MVs). This study examined the difference in membrane fluidity between planktonic and biofilm modes of growth in P. aeruginosa and whether the ability to alter membrane rigidity in P. aeruginosa could be transferred via MVs. To this end, planktonic and biofilm P. aeruginosa were compared with respect to the lipid composition of their membranes and their MVs and the expression of genes contributing to alteration of membrane fluidity. Additionally, viscosity maps of the bacterial membrane in planktonic and biofilm lifestyles and under the effect of incubation with bacterial MVs were obtained. Further, the growth rate and biofilm formation capability of P. aeruginosa in the presence of MVs were compared. Results showed that the membrane of the biofilm bacteria is significantly less fluid than the membrane of the planktonic bacteria and is enriched with saturated fatty acids. Moreover, the enzymes involved in altering the structure of existing lipids and favoring membrane rigidification are overexpressed in the biofilm bacteria. MVs of biofilm P. aeruginosa elicit membrane rigidification and delay the bacterial growth in the planktonic lifestyle; conversely, they enhance biofilm development in P. aeruginosa. Overall, the study describes the interplay between the planktonic and biofilm bacteria by shedding light on the role of MVs in altering membrane fluidity. IMPORTANCE Membrane rigidification is a survival strategy in Pseudomonas aeruginosa exposed to stress. Despite various studies dedicated to the mechanism behind this phenomenon, not much attention has been paid to the contribution of the bacterial membrane vesicles (MVs) in this regard. This study revealed that P. aeruginosa rigidifies its membrane in the biofilm mode of growth. Additionally, the capability of decreasing membrane fluidity is transferable to the bacterial population via the bacterial MVs, resulting in reprogramming of bacterial membrane fluidity. Given the importance of membrane rigidification for decreasing the pathogen’s susceptibility to antimicrobials, elucidation of the conditions leading to such biophysicochemical modulation of the P. aeruginosa membrane should be considered for the purpose of developing therapeutic approaches against this resistant pathogen.
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24
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Gu Z, Meng S, Wang Y, Lyu B, Li P, Shang N. A novel bioactive postbiotics: from microbiota-derived extracellular nanoparticles to health promoting. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr 2022; 63:6885-6899. [PMID: 35179102 DOI: 10.1080/10408398.2022.2039897] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
Abstract
In recent years, the emerging concern regarding safety issues associated with live bacterial cells is enhancing the interest in using cell components and metabolites derived from microbiota. Therefore, the term "postbiotics" is increasingly found in food microbiology, food scientific and commercial products. Postbiotics is defined as non-viable microorganisms or their components that provide benefits to the host. Many in vivo and in vitro experiments have shown that beneficial microbiota-generated extracellular nanoparticles (NPs) confer unique health promoting functions to the intestinal local and systemic effects, which can be considered as a novel postbiotics. Meanwhile, the postbiotics-NPs is a protective complex, delivering bioactive components to reach distant tissues and organs at high concentrations. These properties demonstrate that postbiotics-NPs may contribute to the improvement of host health by regulating specific gut microbiota and physiological functions, while the exact mechanisms are not fully elucidated. This review highlights the current understanding of postbiotics-NPs functional properties and mechanisms of health benefits, especially focusing on the interactions in gut microbiota and host, functions in human health and potential applications in future functional food and biomedical fields.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zelin Gu
- Key Laboratory of Functional Dairy, Ministry of Education, College of Food Science and Nutritional Engineering, China Agricultural University, Beijing, China
- College of Engineering, China Agricultural University, Beijing, China
| | - Shuhan Meng
- Brown Cancer Center, University of Louisville, Louisville, KY, USA
| | - Yu Wang
- Key Laboratory of Functional Dairy, Ministry of Education, College of Food Science and Nutritional Engineering, China Agricultural University, Beijing, China
| | - Bo Lyu
- College of Food Science, Northeast Agricultural University, Harbin, China
| | - Pinglan Li
- Key Laboratory of Functional Dairy, Ministry of Education, College of Food Science and Nutritional Engineering, China Agricultural University, Beijing, China
| | - Nan Shang
- College of Engineering, China Agricultural University, Beijing, China
- Key Laboratory of Precision Nutrition and Food Quality, Department of Nutrition and Healthy, China Agricultural University, Beijing, China
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25
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Gut Microbiota Extracellular Vesicles as Signaling Molecules Mediating Host-Microbiota Communications. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:ijms222313166. [PMID: 34884969 PMCID: PMC8658398 DOI: 10.3390/ijms222313166] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/15/2021] [Revised: 11/30/2021] [Accepted: 11/30/2021] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Over the past decade, gut microbiota dysbiosis has been linked to many health disorders; however, the detailed mechanism of this correlation remains unclear. Gut microbiota can communicate with the host through immunological or metabolic signalling. Recently, microbiota-released extracellular vesicles (MEVs) have emerged as significant mediators in the intercellular signalling mechanism that could be an integral part of microbiota-host communications. MEVs are small membrane-bound vesicles that encase a broad spectrum of biologically active compounds (i.e., proteins, mRNA, miRNA, DNA, carbohydrates, and lipids), thus mediating the horizontal transfer of their cargo across intra- and intercellular space. In this study, we provide a comprehensive and in-depth discussion of the biogenesis of microbial-derived EVs, their classification and routes of production, as well as their role in inter-bacterial and inter-kingdom signaling.
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26
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Jonca J, Waleron M, Czaplewska P, Bogucka A, Steć A, Dziomba S, Jasiecki J, Rychłowski M, Waleron K. Membrane Vesicles of Pectobacterium as an Effective Protein Secretion System. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:ijms222212574. [PMID: 34830459 PMCID: PMC8623790 DOI: 10.3390/ijms222212574] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/13/2021] [Revised: 11/18/2021] [Accepted: 11/19/2021] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Bacteria of genus Pectobacterium are Gram-negative rods of the family Pectobacteriaceae. They are the causative agent of soft rot diseases of crops and ornamental plants. However, their virulence mechanisms are not yet fully elucidated. Membrane vesicles (MVs) are universally released by bacteria and are believed to play an important role in the pathogenicity and survival of bacteria in the environment. Our study investigates the role of MVs in the virulence of Pectobacterium. The results indicate that the morphology and MVs production depend on growth medium composition. In polygalacturonic acid (PGA) supplemented media, Pectobacterium produces large MVs (100–300 nm) and small vesicles below 100 nm. Proteomic analyses revealed the presence of pectate degrading enzymes in the MVs. The pectate plate test and enzymatic assay proved that those enzymes are active and able to degrade pectates. What is more, the pathogenicity test indicated that the MVs derived from Pectobacterium were able to induce maceration of Zantedeschia sp. leaves. We also show that the MVs of β-lactamase producing strains were able to suppress ampicillin activity and permit the growth of susceptible bacteria. Those findings indicate that the MVs of Pectobacterium play an important role in host-pathogen interactions and niche competition with other bacteria. Our research also sheds some light on the mechanism of MVs production. We demonstrate that the MVs production in Pectobacterium strains, which overexpress a green fluorescence protein (GFP), is higher than in wild-type strains. Moreover, proteomic analysis revealed that the GFP was present in the MVs. Therefore, it is possible that protein sequestration into MVs might not be strictly limited to periplasmic proteins. Our research highlights the importance of MVs production as a mechanism of cargo delivery in Pectobacterium and an effective secretion system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joanna Jonca
- Laboratory of Plant Protection and Biotechnology, Intercollegiate Faculty of Biotechnology UG and MUG, University of Gdansk, Abrahama 58, 80-307 Gdansk, Poland;
| | - Malgorzata Waleron
- Laboratory of Plant Protection and Biotechnology, Intercollegiate Faculty of Biotechnology UG and MUG, University of Gdansk, Abrahama 58, 80-307 Gdansk, Poland;
- Correspondence: (M.W.); (K.W.)
| | - Paulina Czaplewska
- Laboratory of Mass Spectrometry-Core Facility Laboratories, Intercollegiate Faculty of Biotechnology UG and MUG, University of Gdansk, Abrahama 58, 80-307 Gdansk, Poland; (P.C.); (A.B.)
