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Sun Y, Zhang C, Lei T, Lin F, Huang J, Hu Y, Wang D, Zhang W. HIV1 gp120 activates microglia via TLR2-NF-κB signaling to up-regulate inflammatory cytokine expression and induce neuropathic pain. Neuropharmacology 2024; 260:110136. [PMID: 39216684 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropharm.2024.110136] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/10/2023] [Revised: 08/25/2024] [Accepted: 08/28/2024] [Indexed: 09/04/2024]
Abstract
HIV associated neuropathic pain (HANP) is a common complication of AIDS. Intrathecal injection of recombinant HIV-1 gp120 in mice is a well-known model. Previous RNA sequencing revealed spinal TLR2 acts as a differentially expressed gene in HANP mice. The spinal TLR2 is involved in HANP, but its role and underlying mechanism remains unclear. In this study the transcription, expression and distribution characteristics of TLR2 in the spinal cord of HANP male mice have been analyzed by qRT-PCR, Western blotting, and immunofluorescent staining. We found that TLR2 expression was upregulated in the spinal dorsal horn and mainly distributed in microglial cells, and blocking TLR2 relieved pain of HANP mice. Following stimulation by gp120 microglial cells upregulate TLR2 expression and become activated. The activation stimulates their differentiation into the M1 type, increasing IL-1β and TNF-α expression while inhibiting IL-10 expression. Silencing the Tlr2 gene slows down the activation, polarization, and secretion of pro-inflammatory factors in microglial cells induced by gp120, and enhances the expression of anti-inflammatory factors. Further analysis of the impact of gp120 on downstream signaling pathways of TLR2 in microglial cells, including NF-κB, MAPK (p38MAPK, ERK, and JNK) and PI3K/AKT, revealed that TLR2-NF-κB signaling plays a crucial role in the activation and polarization of microglial cells by gp120. Activation of NF-κB signaling aggravates pain in HANP mice, while blocking it lightens pain. This data indicates that gp120, through the TLR2-NF-κB signaling, activates spinal microglial cells, promotes the secretion of inflammatory cytokines, leading to HANP. This provides new targets to develop drugs for HANP.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yimeng Sun
- Zhejiang Provincial Key Laboratory of Silkworm Bioreactor and Biomedicine, College of Life Sciences and Medicine, Zhejiang Sci-Tech University, Hangzhou, 310018, China
| | - Chen Zhang
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Denver (currently at entos pharmaceuticals), Denver, CO 80210, USA
| | - Tao Lei
- Department of Orthopedic Surgery, Changzheng Hospital, Naval Medical University, Shanghai 200003, China
| | - Fei Lin
- Zhejiang Provincial Key Laboratory of Silkworm Bioreactor and Biomedicine, College of Life Sciences and Medicine, Zhejiang Sci-Tech University, Hangzhou, 310018, China
| | - Jian Huang
- Zhejiang Provincial Key Laboratory of Silkworm Bioreactor and Biomedicine, College of Life Sciences and Medicine, Zhejiang Sci-Tech University, Hangzhou, 310018, China
| | - Yanling Hu
- The First Affiliated Hospital,College of Medicine,Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, 310003, China
| | - Dan Wang
- Zhejiang Provincial Key Laboratory of Silkworm Bioreactor and Biomedicine, College of Life Sciences and Medicine, Zhejiang Sci-Tech University, Hangzhou, 310018, China
| | - Wenping Zhang
- Zhejiang Provincial Key Laboratory of Silkworm Bioreactor and Biomedicine, College of Life Sciences and Medicine, Zhejiang Sci-Tech University, Hangzhou, 310018, China.
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2
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Boby N, Williams KM, Das A, Pahar B. Toll-like Receptor 2 Mediated Immune Regulation in Simian Immunodeficiency Virus-Infected Rhesus Macaques. Vaccines (Basel) 2023; 11:1861. [PMID: 38140264 PMCID: PMC10747659 DOI: 10.3390/vaccines11121861] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/11/2023] [Revised: 12/11/2023] [Accepted: 12/14/2023] [Indexed: 12/24/2023] Open
Abstract
Toll-like receptors (TLRs) are crucial to the innate immune response. They regulate inflammatory reactions by initiating the production of pro-inflammatory cytokines and chemokines. TLRs also play a role in shaping the adaptive immune responses. While this protective response is important for eliminating infectious pathogens, persistent activation of TLRs may result in chronic immune activation, leading to detrimental effects. The role of TLR2 in regulating HIV-1 infection in vivo has yet to be well described. In this study, we used an SIV-infected rhesus macaque model to simulate HIV infection in humans. We evaluated the plasma of the macaques longitudinally and found a significant increase in the soluble TLR2 (sTLR2) level after SIV infection. We also observed an increase in membrane-bound TLR2 (mb-TLR2) in cytotoxic T cells, B cells, and NK cells in PBMC and NK cells in the gut after infection. Our results suggest that sTLR2 regulates the production of various cytokines and chemokines, including IL-18, IL-1RA, IL-15, IL-13, IL-9, TPO, FLT3L, and IL-17F, as well as chemokines, including IP-10, MCP-1, MCP-2, ENA-78, GRO-α, I-TAC, Fractalkine, SDF-1α, and MIP-3α. Interestingly, these cytokines and chemokines were also upregulated after the infection. The positive correlation between SIV copy number and sTLR2 in the plasma indicated the involvement of TLR2 in the regulation of viral replication. These cytokines and chemokines could directly or indirectly regulate viral replication through the TLR2 signaling pathways. When we stimulated PBMC with the TLR2 agonist in vitro, we observed a direct induction of various cytokines and chemokines. Some of these cytokines and chemokines, such as IL-1RA, IL-9, IL-15, GRO-α, and ENA-78, were positively correlated with sTLR2 in vivo, highlighting the direct involvement of TLR2 in the regulation of the production of these factors. Our findings suggest that TLR2 expression may be a target for developing new therapeutic strategies to combat HIV infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nongthombam Boby
- Division of Comparative Pathology, Tulane National Primate Research Center, Covington, LA 70433, USA; (N.B.); (K.M.W.)
| | - Kelsey M. Williams
- Division of Comparative Pathology, Tulane National Primate Research Center, Covington, LA 70433, USA; (N.B.); (K.M.W.)
| | - Arpita Das
- Division of Microbiology, Tulane National Primate Research Center, Covington, LA 70433, USA;
| | - Bapi Pahar
- Division of Comparative Pathology, Tulane National Primate Research Center, Covington, LA 70433, USA; (N.B.); (K.M.W.)
