The influence of sex, temperament, risk-taking and mental health on the emergence of gambling: a longitudinal study of young people

Psychosocial Perspective on Problem Gambling: The role of Social Relationships, Resilience, and COVID-19 Worry

The COVID-19 pandemic has amplified several psychosocial risks and problem behaviors among vulnerable individuals. Given that gambling has high addictive potential, it is important to consider the underlying mechanisms of problem gambling. This study examined psychosocial factors associated with pandemic-time problem gambling.Cross-sectional data were gathered via an online survey of 18-75-year-old Finnish, Swedish, and British respondents (n = 2,022) who reported having gambled at least occasionally during the pandemic. Measures included problem gambling, loneliness, COVID-19 worry, social support, and psychological resilience. Control variables included gender, age, and education. Structural equation modeling was used as an analytical technique.Loneliness was found to be associated with problem gambling. While COVID-19 worry was not directly associated with problem gambling, it predicted higher loneliness, which in turn was associated with problem gambling. Evidence was not found regarding the protective role of resilience or social support in problem gambling. However, social support was found to be associated with higher problem gambling severity. Male gender and younger age were associated with problem gambling.The results bring insight into underlying vulnerabilities regarding problem gambling during the pandemic. More focus should be placed on the quality and sources of social support, as well as on how psychosocial risk and protective factors might work differently among different populations of gamblers.

Underlying Mechanisms Involved in Gambling Disorder Severity: A Pathway Analysis Considering Genetic, Psychosocial, and Clinical Variables

Gambling Disorder (GD) has a complex etiology that involves biological and environmental aspects. From a genetic perspective, neurotrophic factors (NTFs) polymorphisms have been associated with the risk of developing GD. The aim of this study was to assess the underlying mechanisms implicated in GD severity by considering the direct and mediational relationship between different variables including genetic, psychological, socio-demographic, and clinical factors. To do so, we used genetic variants that were significantly associated with an increased risk for GD and evaluated its relationship with GD severity through pathway analysis. We found that the interaction between these genetic variants and other different biopsychological features predicted a higher severity of GD. On the one hand, the presence of haplotype block 2, interrelated with haplotype block 3, was linked to a more dysfunctional personality profile and a worse psychopathological state, which, in turn, had a direct link with GD severity. On the other hand, having rs3763614 predicted higher general psychopathology and therefore, higher GD severity. The current study described the presence of complex interactions between biopsychosocial variables previously associated with the etiopathogenesis and severity of GD, while also supporting the involvement of genetic variants from the NTF family.

A Longitudinal Examination of Young People's Gambling Behaviours and Participation in Team Sports

This paper develops and expands upon social identity theory as an explanation for gambling among youth engaged in team sport. Analysing longitudinal data for over 4500 20-year-olds from the Growing Up in Ireland study, reveals that online gambling increased from 2.6 to 9.3% between 17 and 20 years in the cohort, with the increase driven by males. A statistically significant positive association is uncovered between playing team sports and regularly gambling, as well as online gambling behaviour, independent of socio-demographic and other risk factors for males but not for females. The findings provide support for a dose-response like effect for males, where a longer period of participation in team sports is associated with a higher likelihood of engaging in gambling behaviour compared to shorter periods. Implications of the findings for policy and practice are discussed.

Adult Gambling Problems and Histories of Mental Health and Substance Use: Findings from a Prospective Multi-Wave Australian Cohort Study

Little is known about the cumulative effect of adolescent and young adult mental health difficulties and substance use problems on gambling behaviour in adulthood. We use data from one of Australia's longest running studies of social and emotional development to examine the extent to which: (1) mental health symptoms (depressive and anxiety symptoms) and substance use (weekly binge drinking, tobacco, and cannabis use) from adolescence (13-18 years) into young adulthood (19-28 years) predict gambling problems in adulthood (31-32 years); and (2) risk relationships differ by sex. Analyses were based on responses from 1365 adolescent and young adult participants, spanning seven waves of data collection (1998-2014). Persistent adolescent to young adult binge drinking, tobacco use and cannabis use predicted gambling at age 31-32 years (OR = 2.30-3.42). Binge drinking and tobacco use in young adulthood also predicted gambling at age 31-32 years (OR = 2.04-2.54). Prior mental health symptoms were not associated with gambling and no risk relationships differed by sex. Findings suggest that gambling problems in adulthood may be related to the earlier development of other addictive behaviours, and that interventions targeting substance use from adolescence to young adulthood may confer additional gains in preventing later gambling behaviours.