| | - Aleksandra Bogucka
- Laboratory of Mass Spectrometry-Core Facility Laboratories, Intercollegiate Faculty of Biotechnology UG and MUG, University of Gdansk, Abrahama 58, 80-307 Gdansk, Poland; (P.C.); (A.B.)
| | - Aleksandra Steć
- Department of Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Medical University of Gdansk, 107 Hallera Street, 80-416 Gdansk, Poland; (A.S.); (S.D.)
| | - Szymon Dziomba
- Department of Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Medical University of Gdansk, 107 Hallera Street, 80-416 Gdansk, Poland; (A.S.); (S.D.)
| | - Jacek Jasiecki
- Department of Pharmaceutical Microbiology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Medical University of Gdansk, Al. Gen. Hallera 107, 80-416 Gdansk, Poland;
| | - Michał Rychłowski
- Laboratory of Virus Molecular Biology, Intercollegiate Faculty of Biotechnology UG and MUG, University of Gdansk, Abrahama 58, 80-307 Gdansk, Poland;
| | - Krzysztof Waleron
- Department of Pharmaceutical Microbiology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Medical University of Gdansk, Al. Gen. Hallera 107, 80-416 Gdansk, Poland;
- Correspondence: (M.W.); (K.W.)
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27
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Shishpal P, Patel V, Singh D, Bhor VM. pH Stress Mediated Alteration in Protein Composition and Reduction in Cytotoxic Potential of Gardnerella vaginalis Membrane Vesicles. Front Microbiol 2021; 12:723909. [PMID: 34795647 PMCID: PMC8593039 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2021.723909] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/11/2021] [Accepted: 10/12/2021] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
The vagina of healthy women is predominantly colonized by lactobacilli but it also harbors a limited proportion of certain anaerobes such as Gardnerella vaginalis. An increase in G. vaginalis along with other anaerobes on account of perturbation in the vaginal microbiota is associated with bacterial vaginosis (BV). Although strategies adopted by G. vaginalis for survival and pathogenesis in a conducive environment (i.e., high vaginal pH, characteristic of BV) have been previously studied, the approaches potentially employed for adaptation to the low pH of the healthy vagina are unknown. In the present study, we investigated the effect of acidic stress on the modulation of the production and function of membrane vesicles (MVs) of G. vaginalis. pH stress led to a distortion of the bacterial cell morphology as well as an altered biogenesis of MVs, as revealed by transmission electron microscopy (TEM). Both qualitative and quantitative differences in protein content of MVs produced in response to pH stress were observed by flow cytometry. A significant change in the protein composition characterized by presence of chaperones despite a reduction in number of proteins was also noted in the stress induced MVs. Further, these changes were also reflected in the reduced cytotoxic potential toward vaginal epithelial cells. Although, these findings need to be validated in the in vivo settings, the modulation of G. vaginalis MV biogenesis, composition and function appears to reflect the exposure to acidic conditions prevailing in the host vaginal mileu in the absence of vaginal infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Parul Shishpal
- Department of Molecular Immunology and Microbiology, Indian Council of Medical Research-National Institute for Research in Reproductive Health, Mumbai, India
| | - Vainav Patel
- Department of Biochemistry, Indian Council of Medical Research-National Institute for Research in Reproductive Health, Mumbai, India
| | - Dipty Singh
- Department of Neuroendocrinology and Transmission Electron Microscopy, Indian Council of Medical Research-National Institute for Research in Reproductive Health, Mumbai, India
| | - Vikrant M Bhor
- Department of Molecular Immunology and Microbiology, Indian Council of Medical Research-National Institute for Research in Reproductive Health, Mumbai, India
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28
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Filip R. An Update on the Role of Extracellular Vesicles in the Pathogenesis of Necrotizing Enterocolitis and Inflammatory Bowel Diseases. Cells 2021; 10:cells10113202. [PMID: 34831425 PMCID: PMC8622309 DOI: 10.3390/cells10113202] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/17/2021] [Revised: 11/10/2021] [Accepted: 11/12/2021] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Some of the most fundamental influences of microorganisms inhabiting the human intestinal tract are exerted during infant development and impact the maturation of intestinal mucosa and gut immune system. The impact of bacteria on the host gut immune system is partially mediated via released extracellular vesicles (EVs). The heterogeneity in EV content, size, and bacterial species origin can have an impact on intestinal cells, resulting in inflammation and an immune response, or facilitate pathogen entry into the gut wall. In mammals, maintaining the integrity of the gut barrier might also be an evolutionary function of maternal milk EVs. Recently, the usage of EVs has been explored as a novel therapeutic approach in several pathological conditions, including necrotizing enterocolitis (NEC) and inflammatory bowel disease (IBD). In this review, we attempt to summarize the current knowledge of EV biology, followed by a discussion of the role that EVs play in gut maturation and the pathogenesis of NEC and IBD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rafał Filip
- Department of Gastroenterology with IBD, Unit of Clinical Hospital 2 in Rzeszow, Lwowska 60, 35-310 Rzeszow, Poland;
- Faculty of Medicine, University of Rzeszow, Aleja Majora Wacława Kopisto 2a, 35-210 Rzeszow, Poland
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29
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Çelik P, Derkuş B, Erdoğan K, Barut D, Manga EB, Yıldırım Y, Pecha S, Çabuk A. Bacterial membrane vesicle functions, laboratory methods, and applications. Biotechnol Adv 2021; 54:107869. [PMID: 34793882 DOI: 10.1016/j.biotechadv.2021.107869] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/16/2021] [Revised: 10/19/2021] [Accepted: 11/09/2021] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Bacterial membrane vesicles are cupped-shaped structures formed by bacteria in response to environmental stress, genetic alteration, antibiotic exposure, and others. Due to the structural similarities shared with the producer organism, they can retain certain characteristics like stimulating immune responses. They are also able to carry molecules for long distances, without changes in the concentration and integrity of the molecule. Bacteria originally secrete membrane vesicles for gene transfer, excretion, cell to cell interaction, pathogenesis, and protection against phages. These functions are unique and have several innovative applications in the pharmaceutical industry that have attracted both scientific and commercial interest.This led to the development of efficient methods to artificially stimulate vesicle production, purification, and manipulation in the lab at nanoscales. Also, for specific applications, engineering methods to impart pathogen antigens against specific diseases or customization as cargo vehicles to deliver payloads to specific cells have been reported. Many applications of bacteria membrane vesicles are in cancer drugs, vaccines, and adjuvant development with several candidates in clinical trials showing promising results. Despite this, applications in therapy and commercialization stay timid probably due to some challenges one of which is the poor understanding of biogenesis mechanisms. Nevertheless, so far, bacterial membrane vesicles seem to be a reliable and cost-efficient technology with several therapeutic applications. Research toward characterizing more membrane vesicles, genetic engineering, and nanotechnology will enable the scope of applications to widen. This might include solutions to other currently faced medical and healthcare-related challenges.
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Affiliation(s)
- PınarAytar Çelik
- Environmental Protection and Control Program, Eskişehir Osmangazi University, Eskişehir 26110, Turkey; Department of Biotechnology and Biosafety, Graduate School of Natural and Applied Science, Eskisehir Osmangazi University, 26040 Eskisehir, Turkey.