- School of Medicine, Tulane University, New Orleans, LA 70118, USA
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3
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Pawar P, Gokavi J, Wakhare S, Bagul R, Ghule U, Khan I, Ganu V, Mukherjee A, Shete A, Rao A, Saxena V. MiR-155 Negatively Regulates Anti-Viral Innate Responses among HIV-Infected Progressors. Viruses 2023; 15:2206. [PMID: 38005883 PMCID: PMC10675553 DOI: 10.3390/v15112206] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/06/2023] [Revised: 09/28/2023] [Accepted: 10/02/2023] [Indexed: 11/26/2023] Open
Abstract
HIV infection impairs host immunity, leading to progressive disease. An anti-retroviral treatment efficiently controls viremia but cannot completely restore the immune dysfunction in HIV-infected individuals. Both host and viral factors determine the rate of disease progression. Among the host factors, innate immunity plays a critical role; however, the mechanism(s) associated with dysfunctional innate responses are poorly understood among HIV disease progressors, which was investigated here. The gene expression profiles of TLRs and innate cytokines in HIV-infected (LTNPs and progressors) and HIV-uninfected individuals were examined. Since the progressors showed a dysregulated TLR-mediated innate response, we investigated the role of TLR agonists in restoring the innate functions of the progressors. The stimulation of PBMCs with TLR3 agonist-poly:(I:C), TLR7 agonist-GS-9620 and TLR9 agonist-ODN 2216 resulted in an increased expression of IFN-α, IFN-β and IL-6. Interestingly, the expression of IFITM3, BST-2, IFITM-3, IFI-16 was also increased upon stimulation with TLR3 and TLR7 agonists, respectively. To further understand the molecular mechanism involved, the role of miR-155 was explored. Increased miR-155 expression was noted among the progressors. MiR-155 inhibition upregulated the expression of TLR3, NF-κB, IRF-3, TNF-α and the APOBEC-3G, IFITM-3, IFI-16 and BST-2 genes in the PBMCs of the progressors. To conclude, miR-155 negatively regulates TLR-mediated cytokines as wel l as the expression of host restriction factors, which play an important role in mounting anti-HIV responses; hence, targeting miR-155 might be helpful in devising strategic approaches towards alleviating HIV disease progression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Puja Pawar
- Division of Immunology and Serology, ICMR-National AIDS Research Institute, Pune 411026, India; (P.P.); (J.G.); (S.W.); (V.G.); (A.S.)
| | - Jyotsna Gokavi
- Division of Immunology and Serology, ICMR-National AIDS Research Institute, Pune 411026, India; (P.P.); (J.G.); (S.W.); (V.G.); (A.S.)
| | - Shilpa Wakhare
- Division of Immunology and Serology, ICMR-National AIDS Research Institute, Pune 411026, India; (P.P.); (J.G.); (S.W.); (V.G.); (A.S.)
| | - Rajani Bagul
- Division of Clinical Sciences, ICMR-National AIDS Research Institute, Pune 411026, India; (R.B.); (U.G.); (A.R.)
| | - Ujjwala Ghule
- Division of Clinical Sciences, ICMR-National AIDS Research Institute, Pune 411026, India; (R.B.); (U.G.); (A.R.)
| | - Ishrat Khan
- Division of Virology, ICMR-National AIDS Research Institute, Pune 411026, India; (I.K.); (A.M.)
| | - Varada Ganu
- Division of Immunology and Serology, ICMR-National AIDS Research Institute, Pune 411026, India; (P.P.); (J.G.); (S.W.); (V.G.); (A.S.)
| | - Anupam Mukherjee
- Division of Virology, ICMR-National AIDS Research Institute, Pune 411026, India; (I.K.); (A.M.)
| | - Ashwini Shete
- Division of Immunology and Serology, ICMR-National AIDS Research Institute, Pune 411026, India; (P.P.); (J.G.); (S.W.); (V.G.); (A.S.)
| | - Amrita Rao
- Division of Clinical Sciences, ICMR-National AIDS Research Institute, Pune 411026, India; (R.B.); (U.G.); (A.R.)
| | - Vandana Saxena
- Division of Immunology and Serology, ICMR-National AIDS Research Institute, Pune 411026, India; (P.P.); (J.G.); (S.W.); (V.G.); (A.S.)
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4
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Naidoo KK, Ndumnego OC, Ismail N, Dong KL, Ndung'u T. Antigen Presenting Cells Contribute to Persistent Immune Activation Despite Antiretroviral Therapy Initiation During Hyperacute HIV-1 Infection. Front Immunol 2021; 12:738743. [PMID: 34630420 PMCID: PMC8498034 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2021.738743] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/09/2021] [Accepted: 09/09/2021] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-induced changes in immune cells during the acute phase of infection can cause irreversible immunological damage and predict the rate of disease progression. Antiretroviral therapy (ART) remains the most effective strategy for successful immune restoration in immunocompromised people living with HIV and the earlier ART is initiated after infection, the better the long-term clinical outcomes. Here we explored the effect of ART on peripheral antigen presenting cell (APC) phenotype and function in women with HIV-1 subtype C infection who initiated ART in the hyperacute phase (before peak viremia) or during chronic infection. Peripheral blood mononuclear cells obtained longitudinally from study participants were used for immunophenotyping and functional analysis of monocytes and dendritic cells (DCs) using multiparametric flow cytometry and matched plasma was used for measurement of inflammatory markers IL-6 and soluble CD14 (sCD14) by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. HIV infection was associated with expansion of monocyte and plasmacytoid DC (pDC) frequencies and perturbation of monocyte subsets compared to uninfected persons despite antiretroviral treatment during hyperacute infection. Expression of activation marker CD69 on monocytes and pDCs in early treated HIV was similar to uninfected individuals. However, despite early ART, HIV infection was associated with elevation of plasma IL-6 and sCD14 levels which correlated with monocyte activation. Furthermore, HIV infection with or without early ART was associated with downmodulation of the co-stimulatory molecule CD86. Notably, early ART was associated with preserved toll-like receptor (TLR)-induced IFN-α responses of pDCs. Overall, this data provides evidence of the beneficial impact of ART initiated in hyperacute infection in preservation of APC functional cytokine production activity; but also highlights persistent inflammation facilitated by monocyte activation even after prolonged viral suppression and suggests the need for therapeutic interventions that target residual immune activation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kewreshini K Naidoo
- HIV Pathogenesis Programme, Doris Duke Medical Research Institute, Nelson R. Mandela School of Medicine, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, South Africa
| | | | - Nasreen Ismail
- HIV Pathogenesis Programme, Doris Duke Medical Research Institute, Nelson R. Mandela School of Medicine, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, South Africa
| | - Krista L Dong
- Females Rising Through Education, Support and Health, Durban, South Africa.,Ragon Institute of Massachusetts General Hospital, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, and Harvard University, Cambridge, MA, United States
| | - Thumbi Ndung'u
- HIV Pathogenesis Programme, Doris Duke Medical Research Institute, Nelson R. Mandela School of Medicine, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, South Africa.,Africa Health Research Institute, Durban, South Africa.,Ragon Institute of Massachusetts General Hospital, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, and Harvard University, Cambridge, MA, United States.,Max Planck Institute for Infection Biology, Berlin, Germany.,Division of Infection and Immunity, University College London, London, United Kingdom
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5
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Laplana M, Bravo MJ, Fernández-Fuertes M, Ruiz-Garcia C, Alarcón-Martin E, Colmenero JDD, Caruz A, Fibla J, Real LM, Royo JL. Toll-Like Receptor 2 Promoter -196 to -174 Deletion Affects CD4 Levels Along Human Immunodeficiency Virus Infection Progression. J Infect Dis 2021; 222:2007-2011. [PMID: 32516401 DOI: 10.1093/infdis/jiaa327] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/15/2020] [Accepted: 06/08/2020] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Toll-like receptor 2 (TLR2) plays a key role in innate immune response recognizing molecular patterns expressed by pathogens. rs111200466 is a TLR2 promoter insertion/deletion polymorphism with contradictory data about its role in human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) infection. We analyzed rs111200466 in HIV-1 disease progression and showed a correlation with a faster progression to the CD4+ < 200 cells/μL outcome for deletion allele carriers (Cox regression analysis: hazard ratio, 2.4 [95% confidence interval, 1.4-4]; P = .001). When naive patients with CD4+ < 200 cells/μL started antiretroviral treatment, rs111200466-deletion carriers showed a trend toward a slower, recovery rate (time required to reach CD4+ > 350 cells/μL; Cox P = .36). Our data suggest rs111200466 as a prognosis factor for HIV-1 disease progression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marina Laplana
- Unitat de Genètica Humana, Departament de Ciències Mèdiques Bàsiques, Institut de Recerca Biomèdica de Lleida, Universitat de Lleida, Lleida, Spain.,Departament de Ciència Animal, Universitat de Lleida, Lleida, Spain
| | - Maria Jose Bravo
- Departamento de Cirugía, Bioquimica e Inmunología, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad de Málaga, Málaga, Spain
| | - Marta Fernández-Fuertes
- Unidad Clínica de Enfermedades Infecciosas y Microbiología, Hospital Universitario de Valme, Sevilla, Spain
| | | | - Emilio Alarcón-Martin
- Departamento de Cirugía, Bioquimica e Inmunología, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad de Málaga, Málaga, Spain
| | | | - Antonio Caruz
- Unidad de Inmunogenética, Universidad de Jaén, Jaén, Spain
| | - Joan Fibla
- Unitat de Genètica Humana, Departament de Ciències Mèdiques Bàsiques, Institut de Recerca Biomèdica de Lleida, Universitat de Lleida, Lleida, Spain
| | - Luis Miguel Real
- Departamento de Cirugía, Bioquimica e Inmunología, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad de Málaga, Málaga, Spain.,Unidad Clínica de Enfermedades Infecciosas y Microbiología, Hospital Universitario de Valme, Sevilla, Spain
| | - Jose Luis Royo
- Departamento de Cirugía, Bioquimica e Inmunología, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad de Málaga, Málaga, Spain
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6
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The Role of Toll-Like Receptors in Retroviral Infection. Microorganisms 2020; 8:microorganisms8111787. [PMID: 33202596 PMCID: PMC7697840 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms8111787] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/29/2020] [Revised: 11/11/2020] [Accepted: 11/13/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Toll-like receptors (TLRs) are key pathogen sensing receptors that respond to diverse microbial ligands, and trigger both innate and adaptive immune responses to infection. Since their discovery, a growing body of evidence has pointed to an important role for TLRs in retroviral infection and pathogenesis. These data suggest that multiple TLRs contribute to the anti-retroviral response, and that TLR engagement by retroviruses can have complex and divergent outcomes for infection. Despite this progress, numerous questions remain about the role of TLRs in retroviral infection. In this review, I summarize existing evidence for TLR-retrovirus interactions and the functional roles these receptors play in immunity and pathogenesis, with particular focus on human immunodeficiency virus (HIV).