Exploring the associations between gambling cravings, self-efficacy, and gambling episodes: An Ecological Momentary Assessment study

AIMS

To explore reciprocal relationships between real-time gambling cravings and self-efficacy with gambling behaviour, and the moderating role of gambling, mental health, and addiction-related variables.

DESIGN

Secondary analysis of a 4-week Ecological Momentary Assessment (EMA) study conducted in Tasmania, Australia.

SETTING

Data were collected via telephone interviews (pre-EMA) and smartphones (EMA).

PARTICIPANTS

Ninety-seven regular gamblers (mean age: 45.90 years, 57.73% male) reported 5,113 observations.

MEASUREMENTS

EMA measures included gambling cravings (occurrence, frequency, intensity), self-efficacy (craving-related, gambling-related), and gambling behaviour (episodes, expenditure, duration). Pre-EMA measures included gambling (severity; harms; motives; high-risk situations), mental health (depressive symptoms; anxiety symptoms) and addiction-related (alcohol use; smoking; substance use) moderator variables.

FINDINGS

Mixed-effects binary logistic regression analyses revealed that gambling cravings predicted gambling episodes (OR = 2.23, 95% CI:1.61, 3.08), gambling self-efficacy and gambling duration were reciprocally related (OR = 4.65, 95% CI:1.08, 20.04; OR = 0.21, 95% CI:0.05, 0.93), and craving self-efficacy predicted gambling expenditure (OR = 0.30, 95% CI:0.10, 0.86). Moderation analyses revealed that: (1) craving self-efficacy exacerbated craving frequency with gambling expenditure; (2) coping motives exacerbated gambling self-efficacy with gambling expenditure; (3) high-risk positive reinforcement situations exacerbated craving intensity and gambling self-efficacy with gambling episodes, and gambling episode with craving occurrence; and (4) substance use exacerbated gambling self-efficacy with duration, and buffered gambling expenditure with craving intensity.

CONCLUSIONS

These findings have implications for the development of real-time gambling interventions that aim to reduce gambling cravings and increase self-efficacy, which could be targeted to vulnerable individuals, including people who frequently gambled for coping purposes or positive reinforcement, and people with comorbid substance use.

Gambling and Alcohol Problems during the College Years: Personality, Physical and Emotional Health and Gambling Beliefs

Gambling and alcohol problems commonly co-occur during emerging adulthood. Co-occurring problems may relates to personality factors, physical health, mental health and gambling belief systems. In a large sample of colleges students (N = 513), we examined alcohol, gambling and co-occurring problem groups relative to a group without alcohol or gambling problems from large sample of college students. Group differences were found on Constraint and Negative Emotionality (ps ≤ .05). All three groups had a higher score on gamblers' beliefs of illusion of control compared to the group with no problems (all ps < .05). Those with co-occurring problems had a higher score on illusion of control beliefs than those with alcohol problems only. For luck/perseverance gambling beliefs, those with co-occurring problems had higher levels than other groups on these beliefs. The group with alcohol problems and significantly poorer mental health outcomes than those without alcohol or gambling problems. Individuals with gambling problems or alcohol problems only had significantly poorer self-rated overall physical health (p < .01). Differences were found between groups (alcohol, gambling, alcohol + gambling and neither) on self-rated energy and fatigue as well as pain (ps < .05). Gambling and alcohol problems may relate to emotional and health problems, and personality and belief systems may be related to the co-occurrence of gambling and alcohol problems.

Problem Gambling in Early Adulthood: a Population-Based Study

The aims of this study were to investigate stability of problem gambling between 20 and 24 years of age, and the antecedents and consequences of problem gambling at age 20 years. Young adult participants in the Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children (ALSPAC) completed computer-administered gambling surveys on paper, or online. Responses to the Problem Gambling Severity Index (PGSI) were complete for 2624 participants at 20 years, and 1921 participants at 24 years. Responses were categorized into ‘non-problem’ (71–78%), ‘low-risk gambling’ (16–21%), ‘moderate-risk gambling’ (4–5.5%), and ‘problem gambling’ (1–1.5%). The overall frequency of moderate-risk/problem gambling varied little between age 20 and 24 years, and scratch cards, online betting and gambling were the most frequent activities. Problem gamblers at age 20 years had a history of hyperactivity and conduct problems in adolescence, high sensation seeking, and an external locus of control. They were more likely to have mothers who had problems with gambling, reported less parental supervision, and higher social media usage. Moderate-risk/problem gambling at age 20 years was associated with regular cigarette smoking, high levels of illicit drug use, and problematic use of alcohol at age 24 years. A significant minority of young adults (mainly males) showed problem gambling behaviours which appeared to be established by the age of 20 years and were associated with other potentially addictive behaviours.