| | - Burak Derkuş
- Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Ankara University, 06560 Ankara, Turkey
| | - Kübra Erdoğan
- Department of Biotechnology and Biosafety, Graduate School of Natural and Applied Science, Eskisehir Osmangazi University, 26040 Eskisehir, Turkey
| | - Dilan Barut
- Department of Biotechnology and Biosafety, Graduate School of Natural and Applied Science, Eskisehir Osmangazi University, 26040 Eskisehir, Turkey
| | - Enuh Blaise Manga
- Department of Biotechnology and Biosafety, Graduate School of Natural and Applied Science, Eskisehir Osmangazi University, 26040 Eskisehir, Turkey
| | - Yalın Yıldırım
- Department of Cardiovascular Surgery, University Heart & Vascular Center Hamburg, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Simon Pecha
- Department of Cardiovascular Surgery, University Heart & Vascular Center Hamburg, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Ahmet Çabuk
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Science and Letter, Eskişehir Osmangazi University, Eskişehir 26040, Turkey
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30
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Díaz‐Garrido N, Badia J, Baldomà L. Microbiota-derived extracellular vesicles in interkingdom communication in the gut. J Extracell Vesicles 2021; 10:e12161. [PMID: 34738337 PMCID: PMC8568775 DOI: 10.1002/jev2.12161] [Citation(s) in RCA: 106] [Impact Index Per Article: 35.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/25/2021] [Revised: 09/30/2021] [Accepted: 10/06/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
The intestine is fundamental in controlling human health. Intestinal epithelial and immune cells are continuously exposed to millions of microbes that greatly impact on intestinal epithelial barrier and immune function. This microbial community, known as gut microbiota, is now recognized as an important partner of the human being that actively contribute to essential functions of the intestine but also of distal organs. In the gut ecosystem, bidirectional microbiota-host communication does not involve direct cell contacts. Both microbiota and host-derived extracellular vesicles (EVs) are key players of such interkingdom crosstalk. There is now accumulating body of evidence that bacterial secreted vesicles mediate microbiota functions by transporting and delivering into host cells effector molecules that modulate host signalling pathways and cell processes. Consequently, vesicles released by the gut microbiota may have great influence on health and disease. Here we review current knowledge on microbiota EVs and specifically highlight their role in controlling host metabolism, intestinal barrier integrity and immune training.
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Affiliation(s)
- Natalia Díaz‐Garrido
- Secció de Bioquímica i Biología Molecular, Departament de Bioquímica i FisiologiaFacultat de Farmàcia i Ciències de l'AlimentacióUniversitat de BarcelonaBarcelonaSpain
- Institut de Recerca Sant Joan de Déu (IRSJD)Institut de Biomedicina de la Universitat de Barcelona (IBUB)BarcelonaSpain
| | - Josefa Badia
- Secció de Bioquímica i Biología Molecular, Departament de Bioquímica i FisiologiaFacultat de Farmàcia i Ciències de l'AlimentacióUniversitat de BarcelonaBarcelonaSpain
- Institut de Recerca Sant Joan de Déu (IRSJD)Institut de Biomedicina de la Universitat de Barcelona (IBUB)BarcelonaSpain
| | - Laura Baldomà
- Secció de Bioquímica i Biología Molecular, Departament de Bioquímica i FisiologiaFacultat de Farmàcia i Ciències de l'AlimentacióUniversitat de BarcelonaBarcelonaSpain
- Institut de Recerca Sant Joan de Déu (IRSJD)Institut de Biomedicina de la Universitat de Barcelona (IBUB)BarcelonaSpain
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31
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McMillan HM, Rogers N, Wadle A, Hsu-Kim H, Wiesner MR, Kuehn MJ, Hendren CO. Microbial vesicle-mediated communication: convergence to understand interactions within and between domains of life. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE. PROCESSES & IMPACTS 2021; 23:664-677. [PMID: 33899070 DOI: 10.1039/d1em00022e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
All cells produce extracellular vesicles (EVs). These biological packages contain complex mixtures of molecular cargo and have a variety of functions, including interkingdom communication. Recent discoveries highlight the roles microbial EVs may play in the environment with respect to interactions with plants as well as nutrient cycling. These studies have also identified molecules present within EVs and associated with EV surfaces that contribute to these functions. In parallel, studies of engineered nanomaterials have developed methods to track and model small particle behavior in complex systems and measure the relative importance of various surface features on transport and function. While studies of EV behavior in complex environmental conditions have not yet employed transdisciplinary approaches, it is increasingly clear that expertise from disparate fields will be critical to understand the role of EVs in these systems. Here, we outline how the convergence of biology, soil geochemistry, and colloid science can both develop and address questions surrounding the basic principles governing EV-mediated interkingdom interactions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hannah M McMillan
- Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, NC 27710, USA
| | - Nicholas Rogers
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Duke University, Durham, NC 27708, USA
| | - Austin Wadle
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Duke University, Durham, NC 27708, USA
| | - Heileen Hsu-Kim
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Duke University, Durham, NC 27708, USA
| | - Mark R Wiesner
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Duke University, Durham, NC 27708, USA
| | - Meta J Kuehn
- Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, NC 27710, USA and Department of Biochemistry, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, NC 27710, USA
| | - Christine Ogilvie Hendren
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Duke University, Durham, NC 27708, USA and Department of Geological and Environmental Sciences, Appalachian State University, Boone, NC 28608, USA.
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Ñahui Palomino RA, Vanpouille C, Costantini PE, Margolis L. Microbiota-host communications: Bacterial extracellular vesicles as a common language. PLoS Pathog 2021; 17:e1009508. [PMID: 33984071 PMCID: PMC8118305 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1009508] [Citation(s) in RCA: 113] [Impact Index Per Article: 37.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Both gram-negative and gram-positive bacteria release extracellular vesicles (EVs) that contain components from their mother cells. Bacterial EVs are similar in size to mammalian-derived EVs and are thought to mediate bacteria–host communications by transporting diverse bioactive molecules including proteins, nucleic acids, lipids, and metabolites. Bacterial EVs have been implicated in bacteria–bacteria and bacteria–host interactions, promoting health or causing various pathologies. Although the science of bacterial EVs is less developed than that of eukaryotic EVs, the number of studies on bacterial EVs is continuously increasing. This review highlights the current state of knowledge in the rapidly evolving field of bacterial EV science, focusing on their discovery, isolation, biogenesis, and more specifically on their role in microbiota–host communications. Knowledge of these mechanisms may be translated into new therapeutics and diagnostics based on bacterial EVs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rogers A. Ñahui Palomino
- Section on Intercellular Interaction, Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Christophe Vanpouille
- Section on Intercellular Interaction, Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Paolo E. Costantini
- Section on Intercellular Interaction, Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland, United States of America
- Department of Pharmacy and Biotechnology, University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy
| | - Leonid Margolis
- Section on Intercellular Interaction, Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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Kameli N, Borman R, Lpez-Iglesias C, Savelkoul P, Stassen FRM. Characterization of Feces-Derived Bacterial Membrane Vesicles and the Impact of Their Origin on the Inflammatory Response. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2021; 11:667987. [PMID: 34026664 PMCID: PMC8139245 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2021.667987] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2021] [Accepted: 04/06/2021] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
The human gastrointestinal tract harbors a diverse and complex microbiome, which interacts in a variety of ways with the host. There is compelling evidence that gut microbial dysbiosis, defined as an alteration of diversity and abundance in intestinal microbes, is an etiological factor in inflammatory bowel disease (IBD). Membrane vesicles (MVs), which are nano-sized particles released by bacteria, have been found to interact with the host and modulate the development and function of the immune system. As a result MVs have been suggested to play a critical role in both health and disease. In this study we developed a method to isolate, characterize and assess the immunoreactivity of heterogeneous populations of MVs from fecal samples (fMVs) of healthy volunteers. We successfully isolated 2*109-2*1010 particles/ml from 0.5 gram of feces by using a combination of ultrafiltration and size exclusion chromatography (SEC) from 10 fecal samples. Bead-based flowcytometry in combination with tunable resistive pulse sensing (TRPS) provided a reliable method for (semi-)quantitative determination of fMVs originating from both Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria, while transmission electron microscopy confirmed the presence of fMVs. Real time 16s PCR on bacterial cell fractions or isolated fMVs DNA of the most common phyla (Firmicutes, Bacteroidetes, Actinobacteria and Proteobacteria) revealed differences in the relative abundance between bacteria and the fMVs. Moreover, fMVs evoke the release of TNF- by THP-1 cells in a dose-dependent matter. Also, a significant positive correlation was found between Actinobacteria/-Proteobacteria derived vesicles and the release of TNF-. It has become increasingly clear that fMVs could provide an additional layer to the definition of homeostasis or dysbiosis of the microbiota. The current study supports their potential involvement in the intestinal homeostasis or inflammatory disorders and provides putative interesting incentives for future research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nader Kameli