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7
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Yadav S, Verma V, Singh Dhanda R, Yadav M. Insights into the toll-like receptors in sexually transmitted infections. Scand J Immunol 2020; 93:e12954. [PMID: 32762084 DOI: 10.1111/sji.12954] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/04/2019] [Revised: 07/10/2020] [Accepted: 08/01/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Toll-like receptors (TLRs) are like soldiers of an innate immune system, which protects vital biological processes against invading pathogens. TLR signalling pathways help in the removal of pathogens and mediate well-established inflammatory processes. However, these processes may also aid in the development or augmentation of an infection or an autoimmune disease. Recent studies have delineated TLR polymorphism's role in the loss of function, making hosts more resistant or vulnerable to the development of an infection. In this review, we have discussed the association of TLRs with sexually transmitted infections (STIs), especially to the pathogen-specific ligands. We have also assessed the impact on TLR downstream signalling and the maintenance of cellular homeostasis during immune responses. Besides, we have discussed the role of TLRs single nucleotide polymorphisms in various STIs. Since TLRs are known to play a part in defence mechanisms and in aiding infections therefore, a thorough understanding of TLRs structure and molecular mechanisms is required to explain how they can influence the outcome of an STI. Such a strategy may lead to the development of novel and useful immunotherapeutic approaches to control pathogen progression and prevent transmission.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sonal Yadav
- Dr. B. R. Ambedkar Center for Biomedical Research (ACBR), University of Delhi, Delhi, India
| | - Vivek Verma
- Dr. B. R. Ambedkar Center for Biomedical Research (ACBR), University of Delhi, Delhi, India
| | | | - Manisha Yadav
- Dr. B. R. Ambedkar Center for Biomedical Research (ACBR), University of Delhi, Delhi, India.,Department of Clinical Microbiology, Rigshospitalet, Copenhagen, Denmark
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8
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Abstract
Apolipoprotein L1 (APOL1) genetic variants are potent risk factors for glomerular disease, but one or more additional factors are required for expression of glomerular disease. Uncontrolled or poorly controlled human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection is the most potent susceptibility factor for APOL1 nephropathy that has been identified to date. APOL1 variants are associated with HIV-associated nephropathy (HIVAN), a podocyte disease, but not with HIV-immune complex disease, primarily a disease of the mesangium. The mechanism by which HIV brings out the latent glomerular disease risk remains to be defined. There are at least two classes of candidate mechanisms to explain the potent interaction between HIV-1 and APOL1. First, APOL1 variant proteins and HIV accessory proteins implicated in HIVAN may target the same or related intracellular pathways in podocytes. Recent data suggest roles for interleukin 1b and transcription factor EB. Second, features of uncontrolled HIV infection, including increased circulating factors such as interferon, may drive APOL1 gene transcription or act upon podocytes in other ways. Deeper probing of APOL1-HIV interactions may yield insights that will aid in understanding HIVAN, APOL1 nephropathy, and podocyte biology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeffrey B Kopp
- Kidney Disease Section, National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD.
| | - Jurgen Heymann
- Kidney Disease Section, National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD
| | - Cheryl A Winkler
- Basic Research Laboratory, National Cancer Institute, National Institutes of Health, Leidos Biomedical Research, Frederick National Laboratory for Cancer Research, Frederick, MD
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9
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Devalraju KP, Neela VSK, Gaddam R, Chaudhury A, Van A, Krovvidi SS, Vankayalapati R, Valluri VL. Defective MyD88 and IRAK4 but not TLR-2 expression in HIV+ individuals with latent tuberculosis infection. Cytokine 2018; 110:213-221. [PMID: 29778672 DOI: 10.1016/j.cyto.2018.05.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/06/2017] [Revised: 04/17/2018] [Accepted: 05/07/2018] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
HIV infection markedly increases the likelihood of latent tuberculosis infection progressing to active TB. Information on expression of TLR-2, myeloid differentiation factor (MyD88), IL-1R- associated kinase-4 (IRAK4) and nuclear factor kappa B (NF-kB) in HIV+LTBI+ and HIV+ patients with active TB disease is limited. We found significantly higher percentages of CD14+TLR2+ cells in PBMCs of HIV+LTBI+ patients compared to HIV-LTBI+ individuals. γ-irradiated Mtb was unable to induce MyD88, IRAK4 expression and IL-1β, MCP-1, IP-10 production in HIV+LTBI+ patients. Pleural fluids from HIV+TB+ patients had low IL-1β, MCP-1, IP-10 and high IL-10, TNF-α production. γ-irradiated Mtb stimulated CD14+ cells from HIV+TB+ patients had low IL-1β, MCP-1, IP-10 production and MyD88, IRAK4 and similar NF-kB expression compared to those from of HIV-TB+ patients. Our results suggest defective MyD88, IRAK4 but not NF-kB inhibit IL-1β, MCP-1 and IP-10 production by CD14+ cells of HIV+ individuals with LTBI and active TB disease in peripheral blood and at the site of disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kamakshi Prudhula Devalraju
- Immunology and Molecular Biology Division, Blue Peter Public Health and Research Centre, LEPRA Society, Cherlapally, Hyderabad 501301, India
| | - Venkata Sanjeev Kumar Neela
- Immunology and Molecular Biology Division, Blue Peter Public Health and Research Centre, LEPRA Society, Cherlapally, Hyderabad 501301, India
| | - Ramulu Gaddam
- Department of Respiratory Medicine, AP Chest and General Hospital, Osmania Medical College, Erragadda, Hyderabad 500038, India
| | - Arunabala Chaudhury
- Clinical Division, Cheyutha, LEPRA Society, Cherlapally, Hyderabad 501301, India
| | - Abhinav Van
- Department of Pulmonary Immunology, Center for Biomedical Research, University of Texas Health Center, Tyler, TX 75708, United States
| | - Siva Sai Krovvidi
- Department of Biotechnology, Sreenidhi Institute of Science and Technology, Yamnampet, Ghatkesar, Hyderabad, Telangana 501301, India
| | - Ramakrishna Vankayalapati
- Department of Pulmonary Immunology, Center for Biomedical Research, University of Texas Health Center, Tyler, TX 75708, United States.
| | - Vijaya Lakshmi Valluri
- Immunology and Molecular Biology Division, Blue Peter Public Health and Research Centre, LEPRA Society, Cherlapally, Hyderabad 501301, India.