Conduct problems and depressive symptoms in association with problem gambling and gaming: A systematic review

BACKGROUND AND AIMS

Behavioral addictions such as gambling and gaming disorder are significant public health issues that are of increasing importance to policy makers and health care providers. Problem gambling and gaming behaviors have been identified as being associated with externalizing and internalizing problems, with theoretical models suggesting that both conduct problems and depressive symptoms may be significant risk factors in the development of problem gambling and gaming. As such, the purpose of this systematic review is to provide an overview of research identifying the relationship between conduct problems, depressive symptoms and problem gambling and gaming among adolescents and young adults.

METHODS

Systematic literature searches in accordance with PRISMA guidelines found 71 eligible studies that met the inclusion criteria, 47 for problem gambling, 23 for problem gaming and one for both problem behaviors.

RESULTS

Based on cross-sectional evidence, both problem gambling and gaming are consistently concurrently associated with conduct problems and depressive symptoms. Longitudinal evidence appears to be clearer for conduct problems as a risk factor for problem gambling, and depressive symptoms as a risk factor for problem gaming. However, both risk factors appear to increase the risk for these problem behaviors.

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS

Results from the literature review suggest that problem gambling and gaming are associated with the presence of conduct problems and depressive symptoms, with the potential of sharing common etiological factors. Additional research is necessary to confirm these longitudinal relationships with an emphasis on investigating the interaction of both early conduct problems and depressive symptoms.

Psychosocial risk factors in disordered gambling: A descriptive systematic overview of vulnerable populations

BACKGROUND

Gambling is a behaviour engaged in by millions of people worldwide; for some, gambling can become a severely maladaptive behaviour, and previous research has identified a wide range of psychosocial risk factors that can be considered important for the development and maintenance of disordered gambling. Although risk factors have been identified, the homogeneity of risk factors across specific groups thought to be vulnerable to disordered gambling is to date, unexplored.

METHODS

To address this, the current review sought to conduct a systematic overview of literature relating to seven vulnerable groups: young people and adolescents, older adults, women, veterans, indigenous peoples, prisoners, and low socio-economic/income groups.

RESULTS

Multiple risk factors associated with disordered gambling were identified; some appeared consistently across most groups, including being male, co-morbid mental and physical health conditions, substance use disorders, accessibility and availability of gambling, form and mode of gambling, and experience of trauma. Further risk factors were identified that were specific to each vulnerable group.

CONCLUSION

Within the general population, certain groups are more vulnerable to disordered gambling. Although some risk factors are consistent across groups, some risk factors appear to be group specific. It is clear that there is no homogenous pathway in to disordered gambling, and that social, developmental, environmental and demographic characteristics can all interact to influence an individual's relationship with gambling.

The Reciprocal Association between Problem Gambling and Mental Health Symptoms/Substance Use: Cross-Lagged Path Modelling of Longitudinal Cohort Data

To date, studies have highlighted cross-sectional and unidirectional prospective relationships between problem gambling and mental health symptoms or substance use. The current study aims to: (1) examine the reciprocal relationships between problem gambling and mental health symptoms (depression, generalized anxiety)/substance use variables (hazardous alcohol use, daily tobacco use, and drug use) using cross-lagged path models in a prospective general population cohort sample; and (2) determine whether these associations are moderated by age and gender. This study involved secondary data analysis from 1109 respondents who provided data during Wave 2 or 3 (12-months apart) of the Tasmanian Longitudinal Gambling Study (Australia). Depression (odds ratio (OR) = 2.164) and generalized anxiety (OR = 2.300) at Wave 2 were found to have cross-lagged associations with the subsequent development of any-risk gambling (low-risk, moderate-risk, or problem gambling) at Wave 3. Hazardous alcohol use, daily tobacco use, and drug use at Wave 2 were not associated with the development of any-risk gambling at Wave 3. Any-risk gambling at Wave 2 was not associated with the subsequent development of any mental health symptoms or substance use variables at Wave 3. Age and gender failed to be significant moderators in the associations between any-risk gambling and mental health symptoms or substance use variables. Future longitudinal and event-level research is required to further substantiate these prospective relationships, with a view to developing targeted preventions and interventions.