- School of Nutrition and Translational Research in Metabolism (NUTRIM), Department of Medical Microbiology, Maastricht University Medical Center, Maastricht, Netherlands.,Department of Medical Microbiology, Faculty of Applied Medical Sciences, Jazan University, Jazan, Saudi Arabia
| | - Reitske Borman
- School of Nutrition and Translational Research in Metabolism (NUTRIM), Department of Medical Microbiology, Maastricht University Medical Center, Maastricht, Netherlands
| | - Carmen Lpez-Iglesias
- Microscopy CORE Lab, The Maastricht Multimodal Molecular Imaging Institute M4I, Faculty of Health, Medicine, and Life Sciences, Maastricht University, Maastricht, Netherlands
| | - Paul Savelkoul
- School of Nutrition and Translational Research in Metabolism (NUTRIM), Department of Medical Microbiology, Maastricht University Medical Center, Maastricht, Netherlands.,Dept of Medical Microbiology and Infection Control, Amsterdam University Medical Centers, location VUmc, Amsterdam, Netherlands
| | - Frank R M Stassen
- School of Nutrition and Translational Research in Metabolism (NUTRIM), Department of Medical Microbiology, Maastricht University Medical Center, Maastricht, Netherlands
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Role of Microbiota-Derived Extracellular Vesicles in Gut-Brain Communication. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:ijms22084235. [PMID: 33921831 PMCID: PMC8073592 DOI: 10.3390/ijms22084235] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/2021] [Revised: 04/13/2021] [Accepted: 04/17/2021] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Human intestinal microbiota comprise of a dynamic population of bacterial species and other microorganisms with the capacity to interact with the rest of the organism and strongly influence the host during homeostasis and disease. Commensal and pathogenic bacteria coexist in homeostasis with the intestinal epithelium and the gastrointestinal tract’s immune system, or GALT (gut-associated lymphoid tissue), of the host. However, a disruption to this homeostasis or dysbiosis by different factors (e.g., stress, diet, use of antibiotics, age, inflammatory processes) can cause brain dysfunction given the communication between the gut and brain. Recently, extracellular vesicles (EVs) derived from bacteria have emerged as possible carriers in gut-brain communication through the interaction of their vesicle components with immune receptors, which lead to neuroinflammatory immune response activation. This review discusses the critical role of bacterial EVs from the gut in the neuropathology of brain dysfunctions by modulating the immune response. These vesicles, which contain harmful bacterial EV contents such as lipopolysaccharide (LPS), peptidoglycans, toxins and nucleic acids, are capable of crossing tissue barriers including the blood-brain barrier and interacting with the immune receptors of glial cells (e.g., Toll-like receptors) to lead to the production of cytokines and inflammatory mediators, which can cause brain impairment and behavioral dysfunctions.
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Outer Membrane Vesicles (OMVs) Produced by Gram-Negative Bacteria: Structure, Functions, Biogenesis, and Vaccine Application. BIOMED RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2021; 2021:1490732. [PMID: 33834062 PMCID: PMC8016564 DOI: 10.1155/2021/1490732] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/06/2020] [Revised: 03/01/2021] [Accepted: 03/13/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Gram-negative bacteria produce outer membrane vesicles (OMVs) with 10 to 300 nm of diameter. The contribution of OMVs to bacterial pathogenesis is a topic of great interest, and their capacity to be combined with antigens impact in the future to the development of vaccines.
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Huang CY, Araujo K, Sánchez JN, Kund G, Trumble J, Roper C, Godfrey KE, Jin H. A stable antimicrobial peptide with dual functions of treating and preventing citrus Huanglongbing. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2021; 118:e2019628118. [PMID: 33526689 PMCID: PMC8017978 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.2019628118] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Citrus Huanglongbing (HLB), caused by a vector-transmitted phloem-limited bacterium Candidatus Liberibacter asiaticus (CLas), is the most devastating citrus disease worldwide. Currently, there are no effective strategies to prevent infection or to cure HLB-positive trees. Here, using comparative analysis between HLB-sensitive citrus cultivars and HLB-tolerant citrus hybrids and relatives, we identified a novel class of stable antimicrobial peptides (SAMPs). The SAMP from Microcitrusaustraliasica can rapidly kill Liberibacter crescens (Lcr), a culturable Liberibacter strain, and inhibit infections of CLas and CL. solanacearum in plants. In controlled greenhouse trials, SAMP not only effectively reduced CLas titer and disease symptoms in HLB-positive trees but also induced innate immunity to prevent and inhibit infections. Importantly, unlike antibiotics, SAMP is heat stable, making it better suited for field applications. Spray-applied SAMP was taken up by citrus leaves, stayed stable inside the plants for at least a week, and moved systemically through the vascular system where CLas is located. We further demonstrate that SAMP is most effective on α-proteobacteria and causes rapid cytosol leakage and cell lysis. The α-helix-2 domain of SAMP is sufficient to kill Lcr Future field trials will help determine the efficacy of SAMP in controlling HLB and the ideal mode of application.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chien-Yu Huang
- Department of Microbiology and Plant Pathology, Center for Plant Cell Biology, Institute for Integrative Genome Biology, University of California, Riverside, CA 92521
| | - Karla Araujo
- Contained Research Facility, University of California, Davis, CA 95616
| | - Jonatan Niño Sánchez
- Department of Microbiology and Plant Pathology, Center for Plant Cell Biology, Institute for Integrative Genome Biology, University of California, Riverside, CA 92521
| | - Gregory Kund
- Department of Entomology, University of California, Riverside, CA 92521
| | - John Trumble
- Department of Entomology, University of California, Riverside, CA 92521
| | - Caroline Roper
- Department of Microbiology and Plant Pathology, Center for Plant Cell Biology, Institute for Integrative Genome Biology, University of California, Riverside, CA 92521
| | | | - Hailing Jin
- Department of Microbiology and Plant Pathology, Center for Plant Cell Biology, Institute for Integrative Genome Biology, University of California, Riverside, CA 92521;
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Wen ZT, Jorgensen AN, Huang X, Ellepola K, Chapman L, Wu H, Brady LJ. Multiple factors are involved in regulation of extracellular membrane vesicle biogenesis in Streptococcus mutans. Mol Oral Microbiol 2021; 36:12-24. [PMID: 33040492 PMCID: PMC7940556 DOI: 10.1111/omi.12318] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/29/2020] [Revised: 10/01/2020] [Accepted: 10/04/2020] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
Streptococcus mutans, a major etiological agent of human dental caries, produces membrane vesicles (MVs) that contain protein and extracellular DNA. In this study, functional genomics, along with in vitro biofilm models, was used to identify factors that regulate MV biogenesis. Our results showed that when added to growth medium, MVs significantly enhanced biofilm formation by S. mutans, especially during growth in sucrose. This effect occurred in the presence and absence of added human saliva. Functional genomics revealed several genes, including sfp, which have a major effect on S. mutans MVs. In Bacillus sp. sfp encodes a 4'-phosphopantetheinyl transferase that contributes to surfactin biosynthesis and impacts vesiculogenesis. In S. mutans, sfp resides within the TnSmu2 Genomic Island that supports pigment production associated with oxidative stress tolerance. Compared to the UA159 parent, the Δsfp mutant, TW406, demonstrated a 1.74-fold (p < .05) higher MV yield as measured by BCA protein assay. This mutant also displayed increased susceptibility to low pH and oxidative stressors, as demonstrated by acid killing and hydrogen peroxide challenge assays. Deficiency of bacA, a putative surfactin synthetase homolog within TnSmu2, and especially dac and pdeA that encode a di-adenylyl cyclase and a phosphodiesterase, respectively, also significantly increased MV yield (p < .05). However, elimination of bacA2, a bacitracin synthetase homolog, resulted in a >1.5-fold (p < .05) reduction of MV yield. These results demonstrate that S. mutans MV properties are regulated by genes within and outside of the TnSmu2 island, and that as a major particulate component of the biofilm matrix, MVs significantly influence biofilm formation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zezhang T. Wen
- Department of Oral and Craniofacial Biology, School of Dentistry and Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Parasitology, School of Medicine, Louisiana State University Health, New Orleans, LA
| | - Ashton N. Jorgensen
- Department of Oral and Craniofacial Biology, School of Dentistry and Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Parasitology, School of Medicine, Louisiana State University Health, New Orleans, LA
| | - Xiaochang Huang
- Department of Oral and Craniofacial Biology, School of Dentistry and Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Parasitology, School of Medicine, Louisiana State University Health, New Orleans, LA
| | - Kassapa Ellepola