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10
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Rao D, Vasanthapuram R, Satishchandra P, Desai A. Pattern recognition receptor mRNA expression and cytokine and granzyme levels in HIV infected individuals with neurotuberculosis. J Neuroimmunol 2018; 318:21-28. [PMID: 29395320 DOI: 10.1016/j.jneuroim.2018.01.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/20/2017] [Revised: 01/22/2018] [Accepted: 01/22/2018] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
Neurotuberculosis is one of the commonest HIV-associated opportunistic infections (OI) of the CNS. Cross-talk between HIV, Mycobacterium tuberculosis and host immune responses may alter expression of pattern recognition receptors (PRRs), thereby affecting cytokine profiles and functional responses. We examined PRR mRNA expression and cytokine and granzyme levels in HIV infected individuals with neurotuberculosis and found significant downregulation of TLR9 and increased MDA5 expression compared to healthy subjects. Significantly higher Granzyme A and IFN-γ levels were also observed in the CSF of this group compared to CSF from non-infectious controls. These alterations may lead to inappropriate recruitment of immune cells to the CNS, leading to disease severity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Deepashri Rao
- Department of Neurovirology, National Institute of Mental Health and Neurosciences (NIMHANS), Bangalore 560029, India
| | - Ravi Vasanthapuram
- Department of Neurovirology, National Institute of Mental Health and Neurosciences (NIMHANS), Bangalore 560029, India
| | - P Satishchandra
- Department of Neurology, National Institute of Mental Health and Neurosciences (NIMHANS), Bangalore 560029, India
| | - Anita Desai
- Department of Neurovirology, National Institute of Mental Health and Neurosciences (NIMHANS), Bangalore 560029, India.
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11
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Ripa M, Chiappetta S, Tambussi G. Immunosenescence and hurdles in the clinical management of older HIV-patients. Virulence 2017; 8:508-528. [PMID: 28276994 DOI: 10.1080/21505594.2017.1292197] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
People living with HIV (PLWH) who are treated with effective highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART) have a similar life expectancy to the general population. Moreover, an increasing proportion of new HIV diagnoses are made in people older than 50 y. The number of older HIV-infected patients is thus constantly growing and it is expected that by 2030 around 70% of PLWH will be more than 50 y old. On the other hand, HIV infection itself is responsible for accelerated immunosenescence, a progressive decline of immune system function in both the adaptive and the innate arm, which impairs the ability of an individual to respond to infections and to give rise to long-term immunity; furthermore, older patients tend to have a worse immunological response to HAART. In this review we focus on the pathogenesis of HIV-induced immunosenescence and on the clinical management of older HIV-infected patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marco Ripa
- a Department of Infectious and Tropical Diseases , Ospedale San Raffaele , Milan , Italy
| | - Stefania Chiappetta
- a Department of Infectious and Tropical Diseases , Ospedale San Raffaele , Milan , Italy
| | - Giuseppe Tambussi
- a Department of Infectious and Tropical Diseases , Ospedale San Raffaele , Milan , Italy
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12
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Merlini E, Tincati C, Biasin M, Saulle I, Cazzaniga FA, d'Arminio Monforte A, Cappione AJ, Snyder-Cappione J, Clerici M, Marchetti GC. Stimulation of PBMC and Monocyte-Derived Macrophages via Toll-Like Receptor Activates Innate Immune Pathways in HIV-Infected Patients on Virally Suppressive Combination Antiretroviral Therapy. Front Immunol 2016; 7:614. [PMID: 28066424 PMCID: PMC5165253 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2016.00614] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/04/2016] [Accepted: 12/05/2016] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
In HIV-infected, combination antiretroviral therapy (cART)-treated patients, immune activation and microbial translocation persist and associate with inadequate CD4 recovery and morbidity/mortality. We analyzed whether alterations in the toll-like receptor (TLR) pathway could be responsible for the immune hyperactivation seen in these patients. PBMC/monocyte-derived macrophages (MDMs) of 28 HIV+ untreated and 35 cART-treated patients with HIV-RNA < 40 cp/mL [20 Full Responders (FRs): CD4 ≥ 350; 15 Immunological Non-Responders (INRs): CD4 < 350], as well as of 16 healthy controls were stimulated with a panel of TLR agonists. We measured: CD4/CD8/CD14/CD38/HLA-DR/Ki67/AnnexinV/CD69/TLR4/8 (Flow Cytometry); PBMC expression of 84 TLR pathway genes (qPCR); PBMC/MDM cytokine release (Multiplex); and plasma lipopolysaccharide (LPS)/sCD14 (LAL/ELISA). PBMC/MDM from cART patients responded weakly to LPS stimulation but released high amounts of pro-inflammatory cytokines. MDM from these patients were characterized by a reduced expression of HLA-DR+ MDM and failed to expand activated HLA-DR+ CD38+ T-lymphocytes. PBMC/MDM from cART patients responded more robustly to ssRNA stimulation; this resulted in a significant expansion of activated CD38 + CD8 and the release of amounts of pro-inflammatory cytokines comparable to those seen in untreated viremic patients. Despite greater constitutive TLR pathway gene expression, PBMC from INRs seemed to upregulate only type I IFN genes following TLR stimulation, whereas PBMC from full responders showed a broader response. Systemic exposure to microbial antigens drives immune activation during cART by triggering TLRs. Bacterial stimulation modifies MDM function/pro-inflammatory profile in cART patients without affecting T-lymphocytes; this suggests translocating bacteria as selective stimulus to chronic innate activation during cART. High constitutive TLR activation is seen in patients lacking CD4 recovery, suggesting an exhausted immune milieu, anergic to further antigen encounters.