Peer Group Identification as Determinant of Youth Behavior and the Role of Perceived Social Support in Problem Gambling

Gambling opportunities have increased rapidly during recent years. Previous research shows that gambling is a popular activity among youth, which may contribute to problem gambling. This study examined how social identification with online and offline peer groups associates with youth problem gambling behavior and if perceived social support buffers this relationship. Data were gathered with an online survey with 1212 American and 1200 Finnish participants between 15 and 25 years of age. Measures included the South Oaks Gambling Screen for problem gambling, and items for peer group identification and perceived social support. It was found that youth who identify strongly with offline peer groups were less likely to engage in problem gambling, while strong identification with online peer groups had the opposite effect. We also found that the associations between social identification and problem gambling behavior were moderated by perceived social support. Online peer groups may be a determinant in youth problem gambling. Focusing on offline peer groups and increasing social support can hold significant potential in youth gambling prevention.

Problem Gambling among Adolescent Girls in Croatia-The Role of Different Psychosocial Predictors

Although, compared to boys, adolescent girls gamble less often and less problematically, prevalence studies still show significant numbers of at risk/problem gamblers among girls. However, girl gambling has been on the sidelines of adolescent gambling research. The available studies usually focus only on a narrow set of correlates often ignoring that adolescent gambling is a complex phenomenon determined by various factors. Also, they often measure gambling related consequences with instruments that are not specifically developed for use on adolescents. In order to contribute to a better understanding of adolescent gambling this study focuses on problem gambling among girls. We consider different social, cognitive, motivational and behavioral factors as predictors of girl problem gambling. A total of 1,372 high-school girls from 7 Croatian cities participated in the study. They provided data on their gambling activities, peer gambling, cognitive distortions related to gambling, motivation for gambling, and levels of general risky behavior. As the only instrument developed specifically for use on adolescents, the Canadian Adolescent Gambling Inventory was used to examine adverse gambling consequences. Results show 7.4% of girls can be considered regular gamblers, and out of those who gambled at least once in their lifetime (n = 862), 11.2% already experience mild adverse consequences because of their gambling (at risk gamblers), with 3.2% experiencing serious consequences (problem gamblers). In general, girls seem to prefer lotto and scratch cards, but sports betting seems to be the preferred game of choice among regular girl gamblers. A hierarchical regression model confirmed the importance of much the same factors identified as risky for the development of problem gambling among adolescent boys—cognitive distortions, motives to earn money, to be better at gambling and to relax, the experiences of winning large and the drive to continue gambling, together with social factors such as having friends who also gamble, being involved in other risky and delinquent behavior and higher gambling frequency. Results call into question the importance of the motive to feel better for adolescent girls problem gambling. We discuss implications of our findings for both universal and indicated youth gambling prevention programs.

The Relationships between Mental Health Symptoms and Gambling Behavior in the Transition from Adolescence to Emerging Adulthood

There is a paucity of longitudinal investigations of gambling behavior in the transition from adolescence to emerging adulthood. We conducted a longitudinal investigation of the associations and patterns of change between mental health symptoms and gambling behavior. A representative sample of Norwegians completed questionnaires containing demographic, mental health, and gambling measures at age 17 (N = 2055), and at ages 18 (N = 1334) and 19 (N = 1277). Using latent class analysis, three classes of gambling behavior were identified: consistent non-gambling (71.1%), consistent non-risk gambling (23.8%), and risky-and-problem gambling (5.1%). Being male, showing higher physical and verbal aggression and having more symptoms of depression were associated with greater odds of belonging to the risky-and-problem gambling class at age 17. Overall, the risky-and-problem gambling class had the highest physical and verbal aggression, anxiety, and depression at 19 years. Our findings elucidate the reciprocal relationship between mental health and gambling behavior in the transition from adolescence to emerging adulthood, and the importance of recognizing these factors in designing targeted interventions.