- Department of Oral and Craniofacial Biology, School of Dentistry and Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Parasitology, School of Medicine, Louisiana State University Health, New Orleans, LA
| | - Lynne Chapman
- Department of Oral and Craniofacial Biology, School of Dentistry and Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Parasitology, School of Medicine, Louisiana State University Health, New Orleans, LA
| | - Hui Wu
- Integrative Biomedical and Diagnostics Science, School of Dentistry, Oregon Health and Science University, Portland, OR
| | - L. Jeannine Brady
- Department of Oral Biology, School of Dentistry, the University of Florida, Gainesville, FL
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Environmental conditions modulate the protein content and immunomodulatory activity of extracellular vesicles produced by the probiotic Propionibacterium freudenreichii. Appl Environ Microbiol 2021; 87:AEM.02263-20. [PMID: 33310709 PMCID: PMC7851693 DOI: 10.1128/aem.02263-20] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Propionibacterium freudenreichii is a probiotic Gram-positive bacterium with promising immunomodulatory properties. It modulates regulatory cytokines, mitigates the inflammatory response in vitro and in vivo These properties were initially attributed to specific bacterial surface proteins. Recently, we showed that extracellular vesicles (EVs) produced by P. freudenreichii CIRM-BIA129 mimic the immunomodulatory features of parent cells in vitro (i.e. modulating NF-κB transcription factor activity and IL-8 release) which underlies the role of EVs as mediators of the probiotic effects of the bacterium. The modulation of EV properties, and particularly of those with potential therapeutic applications such as the EVs produced by the probiotic P. freudenreichii, is one of the challenges in the field to achieve efficient yields with the desired optimal functionality. Here we evaluated whether the culture medium in which the bacteria are grown could be used as a lever to modulate the protein content and hence the properties of P. freudenreichii CIRM-BIA129 EVs. The physical, biochemical and functional properties of EVs produced from cells cultivated on laboratory Yeast Extract Lactate (YEL) medium and cow milk ultrafiltrate (UF) medium were compared. UF-derived EVs were more abundant, smaller in diameter and displayed more intense anti-inflammatory activity than YEL-derived EVs. Furthermore, the growth media modulated EV content in terms of both the identities and abundances of their protein cargos, suggesting different patterns of interaction with the host. Proteins involved in amino acid metabolism and central carbon metabolism were modulated, as were the key surface proteins mediating host-propionibacteria interactions.Importance Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are cellular membrane-derived nanosized particles that are produced by most cells in all three kingdoms of life. They play a pivotal role in cell-cell communication through their ability to transport bioactive molecules from donor to recipient cells. Bacterial EVs are important factors in host-microbe interactions. Recently we have shown that EVs produced by the probiotic P. freudenreichii exhibited immunomodulatory properties. We evaluate here the impact of environmental conditions, notably culture media, on P. freudenreichii EV production and function. We show that EVs display considerable differences in protein cargo and immunomodulation depending on the culture medium used. This work offers new perspectives for the development of probiotic EV-based molecular delivery systems, and reinforces the optimization of growth conditions as a tool to modulate the potential therapeutic applications of EVs.
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Wang X, Koffi PF, English OF, Lee JC. Staphylococcus aureus Extracellular Vesicles: A Story of Toxicity and the Stress of 2020. Toxins (Basel) 2021; 13:toxins13020075. [PMID: 33498438 PMCID: PMC7909408 DOI: 10.3390/toxins13020075] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/30/2020] [Revised: 01/14/2021] [Accepted: 01/15/2021] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Staphylococcus aureus generates and releases extracellular vesicles (EVs) that package cytosolic, cell-wall associated, and membrane proteins, as well as glycopolymers and exoproteins, including alpha hemolysin, leukocidins, phenol-soluble modulins, superantigens, and enzymes. S. aureus EVs, but not EVs from pore-forming toxin-deficient strains, were cytolytic for a variety of mammalian cell types, but EV internalization was not essential for cytotoxicity. Because S. aureus is subject to various environmental stresses during its encounters with the host during infection, we assessed how these exposures affected EV production in vitro. Staphylococci grown at 37 °C or 40 °C did not differ in EV production, but cultures incubated at 30 °C yielded more EVs when grown to the same optical density. S. aureus cultivated in the presence of oxidative stress, in iron-limited media, or with subinhibitory concentrations of ethanol, showed greater EV production as determined by protein yield and quantitative immunoblots. In contrast, hyperosmotic stress or subinhibitory concentrations of erythromycin reduced S. aureus EV yield. EVs represent a novel S. aureus secretory system that is affected by a variety of stress responses and allows the delivery of biologically active pore-forming toxins and other virulence determinants to host cells.
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Delisle-Houde M, Blais M, Tweddell RJ, Rioux D. Antibacterial activity of geraniin from sugar maple leaves: an ultrastructural study with the phytopathogen Xanthomonas campestris pv. vitians. JOURNAL OF PLANT PATHOLOGY : AN INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF THE ITALIAN PHYTOPATHOLOGICAL SOCIETY 2021; 103:461-471. [PMID: 33551638 PMCID: PMC7856855 DOI: 10.1007/s42161-021-00743-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/05/2020] [Accepted: 12/29/2020] [Indexed: 05/18/2023]
Abstract
Effect of geraniin extracted from sugar maple (Acer saccharum) leaves on the viability of the phytopathogen Xanthomonas campestris pv. vitians was evaluated with the SYTOX Green nucleic acid stain, penetrating only compromised membranes, and plate counts. In parallel, structural changes of treated bacteria were examined in transmission electron microscopy (TEM). Based on SYTOX Green and plate counts, geraniin at the minimum bactericidal concentration (3.125 mg/ml) increased mortality after 45 min by 37% and 62%, respectively, when compared with controls. According to observations in TEM, geraniin caused morphological alterations of these rod-shaped bacteria, including degradation of their envelopes, as also suggested by the incorporation of SYTOX. These alterations were often accompanied by cytoplasm leakage and the formation of more pronounced whitish areas in the cytoplasm similar to vacuolization. Moreover, multi-membranous and/or -wall systems were at times formed in the treated bacteria. The presence of some extracellular electron-dense material was frequently noted around the treated bacteria. The matrix surrounding control bacteria tended to disappear after geraniin treatment. This study highlights for the first time the effect of geraniin on bacterial ultrastructure, thus contributing to a better understanding of the mechanism by which this molecule exerts antibacterial activity.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Martine Blais
- Natural Resources Canada, Canadian Forest Service, Laurentian Forestry Centre, QC G1V 4C7 Québec, Canada
| | | | - Danny Rioux
- Natural Resources Canada, Canadian Forest Service, Laurentian Forestry Centre, QC G1V 4C7 Québec, Canada
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41
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McMillan HM, Zebell SG, Ristaino JB, Dong X, Kuehn MJ. Protective plant immune responses are elicited by bacterial outer membrane vesicles. Cell Rep 2021; 34:108645. [PMID: 33472073 PMCID: PMC8158063 DOI: 10.1016/j.celrep.2020.108645] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/08/2020] [Revised: 10/26/2020] [Accepted: 12/21/2020] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Bacterial outer membrane vesicles (OMVs) perform a variety of functions in bacterial survival and virulence. In mammalian systems, OMVs activate immune responses and are exploited as vaccines. However, little work has focused on the interactions of OMVs with plant hosts. Here, we report that OMVs from Pseudomonas syringae and P. fluorescens activate plant immune responses that protect against bacterial and oomycete pathogens. OMV-mediated immunomodulatory activity from these species displayed different sensitivity to biochemical stressors, reflecting differences in OMV content. Importantly, OMV-mediated plant responses are distinct from those triggered by conserved bacterial epitopes or effector molecules alone. Our study shows that OMV-induced protective immune responses are independent of the T3SS and protein, but that OMV-mediated seedling growth inhibition largely depends on proteinaceous components. OMVs provide a unique opportunity to understand the interplay between virulence and host response strategies and add a new dimension to consider in host-microbe interactions. The role that bacterial outer membrane vesicles (OMVs) play in plant-microbe interactions is poorly characterized. McMillan et al. show that OMVs elicit plant immune responses that protect against pathogens. This study also reveals a use for OMVs as tools to probe the plant immune system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hannah M McMillan
- Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology, Duke University, Durham, NC 27710, USA
| | - Sophia G Zebell
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Department of Biology, Duke University, Durham, NC 27708, USA
| | - Jean B Ristaino
- Department of Entomology and Plant Pathology, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC 27695, USA
| | - Xinnian Dong
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Department of Biology, Duke University, Durham, NC 27708, USA
| | - Meta J Kuehn
- Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology, Duke University, Durham, NC 27710, USA; Department of Biochemistry, Duke University, Durham, NC 27710, USA.