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Affiliation(s)
- Esther Merlini
- Department of Health Sciences, Clinic of Infectious Diseases, ASST Santi Paolo e Carlo, University of Milan , Milan , Italy
| | - Camilla Tincati
- Department of Health Sciences, Clinic of Infectious Diseases, ASST Santi Paolo e Carlo, University of Milan , Milan , Italy
| | - Mara Biasin
- Department of Biomedical and Clinical Sciences - "L. Sacco", University of Milan , Milan , Italy
| | - Irma Saulle
- Department of Biomedical and Clinical Sciences - "L. Sacco", University of Milan , Milan , Italy
| | - Federico Angelo Cazzaniga
- Department of Health Sciences, Clinic of Infectious Diseases, ASST Santi Paolo e Carlo, University of Milan , Milan , Italy
| | - Antonella d'Arminio Monforte
- Department of Health Sciences, Clinic of Infectious Diseases, ASST Santi Paolo e Carlo, University of Milan , Milan , Italy
| | | | | | - Mario Clerici
- Department of Physiopathology and Transplants, University of Milan, Milan, Italy; Don C. Gnocchi Foundation, Istituti di Ricovero e Cura a Carattere Scientifico (IRCCS), Milan, Italy
| | - Giulia Carla Marchetti
- Department of Health Sciences, Clinic of Infectious Diseases, ASST Santi Paolo e Carlo, University of Milan , Milan , Italy
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13
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Gravina HD, Goes AM, Murta SMF, Ropert C. MyD88 Adapter-like (Mal)/TIRAP Is Required for Cytokine Production by Splenic Ly6CloTLR2hi but Not by Ly6ChiTLR2hi Monocytes during Trypanosoma cruzi Infection. J Biol Chem 2016; 291:23832-23841. [PMID: 27646001 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m116.729509] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/28/2016] [Indexed: 01/13/2023] Open
Abstract
This study continues to explore the plasticity of Toll-like receptor 2 (TLR2) previously described in immune response during Trypanosoma cruzi infection. Here, we have shown that Ly6ChiTLR2hi monocytes were involved in TNF-α and IL-12 production, whereas Ly6CloTLR2hi monocytes were mainly committed to IL-10 and TNF-α production during T. cruzi infection independently of TLR agonist used (i.e. TLR2 or TLR9 agonists). Another difference between the monocyte populations is that the adapter Mal (encoded by TIRAP) has appeared crucial for the cytokine production by Ly6Clo but not by Ly6Chi monocytes. The protein Mal was necessary to induce cytokine synthesis by Ly6Clo monocytes after triggering TLR2 or TLR9. Finally, our data have suggested that TLR2, TLR9, and Mal/TIRAP controlled differentially the emergence of the different TLR2hi monocyte populations in the spleen. In summary, this study highlights the central role of the TLR2/Mal tandem in the distinct activity among the monocyte subsets during T. cruzi infection. Such findings provide a basis for understanding the challenge posed by the use of TLR2 agonist in immunotherapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Humberto Doriguêtto Gravina
- From the Departamento de Bioquímica e Imunologia, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, 31270-910 Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais, Brazil and
| | - Alfredo Miranda Goes
- From the Departamento de Bioquímica e Imunologia, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, 31270-910 Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais, Brazil and
| | | | - Catherine Ropert
- From the Departamento de Bioquímica e Imunologia, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, 31270-910 Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais, Brazil and
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14
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Bleau C, Burnette M, Filliol A, Piquet-Pellorce C, Samson M, Lamontagne L. Toll-like receptor-2 exacerbates murine acute viral hepatitis. Immunology 2016; 149:204-24. [PMID: 27273587 PMCID: PMC5011685 DOI: 10.1111/imm.12627] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/18/2016] [Revised: 05/31/2016] [Accepted: 06/05/2016] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Viral replication in the liver is generally detected by cellular endosomal Toll‐like receptors (TLRs) and cytosolic helicase sensors that trigger antiviral inflammatory responses. Recent evidence suggests that surface TLR2 may also contribute to viral detection through recognition of viral coat proteins but its role in the outcome of acute viral infection remains elusive. In this study, we examined in vivo the role of TLR2 in acute infections induced by the highly hepatotrophic mouse hepatitis virus (MHV) type 3 and weakly hepatotrophic MHV‐A59 serotype. To address this, C57BL/6 (wild‐type; WT) and TLR2 knockout (KO) groups of mice were intraperitoneally infected with MHV3 or MHV‐A59. MHV3 infection provoked a fulminant hepatitis in WT mice, characterized by early mortality and high alanine and aspartate transaminase levels, histopathological lesions and viral replication whereas infection of TLR2 KO mice was markedly less severe. MHV‐A59 provoked a comparable mild and subclinical hepatitis in WT and TLR2 KO mice. MHV3‐induced fulminant hepatitis in WT mice correlated with higher hepatic expression of interferon‐β, interleukin‐6, tumour necrosis factor‐α, CXCL1, CCL2, CXCL10 and alarmin (interleukin‐33) than in MHV‐A59‐infected WT mice and in MHV3‐infected TLR2 KO mice. Intrahepatic recruited neutrophils, natural killer cells, natural killer T cells or macrophages rapidly decreased in MHV3‐infected WT mice whereas they were sustained in MHV‐A59‐infected WT mice and MHV3‐infected TLR2 KO. MHV3 in vitro infection of macrophagic cells induced rapid and higher viral replication and/or interleukin‐6 induction in comparison to MHV‐A59, and depended on viral activation of TLR2 and p38 mitogen‐activated protein kinase. Taken together, these results support a new aggravating inflammatory role for TLR2 in MHV3‐induced acute fulminant hepatitis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christian Bleau
- Department of Biological Sciences, Université du Québec à Montréal, Montreal, Canada
| | - Mélanie Burnette
- Department of Biological Sciences, Université du Québec à Montréal, Montreal, Canada
| | - Aveline Filliol
- U.1085 Inserm, IRSET, Institute of Research in Environmental and Occupational Health, Université de Rennes 1, Rennes, France
| | - Claire Piquet-Pellorce
- U.1085 Inserm, IRSET, Institute of Research in Environmental and Occupational Health, Université de Rennes 1, Rennes, France
| | - Michel Samson
- U.1085 Inserm, IRSET, Institute of Research in Environmental and Occupational Health, Université de Rennes 1, Rennes, France
| | - Lucie Lamontagne
- Department of Biological Sciences, Université du Québec à Montréal, Montreal, Canada
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15
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Saeed U, Piracha ZZ. Bridging the importance of Toll like receptors in human viral infections. ASIAN PACIFIC JOURNAL OF TROPICAL DISEASE 2016. [DOI: 10.1016/s2222-1808(16)61089-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
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16
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Kzhyshkowska J, Gudima A, Moganti K, Gratchev A, Orekhov A. Perspectives for Monocyte/Macrophage-Based Diagnostics of Chronic Inflammation. Transfus Med Hemother 2016; 43:66-77. [PMID: 27226789 DOI: 10.1159/000444943] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/11/2016] [Accepted: 02/22/2016] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Low-grade chronic inflammation underlies the development of the most dangerous cardiometabolic disorders including type 2 diabetes and its vascular complications. In contrast to acute inflammation induced by bacteria and viruses, chronic inflammation can be driven by abnormal reaction to endogenous factors, including Th2 cytokines, metabolic factors like advanced glycation end products (AGEs), modified lipoproteins, or hyperglycemia. The key innate immune cells that recognize these factors in blood circulation are monocytes. Inflammatory programming of monocytes which migrate into tissues can, in turn, result into generation of tissue macrophages with pathological functions. Therefore, determination of the molecular and functional phenotype of circulating monocytes is a very promising diagnostic tool for the identification of hidden inflammation, which can precede the development of the pathology. Here we propose a new test system for the identification of inflammatory programming of monocytes: surface biomarkers and ex vivo functional system. We summarize the current knowledge about surface biomarkers for monocyte subsets, including CD16, CCR2, CX3CR1, CD64, stabilin-1 and CD36, and their association with inflammatory human disorders. Furthermore, we present the design of an ex vivo monocyte-based test system with minimal set of parameters as a potential diagnostic tool for the identification of personalized inflammatory responses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julia Kzhyshkowska
- Institute of Transfusion Medicine and Immunology, Medical Faculty Mannheim, University of Heidelberg, Mannheim, Germany; Red Cross Blood Service Baden-Württemberg-Hessen, Mannheim, Germany; Laboratory for Translational Cellular and Molecular Biomedicine, Tomsk State University, Tomsk, Russia
| | - Alexandru Gudima
- Institute of Transfusion Medicine and Immunology, Medical Faculty Mannheim, University of Heidelberg, Mannheim, Germany
| | - Kondaiah Moganti
- Institute of Transfusion Medicine and Immunology, Medical Faculty Mannheim, University of Heidelberg, Mannheim, Germany
| | - Alexei Gratchev
- Laboratory for Translational Cellular and Molecular Biomedicine, Tomsk State University, Tomsk, Russia
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17
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Low HZ, Ahrenstorf G, Pommerenke C, Habermann N, Schughart K, Ordóñez D, Stripecke R, Wilk E, Witte T. TLR8 regulation of LILRA3 in monocytes is abrogated in human immunodeficiency virus infection and correlates to CD4 counts and virus loads. Retrovirology 2016; 13:15. [PMID: 26969150 PMCID: PMC4788896 DOI: 10.1186/s12977-016-0248-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/15/2015] [Accepted: 02/29/2016] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND LILRA3 is an immunostimulatory molecule which can conditionally induce the proliferation of cytotoxic cells. LILRA3 has a deletion genotype which is associated with multiple immune disorders. In this study, we wanted to analyze the regulation of LILRA3 and its significance in the context of HIV infection. RESULTS We analyzed a panel of TLR agonists and found that ssRNA40, a TLR8 agonist, is a potent inducer of LILRA3 in healthy individuals. However, this regulation is much diminished in HIV. Comparison of TLR8 to TLR4 induction of LILRA3 indicated that LPS induces less LILRA3 than ssRNA40 among healthy controls, but not HIV patients. Levels of LILRA3 induction correlated to virus load and CD4 counts in untreated patients. Recombinant LILRA3 can induce a host of proinflammatory genes which include IL-6 and IL-1α, as well as alter the expression of MHC and costimulatory molecules in monocytes and B-cells. CONCLUSION Our experiments point towards a beneficial role for LILRA3 in virus infections, especially in ssRNA viruses, like HIV, that engage TLR8. However, the potentially beneficial role of LILRA3 is abrogated during a HIV infection. We believe that more work has to be done to study the role of LILRA3 in infectious diseases and that there is a potential for exploring the use of LILRA3 in the treatment of virus infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hui Zhi Low
- Department of Clinical Immunology and Rheumatology, Hannover Medical School, Carl-Neuberg-Str. 1, 30625, Hannover, Germany.