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Mozaheb N, Mingeot-Leclercq MP. Membrane Vesicle Production as a Bacterial Defense Against Stress. Front Microbiol 2020; 11:600221. [PMID: 33362747 PMCID: PMC7755613 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2020.600221] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/01/2020] [Accepted: 11/16/2020] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Membrane vesicles are the nano-sized vesicles originating from membranes. The production of membrane vesicles is a common feature among bacteria. Depending on the bacterial growth phase and environmental conditions, membrane vesicles show diverse characteristics. Various physiological and ecological roles have been attributed to membrane vesicles under both homeostatic and stressful conditions. Pathogens encounter several stressors during colonization in the hostile environment of host tissues. Nutrient deficiency, the presence of antibiotics as well as elements of the host’s immune system are examples of stressors threatening pathogens inside their host. To combat stressors and survive, pathogens have established various defensive mechanisms, one of them is production of membrane vesicles. Pathogens produce membrane vesicles to alleviate the destructive effects of antibiotics or other types of antibacterial treatments. Additionally, membrane vesicles can also provide benefits for the wider bacterial community during infections, through the transfer of resistance or virulence factors. Hence, given that membrane vesicle production may affect the activities of antibacterial agents, their production should be considered when administering antibacterial treatments. Besides, regarding that membrane vesicles play vital roles in bacteria, disrupting their production may suggest an alternative strategy for battling against pathogens. Here, we aim to review the stressors encountered by pathogens and shed light on the roles of membrane vesicles in increasing pathogen adaptabilities in the presence of stress-inducing factors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Negar Mozaheb
- Université catholique de Louvain (UCL), Louvain Drug Research Institute (LDRI), Cellular & Molecular Pharmacology Unit (FACM), Brussels, Belgium
| | - Marie-Paule Mingeot-Leclercq
- Université catholique de Louvain (UCL), Louvain Drug Research Institute (LDRI), Cellular & Molecular Pharmacology Unit (FACM), Brussels, Belgium
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43
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Stephan MS, Broeker NK, Saragliadis A, Roos N, Linke D, Barbirz S. In vitro Analysis of O-Antigen-Specific Bacteriophage P22 Inactivation by Salmonella Outer Membrane Vesicles. Front Microbiol 2020; 11:510638. [PMID: 33072001 PMCID: PMC7541932 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2020.510638] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/07/2019] [Accepted: 08/26/2020] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Bacteriophages use a large number of different bacterial cell envelope structures as receptors for surface attachment. As a consequence, bacterial surfaces represent a major control point for the defense against phage attack. One strategy for phage population control is the production of outer membrane vesicles (OMVs). In Gram-negative host bacteria, O-antigen-specific bacteriophages address lipopolysaccharide (LPS) to initiate infection, thus relying on an essential outer membrane glycan building block as receptor that is constantly present also in OMVs. In this work, we have analyzed interactions of Salmonella (S.) bacteriophage P22 with OMVs. For this, we isolated OMVs that were formed in large amounts during mechanical cell lysis of the P22 S. Typhimurium host. In vitro, these OMVs could efficiently reduce the number of infective phage particles. Fluorescence spectroscopy showed that upon interaction with OMVs, bacteriophage P22 released its DNA into the vesicle lumen. However, only about one third of the phage P22 particles actively ejected their genome. For the larger part, no genome release was observed, albeit the majority of phages in the system had lost infectivity towards their host. With OMVs, P22 ejected its DNA more rapidly and could release more DNA against elevated osmotic pressures compared to DNA release triggered with protein-free LPS aggregates. This emphasizes that OMV composition is a key feature for the regulation of infective bacteriophage particles in the system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mareike S Stephan
- Physical Biochemistry, Department for Biochemistry and Biology, University of Potsdam, Potsdam, Germany
| | - Nina K Broeker
- Physical Biochemistry, Department for Biochemistry and Biology, University of Potsdam, Potsdam, Germany
| | | | - Norbert Roos
- Department of Biosciences, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
| | - Dirk Linke
- Department of Biosciences, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
| | - Stefanie Barbirz
- Physical Biochemistry, Department for Biochemistry and Biology, University of Potsdam, Potsdam, Germany
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44
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Gosens R, Hiemstra PS, Adcock IM, Bracke KR, Dickson RP, Hansbro PM, Krauss-Etschmann S, Smits HH, Stassen FRM, Bartel S. Host-microbe cross-talk in the lung microenvironment: implications for understanding and treating chronic lung disease. Eur Respir J 2020; 56:13993003.02320-2019. [PMID: 32430415 PMCID: PMC7439216 DOI: 10.1183/13993003.02320-2019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2018] [Accepted: 04/20/2020] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Chronic respiratory diseases are highly prevalent worldwide and will continue to rise in the foreseeable future. Despite intensive efforts over recent decades, the development of novel and effective therapeutic approaches has been slow. However, there is new and increasing evidence that communities of micro-organisms in our body, the human microbiome, are crucially involved in the development and progression of chronic respiratory diseases. Understanding the detailed mechanisms underlying this cross-talk between host and microbiota is critical for development of microbiome- or host-targeted therapeutics and prevention strategies. Here we review and discuss the most recent knowledge on the continuous reciprocal interaction between the host and microbes in health and respiratory disease. Furthermore, we highlight promising developments in microbiome-based therapies and discuss the need to employ more holistic approaches of restoring both the pulmonary niche and the microbial community. The reciprocal interaction between microbes and host in the lung is increasingly recognised as an important determinant of health. The complexity of this cross-talk needs to be taken into account when studying diseases and developing future new therapies.https://bit.ly/2VKYUfT
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Affiliation(s)
- Reinoud Gosens
- University of Groningen, Dept of Molecular Pharmacology, GRIAC Research Institute, Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Pieter S Hiemstra
- Dept of Pulmonology, Leiden University Medical Center (LUMC), Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Ian M Adcock
- Airways Disease, National Heart and Lung Institute, Imperial College London, London, UK
| | - Ken R Bracke
- Dept of Respiratory Medicine, Ghent University Hospital, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Robert P Dickson
- Division of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, Dept of Internal Medicine, University of Michigan Medical School, Ann Arbor, MI, USA.,Michigan Center for Integrative Research in Critical Care, Ann Arbor, MI, USA
| | - Philip M Hansbro
- Priority Research Centre for Healthy Lungs, Hunter Medical Research Institute and the University of Newcastle, Newcastle, Australia.,Centre for Inflammation, Centenary Institute and University of Technology Sydney, Faculty of Science, Sydney, Australia
| | - Susanne Krauss-Etschmann
- Early Life Origins of Chronic Lung Disease, Research Center Borstel, Leibniz Lung Center, Airway Research Center North, Member of the German Center for Lung Research (DZL), Borstel, Germany.,Institute for Experimental Medicine, Christian-Albrechts-Universitaet zu Kiel, Kiel, Germany
| | - Hermelijn H Smits
- Dept of Parasitology, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Frank R M Stassen
- Dept of Medical Microbiology, NUTRIM - School of Nutrition and Translational Research in Metabolism, Maastricht University Medical Center, Maastricht, The Netherlands
| | - Sabine Bartel
- Early Life Origins of Chronic Lung Disease, Research Center Borstel, Leibniz Lung Center, Airway Research Center North, Member of the German Center for Lung Research (DZL), Borstel, Germany .,University of Groningen, University Medical Center Groningen, Dept of Pathology and Medical Biology, GRIAC Research Institute, Groningen, The Netherlands
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45