| | - Gerrit Ahrenstorf
- Department of Clinical Immunology and Rheumatology, Hannover Medical School, Carl-Neuberg-Str. 1, 30625, Hannover, Germany
| | - Claudia Pommerenke
- Department of Infection Genetics, Helmholtz Centre for Infection Research, Braunschweig, Germany
| | - Nadine Habermann
- Department of Clinical Immunology and Rheumatology, Hannover Medical School, Carl-Neuberg-Str. 1, 30625, Hannover, Germany
| | - Klaus Schughart
- Department of Infection Genetics, Helmholtz Centre for Infection Research, Braunschweig, Germany.,University of Veterinary Medicine, Hannover, Germany.,University of Tennessee Health Science Center, Memphis, TN, USA
| | - David Ordóñez
- Department of Clinical Immunology and Rheumatology, Hannover Medical School, Carl-Neuberg-Str. 1, 30625, Hannover, Germany
| | - Renata Stripecke
- Department of Hematology, Hemostasis, Oncology and Stem Cell Transplantation, Hannover Medical School, Hannover, Germany
| | - Esther Wilk
- Department of Infection Genetics, Helmholtz Centre for Infection Research, Braunschweig, Germany
| | - Torsten Witte
- Department of Clinical Immunology and Rheumatology, Hannover Medical School, Carl-Neuberg-Str. 1, 30625, Hannover, Germany
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18
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Pulmonary immunostimulation with MALP-2 in influenza virus-infected mice increases survival after pneumococcal superinfection. Infect Immun 2015; 83:4617-29. [PMID: 26371127 DOI: 10.1128/iai.00948-15] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/22/2015] [Accepted: 09/08/2015] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Pulmonary infection with influenza virus is frequently complicated by bacterial superinfection, with Streptococcus pneumoniae being the most prevalent causal pathogen and hence often associated with high morbidity and mortality rates. Local immunosuppression due to pulmonary influenza virus infection has been identified as a major cause of the pathogenesis of secondary bacterial lung infection. Thus, specific local stimulation of the pulmonary innate immune system in subjects with influenza virus infection might improve the host defense against secondary bacterial pathogens. In the present study, we examined the effect of pulmonary immunostimulation with Toll-like receptor 2 (TLR-2)-stimulating macrophage-activating lipopeptide 2 (MALP-2) in influenza A virus (IAV)-infected mice on the course of subsequent pneumococcal superinfection. Female C57BL/6N mice infected with IAV were treated with MALP-2 on day 5 and challenged with S. pneumoniae on day 6. Intratracheal MALP-2 application increased proinflammatory cytokine and chemokine release and enhanced the recruitment of leukocytes, mainly neutrophils, into the alveolar space of IAV-infected mice, without detectable systemic side effects. Local pulmonary instillation of MALP-2 in IAV-infected mice 24 h before transnasal pneumococcal infection considerably reduced the bacterial number in the lung tissue without inducing exaggerated inflammation. The pulmonary viral load was not altered by MALP-2. Clinically, MALP-2 treatment of IAV-infected mice increased survival rates and reduced hypothermia and body weight loss after pneumococcal superinfection compared to those of untreated coinfected mice. In conclusion, local immunostimulation with MALP-2 in influenza virus-infected mice improved pulmonary bacterial elimination and increased survival after subsequent pneumococcal superinfection.