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Caruana JC, Walper SA. Bacterial Membrane Vesicles as Mediators of Microbe - Microbe and Microbe - Host Community Interactions. Front Microbiol 2020; 11:432. [PMID: 32265873 PMCID: PMC7105600 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2020.00432] [Citation(s) in RCA: 147] [Impact Index Per Article: 36.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/02/2019] [Accepted: 03/02/2020] [Indexed: 01/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Bacterial membrane vesicles are proteoliposomal nanoparticles produced by both Gram-negative and Gram-positive bacteria. As they originate from the outer surface of the bacteria, their composition and content is generally similar to the parent bacterium’s membrane and cytoplasm. However, there is ample evidence that preferential packaging of proteins, metabolites, and toxins into vesicles does occur. Incorporation into vesicles imparts a number of benefits to the cargo, including protection from degradation by other bacteria, the host organism, or environmental factors, maintenance of a favorable microenvironment for enzymatic activity, and increased potential for long-distance movement. This enables vesicles to serve specialized functions tailored to changing or challenging environments, particularly in regard to microbial community interactions including quorum sensing, biofilm formation, antibiotic resistance, antimicrobial peptide expression and deployment, and nutrient acquisition. Additionally, based on their contents, vesicles play crucial roles in host-microbe interactions as carriers of virulence factors and other modulators of host cell function. Here, we discuss recent advances in our understanding of how vesicles function as signals both within microbial communities and between pathogenic or commensal microbes and their mammalian hosts. We also highlight a few areas that are currently ripe for additional research, including the mechanisms of selective cargo packaging into membrane vesicles and of cargo processing once it enters mammalian host cells, the function of vesicles in transfer of nucleic acids among bacteria, and the possibility of engineering commensal bacteria to deliver cargo of interest to mammalian hosts in a controlled manner.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julie C Caruana
- American Society for Engineering Education, Washington, DC, United States
| | - Scott A Walper
- US Naval Research Laboratory, Center for Biomolecular Science and Engineering, Washington, DC, United States
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46
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Felgner S, Spöring I, Pawar V, Kocijancic D, Preusse M, Falk C, Rohde M, Häussler S, Weiss S, Erhardt M. The immunogenic potential of bacterial flagella for Salmonella-mediated tumor therapy. Int J Cancer 2020; 147:448-460. [PMID: 31755108 DOI: 10.1002/ijc.32807] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/20/2019] [Revised: 11/07/2019] [Accepted: 11/12/2019] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
Genetically engineered Salmonella Typhimurium are potent vectors for prophylactic and therapeutic measures against pathogens as well as cancer. This is based on the potent adjuvanticity that supports strong immune responses. The physiology of Salmonella is well understood. It simplifies engineering of both enhanced immune-stimulatory properties as well as safety features, thus, resulting in an appropriate balance between attenuation and efficacy for clinical applications. A major virulence factor of Salmonella is the flagellum. It is also a strong pathogen-associated molecular pattern recognized by extracellular and intracellular receptors of immune cells of the host. At the same time, it represents a serious metabolic burden. Accordingly, the bacteria evolved tight regulatory mechanisms that control flagella synthesis in vivo. Here, we systematically investigated the immunogenicity and adjuvant properties of various flagella mutants of Salmonella in vitro and in a mouse cancer model in vivo. We found that mutants lacking the flagellum-specific ATPase FliHIJ or the inner membrane ring FliF displayed the greatest stimulatory capacity and strongest antitumor effects, while remaining safe in vivo. Scanning electron microscopy revealed the presence of outer membrane vesicles in the ΔfliF and ΔfliHIJ mutants. Finally, the combination of the ΔfliF and ΔfliHIJ mutations with our previously described attenuated and immunogenic background strain SF102 displayed strong efficacy against the highly resistant cancer cell line RenCa. We thus conclude that manipulating flagella biosynthesis has great potential for the construction of highly efficacious and versatile Salmonella vector strains.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sebastian Felgner
- Infection Biology of Salmonella, Helmholtz Centre for Infection Research, Braunschweig, Germany.,Department of Molecular Bacteriology, Helmholtz Centre for Infection Research, Braunschweig, Germany
| | - Imke Spöring
- Infection Biology of Salmonella, Helmholtz Centre for Infection Research, Braunschweig, Germany
| | - Vinay Pawar
- Department of Molecular Bacteriology, Helmholtz Centre for Infection Research, Braunschweig, Germany.,Central Facilities for Microscopy, Helmholtz Centre for Infection Research, Braunschweig, Germany
| | - Dino Kocijancic
- Institute of Immunology, Medical School Hannover, Hannover, Germany
| | - Matthias Preusse
- Department of Molecular Bacteriology, Helmholtz Centre for Infection Research, Braunschweig, Germany
| | - Christine Falk
- Institute of Transplant Immunology, Medical School Hannover, Hannover, Germany
| | - Manfred Rohde
- Central Facilities for Microscopy, Helmholtz Centre for Infection Research, Braunschweig, Germany
| | - Susanne Häussler
- Department of Molecular Bacteriology, Helmholtz Centre for Infection Research, Braunschweig, Germany
| | - Siegfried Weiss
- Institute of Immunology, Medical School Hannover, Hannover, Germany
| | - Marc Erhardt
- Infection Biology of Salmonella, Helmholtz Centre for Infection Research, Braunschweig, Germany.,Institute for Biology, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Berlin, Germany
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47
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Macia L, Nanan R, Hosseini-Beheshti E, Grau GE. Host- and Microbiota-Derived Extracellular Vesicles, Immune Function, and Disease Development. Int J Mol Sci 2019; 21:ijms21010107. [PMID: 31877909 PMCID: PMC6982009 DOI: 10.3390/ijms21010107] [Citation(s) in RCA: 143] [Impact Index Per Article: 28.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/11/2019] [Revised: 12/14/2019] [Accepted: 12/19/2019] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are blebs of either plasma membrane or intracellular membranes carrying a cargo of proteins, nucleic acids, and lipids. EVs are produced by eukaryotic cells both under physiological and pathological conditions. Genetic and environmental factors (diet, stress, etc.) affecting EV cargo, regulating EV release, and consequences on immunity will be covered. EVs are found in virtually all body fluids such as plasma, saliva, amniotic fluid, and breast milk, suggesting key roles in immune development and function at different life stages from in utero to aging. These will be reviewed here. Under pathological conditions, plasma EV levels are increased and exacerbate immune activation and inflammatory reaction. Sources of EV, cells targeted, and consequences on immune function and disease development will be discussed. Both pathogenic and commensal bacteria release EV, which are classified as outer membrane vesicles when released by Gram-negative bacteria or as membrane vesicles when released by Gram-positive bacteria. Bacteria derived EVs can affect host immunity with pathogenic bacteria derived EVs having pro-inflammatory effects of host immune cells while probiotic derived EVs mostly shape the immune response towards tolerance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laurence Macia
- Charles Perkins Centre, The University of Sydney, NSW 2006, Australia;
- School of Medical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine and Health, The University of Sydney, NSW 2006, Australia;
- Correspondence: (L.M.); (G.E.G.); Tel.: +61-2-8627-6525 (L.M.); +61-2-9036-3260 (G.E.G.)
| | - Ralph Nanan
- Charles Perkins Centre, The University of Sydney, NSW 2006, Australia;
- The University of Sydney, Sydney Medical School Nepean, Penrith 2751, Australia
| | - Elham Hosseini-Beheshti
- School of Medical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine and Health, The University of Sydney, NSW 2006, Australia;
- Vascular Immunology Unit, The University of Sydney, NSW 2006, Australia
| | - Georges E. Grau
- School of Medical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine and Health, The University of Sydney, NSW 2006, Australia;
- Vascular Immunology Unit, The University of Sydney, NSW 2006, Australia
- Correspondence: (L.M.); (G.E.G.); Tel.: +61-2-8627-6525 (L.M.); +61-2-9036-3260 (G.E.G.)