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19
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Donninelli G, Gessani S, Del Cornò M. Interplay between HIV-1 and Toll-like receptors in human myeloid cells: friend or foe in HIV-1 pathogenesis? J Leukoc Biol 2015; 99:97-105. [PMID: 26307548 DOI: 10.1189/jlb.4vmr0415-160r] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/17/2015] [Accepted: 07/23/2015] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
The Toll-like receptors are the first line of the host response to pathogens, representing an essential component of the innate and adaptive immune response. They recognize different pathogens and trigger responses directed at eliminating the invader and at developing immunologic long-term memory, ultimately affecting viral pathogenesis. In viral infections, sensing of nucleic acids and/or viral structural proteins generally induces a protective immune response. Thus, it is not surprising that many viruses have developed strategies to evade or counteract signaling through the Toll-like receptor pathways, to survive the host defense machinery and ensure propagation. Thus, Toll-like receptor engagement can also be part of viral pathogenic mechanisms. Evidence for a direct interaction of Toll-like receptors with human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) structures has started to be achieved, and alterations of their expression and function have been described in HIV-1-positive subjects. Furthermore, Toll-like receptor triggering by bacterial and viral ligands have been described to modulate HIV-1 replication and host response, leading to protective or detrimental effects. This review covers major advances in the field of HIV-1 interplay with Toll-like receptors, focusing on human myeloid cells (e.g., monocytes/macrophages and dendritic cells). The role of this interaction in the dysregulation of myeloid cell function and in dictating aspects of the multifaceted pathogenesis of acquired immunodeficiency syndrome will be discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gloria Donninelli
- Department of Hematology, Oncology and Molecular Medicine, Istituto Superiore di Sanità, Rome, Italy
| | - Sandra Gessani
- Department of Hematology, Oncology and Molecular Medicine, Istituto Superiore di Sanità, Rome, Italy
| | - Manuela Del Cornò
- Department of Hematology, Oncology and Molecular Medicine, Istituto Superiore di Sanità, Rome, Italy
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20
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Henrick BM, Yao XD, Rosenthal KL. HIV-1 Structural Proteins Serve as PAMPs for TLR2 Heterodimers Significantly Increasing Infection and Innate Immune Activation. Front Immunol 2015; 6:426. [PMID: 26347747 PMCID: PMC4541371 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2015.00426] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/20/2015] [Accepted: 08/05/2015] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Immune activation is critical to HIV infection and pathogenesis; however, our understanding of HIV innate immune activation remains incomplete. Recently we demonstrated that soluble TLR2 (sTLR2) physically inhibited HIV-induced NFκB activation and inflammation, as well as HIV-1 infection. In light of these findings, we hypothesized that HIV-1 structural proteins may serve as pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs) for cellular TLR2 heterodimers. These studies made use of primary human T cells and TZMbl cells stably transformed to express TLR2 (TZMbl-2). Our results demonstrated that cells expressing TLR2 showed significantly increased proviral DNA compared to cells lacking TLR2, and mechanistically this may be due to a TLR2-mediated increased CCR5 expression. Importantly, we show that HIV-1 structural proteins, p17, p24, and gp41, act as viral PAMPs signaling through TLR2 and its heterodimers leading to significantly increased immune activation via the NFκB signaling pathway. Using co-immunoprecipitation and a dot blot method, we demonstrated direct protein interactions between these viral PAMPs and TLR2, while only p17 and gp41 bound to TLR1. Specifically, TLR2/1 heterodimer recognized p17 and gp41, while p24 lead to immune activation through TLR2/6. These results were confirmed using TLR2/1 siRNA knock down assays which ablated p17 and gp41-induced cellular activation and through studies of HEK293 cells expressing selected TLRs. Interestingly, our results show in the absence of TLR6, p24 bound to TLR2 and blocked p17 and gp41-induced activation, thus providing a novel mechanism by which HIV-1 can manipulate innate sensing. Taken together, our results identified, for the first time, novel HIV-1 PAMPs that play a role in TLR2-mediated cellular activation and increased proviral DNA. These findings have important implications for our fundamental understanding of HIV-1 immune activation and pathogenesis, as well as HIV-1 vaccine development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bethany M Henrick
- Department of Pathology and Molecular Medicine, McMaster Immunology Research Centre, Michael G. DeGroote Institute for Infectious Disease Research, McMaster University , Hamilton, ON , Canada
| | - Xiao-Dan Yao
- Department of Pathology and Molecular Medicine, McMaster Immunology Research Centre, Michael G. DeGroote Institute for Infectious Disease Research, McMaster University , Hamilton, ON , Canada
| | - Kenneth Lee Rosenthal
- Department of Pathology and Molecular Medicine, McMaster Immunology Research Centre, Michael G. DeGroote Institute for Infectious Disease Research, McMaster University , Hamilton, ON , Canada
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21
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Giraldo DM, Hernandez JC, Urcuqui Inchima S. Impact of in vitro Costimulation with TLR2, TLR4 and TLR9 Agonists and HIV-1 on Antigen-Presenting Cell Activation. Intervirology 2015; 58:122-9. [DOI: 10.1159/000371765] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/28/2014] [Accepted: 12/26/2014] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Objective: HIV-1 infects several immune cells including dendritic cells (DCs) and monocytes, which contributes in both to dissemination of HIV-1 infection and induction of antiviral immunity. These cells produce high amounts of type I IFN and proinflammatory cytokines upon Toll-like receptor (TLR) stimulation. During HIV-1 infection, an altered production of proinflammatory cytokines has been reported. However, the mechanisms underlying cytokine modulation have not been well described. Here, we evaluated the production of proinflammatory cytokines and activation of myeloid and plasmacytoid DCs and monocytes costimulated in vitro with TLR agonists and HIV-1. Methods: Changes in cytokine expression by real-time PCR and activation of DCs and monocytes by flow cytometry were evaluated after costimulation with HIV-1 and TLR agonists. Results: We observed an upregulation of TNF-α expression after TLR4 stimulation, but a downregulation of IL-6 when TLR2/TLR9 were stimulated. Interestingly, the expression of CD80 and CD86 costimulatory molecules in monocytes and DCs were significantly increased in cells challenged with HIV-1 and TLR2/TLR4/TLR9 agonists. Conclusion: This regulation of TNF-α and IL-6 production and changes in the expression of costimulatory molecules can be critical in the context of HIV-1 infection, by favoring the antigen-presenting cell activation through the stimulation of TLRs.
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22
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Nittayananta W, Tao R, Jiang L, Peng Y, Huang Y. Oral innate immunity in HIV infection in HAART era. J Oral Pathol Med 2015; 45:3-8. [PMID: 25639844 DOI: 10.1111/jop.12304] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 12/01/2014] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
Oral innate immunity, an important component in host defense and immune surveillance in the oral cavity, plays a crucial role in the regulation of oral health. As part of the innate immune system, epithelial cells lining oral mucosal surfaces not only provide a physical barrier but also produce different antimicrobial peptides, including human β-defensins (hBDs), secretory leukocyte protease inhibitor (SLPI), and various cytokines. These innate immune mediators help in maintaining oral homeostasis. When they are impaired either by local or systemic causes, various oral infections and malignancies may be developed. Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection and other co-infections appear to have both direct and indirect effects on systemic and local innate immunity leading to the development of oral opportunistic infections and malignancies. Highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART), the standard treatment of HIV infection, contributed to a global reduction of HIV-associated oral lesions. However, prolonged use of HAART may lead to adverse effects on the oral innate immunity resulting in the relapse of oral lesions. This review article focused on the roles of oral innate immunity in HIV infection in HAART era. The following five key questions were addressed: (i) What are the roles of oral innate immunity in health and disease?, (ii) What are the effects of HIV infection on oral innate immunity?, (iii) What are the roles of oral innate immunity against other co-infections?, (iv) What are the effects of HAART on oral innate immunity?, and (v) Is oral innate immunity enhanced by HAART?