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Feitosa-Junior OR, Stefanello E, Zaini PA, Nascimento R, Pierry PM, Dandekar AM, Lindow SE, da Silva AM. Proteomic and Metabolomic Analyses of Xylella fastidiosa OMV-Enriched Fractions Reveal Association with Virulence Factors and Signaling Molecules of the DSF Family. PHYTOPATHOLOGY 2019; 109:1344-1353. [PMID: 30973310 DOI: 10.1094/phyto-03-19-0083-r] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
Xylella fastidiosa releases outer membrane vesicles (OMVs) known to play a role in the systemic dissemination of this pathogen. OMVs inhibit bacterial attachment to xylem wall and traffic lipases/esterases that act on the degradation of plant cell wall. Here, we extended the characterization of X. fastidiosa OMVs by identifying proteins and metabolites potentially associated with OMVs produced by Temecula1, a Pierce's disease strain, and by 9a5c and Fb7, two citrus variegated chlorosis strains. These results strengthen that one of the OMVs multiple functions is to carry determinants of virulence, such as lipases/esterases, adhesins, proteases, porins, and a pectin lyase-like protein. For the first time, we show that the two citrus variegated chlorosis strains produce X. fastidiosa diffusible signaling factor 2 (DSF2) and citrus variegated chlorosis-DSF (likewise, Temecula1) and most importantly, that these compounds of the DSF (X. fastidiosa DSF) family are associated with OMV-enriched fractions. Altogether, our findings widen the potential functions of X. fastidiosa OMVs in intercellular signaling and host-pathogen interactions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Oséias R Feitosa-Junior
- 1Departamento de Bioquímica, Instituto de Química, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, SP 05508-000, Brazil
| | - Eliezer Stefanello
- 1Departamento de Bioquímica, Instituto de Química, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, SP 05508-000, Brazil
| | - Paulo A Zaini
- 1Departamento de Bioquímica, Instituto de Química, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, SP 05508-000, Brazil
- 2Department of Plant Sciences, University of California, Davis, CA 95616, U.S.A
| | - Rafael Nascimento
- 1Departamento de Bioquímica, Instituto de Química, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, SP 05508-000, Brazil
- 3Instituto de Genética e Bioquímica, Universidade Federal de Uberlândia, Uberlândia, MG 38400-902, Brazil
| | - Paulo M Pierry
- 1Departamento de Bioquímica, Instituto de Química, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, SP 05508-000, Brazil
| | - Abhaya M Dandekar
- 2Department of Plant Sciences, University of California, Davis, CA 95616, U.S.A
| | - Steven E Lindow
- 4Department Plant and Microbial Biology, University of California, Berkeley, CA 94720, U.S.A
| | - Aline M da Silva
- 1Departamento de Bioquímica, Instituto de Química, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, SP 05508-000, Brazil
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49
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Gerritzen MJH, Martens DE, Uittenbogaard JP, Wijffels RH, Stork M. Sulfate depletion triggers overproduction of phospholipids and the release of outer membrane vesicles by Neisseria meningitidis. Sci Rep 2019; 9:4716. [PMID: 30886228 PMCID: PMC6423031 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-019-41233-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/15/2018] [Accepted: 03/05/2019] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Outer membrane vesicles (OMVs) produced by bacteria are interesting vaccine candidates. OMVs are nanoparticles that contain many immunogenic components, are self-adjuvating, and non-replicative. Despite recent insights in the biogenesis of OMVs, there is no consensus on a conserved mechanism of OMV release and the OMV yield from bacterial cultures remains low. For Neisseria meningitidis, a Gram-negative human pathogen causing meningitis and sepsis, a feasible OMV production method based on triggering OMV release by cysteine depletion has been described. In this study, we investigated the mechanism behind this external trigger for OMV release to improve the production process. Since enhanced OMV release upon cysteine depletion was associated with oxidative stress and redox responses, we investigate the influence of more oxidized sulfur sources on OMV release. We show that N. meningitidis grows similarly on sulfate, the most oxidized sulfur source, and OMV release is triggered by sulfur depletion in general. Sulfate depletion induced increased release of OMVs over cysteine depletion. Proteomics showed that sulfur depletion resulted in oxidative stress responses and upregulated phospholipid and LPS biosynthesis. Furthermore, OMVs produced by sulfur depletion were enriched in phospholipids. Mechanistically, we hypothesize that sulfur depletion results in overproduction of phospholipids causing increased bulging of the outer membrane and subsequent OMV release.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthias J H Gerritzen
- Institute for Translational Vaccinology (Intravacc), Process Development Bacterial Vaccines, P.O. Box 450, 3720 AL, Bilthoven, The Netherlands
- Wageningen University, Bioprocess Engineering, P.O. Box 16, 6700 AA, Wageningen, The Netherlands
| | - Dirk E Martens
- Wageningen University, Bioprocess Engineering, P.O. Box 16, 6700 AA, Wageningen, The Netherlands
| | - Joost P Uittenbogaard
- Institute for Translational Vaccinology (Intravacc), Analysis, Delivery, and Formulation, P.O. Box 450, 3720 AL, Bilthoven, The Netherlands
| | - René H Wijffels
- Wageningen University, Bioprocess Engineering, P.O. Box 16, 6700 AA, Wageningen, The Netherlands
- Nord University, Faculty of Biosciences and Aquaculture, P.O. Box 1409, 8049, Bodø, Norway
| | - Michiel Stork
- Institute for Translational Vaccinology (Intravacc), Process Development Bacterial Vaccines, P.O. Box 450, 3720 AL, Bilthoven, The Netherlands.
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50
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Scheenstra MR, van den Belt M, Tjeerdsma-van Bokhoven JLM, Schneider VAF, Ordonez SR, van Dijk A, Veldhuizen EJA, Haagsman HP. Cathelicidins PMAP-36, LL-37 and CATH-2 are similar peptides with different modes of action. Sci Rep 2019; 9:4780. [PMID: 30886247 PMCID: PMC6423055 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-019-41246-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/18/2018] [Accepted: 02/25/2019] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Host defense peptides (HDPs) play a pivotal role in innate immunity and have, in addition to antimicrobial activity, also important immunomodulatory functions. Bacteria are less likely to develop resistance against HDPs because these peptides target and kill bacteria in multiple ways, as well as modulate the immune system. Therefore, HDPs, and derivatives thereof, are promising alternatives to traditional antibiotics. Hardly anything is known about the immunomodulatory functions of porcine cathelicidin PMAP-36. In this study, we aimed to determine both antibacterial and immunomodulatory activities of PMAP-36 comparing the properties of PMAP-36 analogs with two well-studied peptides, human LL-37 and chicken CATH-2. Transmission electron microscopy revealed different killing mechanisms of E. coli for PMAP-36, CATH-2 and LL-37. LL-37 binds LPS very weakly in contrast to PMAP-36, but it inhibits LPS activation of macrophages the strongest. The first 11 amino acids of the N-terminal side of PMAP-36 are dispensable for E. coli killing, LPS-neutralization and binding. Deletion of four additional amino acids resulted in a strong decrease in activity. The activity of full length PMAP-36 was not affected by monomerization, whereas the shorter analogs require dimerization for proper immunomodulatory activity but not for their antibacterial activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maaike R Scheenstra
- Department of Infectious Diseases and Immunology, Division of Molecular Host Defence, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands.
| | - Matthias van den Belt
- Department of Infectious Diseases and Immunology, Division of Molecular Host Defence, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Johanna L M Tjeerdsma-van Bokhoven
- Department of Infectious Diseases and Immunology, Division of Molecular Host Defence, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Viktoria A F Schneider
- Department of Infectious Diseases and Immunology, Division of Molecular Host Defence, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Soledad R Ordonez
- Department of Infectious Diseases and Immunology, Division of Molecular Host Defence, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Albert van Dijk
- Department of Infectious Diseases and Immunology, Division of Molecular Host Defence, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Edwin J A Veldhuizen
- Department of Infectious Diseases and Immunology, Division of Molecular Host Defence, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Henk P Haagsman
- Department of Infectious Diseases and Immunology, Division of Molecular Host Defence, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands
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