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Renchuan Tao
- Department of Periodontology and Oral Medicine, College of Stomatology, Guangxi Medical University, Guangxi, China.,Guangxi Key Laboratory of AIDS Prevention and Treatment, Guangxi Medical University, Guangxi, China
| | - Lanlan Jiang
- Department of Periodontology and Oral Medicine, College of Stomatology, Guangxi Medical University, Guangxi, China
| | - Yuanyuan Peng
- Department of Periodontology and Oral Medicine, College of Stomatology, Guangxi Medical University, Guangxi, China
| | - Yuxiao Huang
- Department of Periodontology and Oral Medicine, College of Stomatology, Guangxi Medical University, Guangxi, China
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23
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Saeed U, Mazoor S, Jalal N, Zahid Piracha Z. Contemplating the Importance of Toll-like Receptors I and II Regarding Human Viral Pathogenesis. Jundishapur J Microbiol 2014; 8:e13348. [PMID: 25763131 PMCID: PMC4344769 DOI: 10.5812/jjm.13348] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/02/2013] [Revised: 03/29/2014] [Accepted: 07/26/2014] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Toll-like receptors (TLRs) play a major role in innate immunity, since they detect conserved pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs) on a range of microbes, including viruses, leading to innate immune activation and orchestration of the adaptive immune response. OBJECTIVES The current study aimed to discuss earlier evidence implicating TLRs I and II in the innate immune response to viruses, in the light of more recent clinical data demonstrating that TLRs are important for anti-viral immunity in humans. MATERIALS AND METHODS A literature search was performed via accessing research articles from PakMediNet, Pubmed and Google Scholar with key words of Toll-like receptors I and II Regarding human viral pathogenesis. The valued information on the recent scientific horizons was subjected to critical analysis. RESULTS Comprehensive literature review illustrates important signaling pathways involved in TLR1/TLR2 mediated regulation of viral pathogenesis. TLRs mediated activation of apoptosis tends to contribute towards defense strategies utilized by innate immune response. Activation of antiviral TLR1-dependent signaling cascade would ultimately lead to activation of NF-kappa B which promotes antiviral responses via induction of specific genes. TLR1/TLR2 dimer generates intracellular signaling via IRAK4 mediated activation of IRAK1/2 which results in activation of NF-kappa B, p38 and JNK proteins in cytoplasm. NF- kappa B, p38 and JNK enter the nucleus thereby causing activation of various pro-inflammatory cytokines such as IL-1 beta, TNF-alpha, IL-6, IL-8 and IL-18. Among the chronic HCV infection, the HCV core protein induces TNF-α and IL-10 from the macrophages thereby causing reduction in release of interferon alpha. Abnormal TLR1/TLR2 signaling may contribute to the enhancement of infection-related morbidity and mortality. CONCLUSIONS To date, a large number of viruses are proved to trigger innate immunity via TLRs, suggesting that these receptors are likely to be important in the outcome of viral infection. This suggestion is supported by the observation that many viruses have evolved mechanisms not only to evade the innate immune system, but also to subvert it for the benefit of the virus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Umar Saeed
- Attaur Rahman School of Applied Biosciences, National University of Sciences and Technology, Islamabad, Pakistan
- Corresponding author: Umar Saeed, Attaur Rahman School of Applied Biosciences, National University of Sciences and Technology, Islamabad, Pakistan. Tel: +92-3235338544, E-mail:
| | - Sobia Mazoor
- Attaur Rahman School of Applied Biosciences, National University of Sciences and Technology, Islamabad, Pakistan
| | - Nasir Jalal
- Attaur Rahman School of Applied Biosciences, National University of Sciences and Technology, Islamabad, Pakistan
| | - Zahra Zahid Piracha
- Attaur Rahman School of Applied Biosciences, National University of Sciences and Technology, Islamabad, Pakistan
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Huson MAM, Grobusch MP, van der Poll T. The effect of HIV infection on the host response to bacterial sepsis. THE LANCET. INFECTIOUS DISEASES 2014; 15:95-108. [PMID: 25459220 DOI: 10.1016/s1473-3099(14)70917-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Bacterial sepsis is an important cause of morbidity and mortality in patients with HIV. HIV causes increased susceptibility to invasive infections and affects sepsis pathogenesis caused by pre-existing activation and exhaustion of the immune system. We review the effect of HIV on different components of immune responses implicated in bacterial sepsis, and possible mechanisms underlying the increased risk of invasive bacterial infections. We focus on pattern recognition receptors and innate cellular responses, cytokines, lymphocytes, coagulation, and the complement system. A combination of factors causes increased susceptibility to infection and can contribute to a disturbed immune response during a septic event in patients with HIV. HIV-induced perturbations of the immune system depend on stage of infection and are only in part restored by combination antiretroviral therapy. Immunomodulatory treatments currently under development for sepsis might be particularly beneficial to patients with HIV co-infection because many pathogenic mechanisms in HIV and sepsis overlap.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michaëla A M Huson
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Centre of Experimental and Molecular Medicine, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, Netherlands.
| | - Martin P Grobusch
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Centre of Tropical Medicine and Travel Medicine, Academic Medical Centre, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, Netherlands
| | - Tom van der Poll
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Centre of Experimental and Molecular Medicine, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, Netherlands
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Soluble toll-like receptor 2 is significantly elevated in HIV-1 infected breast milk and inhibits HIV-1 induced cellular activation, inflammation and infection. AIDS 2014; 28:2023-32. [PMID: 25265071 DOI: 10.1097/qad.0000000000000381] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES We previously demonstrated that immunodepletion of soluble Toll-like receptor 2 (sTLR2) from human breast milk significantly increased HIV infection in vitro. The aims of this study were to characterize sTLR2 levels in breast milk from HIV-infected and uninfected women, and identify a mechanism by which sTLR2 inhibits HIV-induced cellular activation and infection. DESIGN Blinded studies of breast milk from HIV-infected and uninfected Nigerian and Canadian women were evaluated for levels of sTLR2, proinflammatory cytokines and viral antigenemia. In-vitro experiments were conducted using cell lines to assess sTLR2 function in innate responses and effect on HIV infection. RESULTS Breast milk from HIV-infected women showed significantly higher levels of sTLR2 than uninfected breast milk. Further, sTLR2 levels correlated with HIV-1 p24 and interleukin (IL)-15, thus suggesting a local innate compensatory response in the HIV-infected breast. Given the significantly higher levels of sTLR2 in breast milk from HIV-infected women, we next demonstrated that mammary epithelial cells and macrophages, which are prevalent in milk, produced significantly increased levels of sTLR2 following exposure to HIV-1 proteins p17, p24 and gp41 or the TLR2 ligand, Pam3CSK4. Our results also demonstrated that sTLR2 physically interacts with p17, p24 and gp41 and inhibits HIV-induced nuclear factor kappa-light-chain-enhancer of activated B cells activation, and inflammation. Importantly, binding of sTLR2 to HIV-1 proteins inhibited a TLR2-dependent increase in chemokine receptor 5 expression, thus resulting in significantly reduced HIV-1 infection. CONCLUSION These results indicate novel mechanisms by which sTLR2 plays a critical role in inhibiting mother-to-child HIV transmission.
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Hirao LA, Grishina I, Bourry O, Hu WK, Somrit M, Sankaran-Walters S, Gaulke CA, Fenton AN, Li JA, Crawford RW, Chuang F, Tarara R, Marco ML, Bäumler AJ, Cheng H, Dandekar S. Early mucosal sensing of SIV infection by paneth cells induces IL-1β production and initiates gut epithelial disruption. PLoS Pathog 2014; 10:e1004311. [PMID: 25166758 PMCID: PMC4148401 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1004311] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/03/2014] [Accepted: 06/30/2014] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
HIV causes rapid CD4+ T cell depletion in the gut mucosa, resulting in immune deficiency and defects in the intestinal epithelial barrier. Breakdown in gut barrier integrity is linked to chronic inflammation and disease progression. However, the early effects of HIV on the gut epithelium, prior to the CD4+ T cell depletion, are not known. Further, the impact of early viral infection on mucosal responses to pathogenic and commensal microbes has not been investigated. We utilized the SIV model of AIDS to assess the earliest host-virus interactions and mechanisms of inflammation and dysfunction in the gut, prior to CD4+ T cell depletion. An intestinal loop model was used to interrogate the effects of SIV infection on gut mucosal immune sensing and response to pathogens and commensal bacteria in vivo. At 2.5 days post-SIV infection, low viral loads were detected in peripheral blood and gut mucosa without CD4+ T cell loss. However, immunohistological analysis revealed the disruption of the gut epithelium manifested by decreased expression and mislocalization of tight junction proteins. Correlating with epithelial disruption was a significant induction of IL-1β expression by Paneth cells, which were in close proximity to SIV-infected cells in the intestinal crypts. The IL-1β response preceded the induction of the antiviral interferon response. Despite the disruption of the gut epithelium, no aberrant responses to pathogenic or commensal bacteria were observed. In fact, inoculation of commensal Lactobacillus plantarum in intestinal loops led to rapid anti-inflammatory response and epithelial tight junction repair in SIV infected macaques. Thus, intestinal Paneth cells are the earliest responders to viral infection and induce gut inflammation through IL-1β signaling. Reversal of the IL-1β induced gut epithelial damage by Lactobacillus plantarum suggests synergistic host-commensal interactions during early viral infection and identify these mechanisms as potential targets for therapeutic intervention.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lauren A. Hirao
- Department of Medical Microbiology & Immunology, University of California, Davis, Davis, California, United States of America
| | - Irina Grishina
- Department of Medical Microbiology & Immunology, University of California, Davis, Davis, California, United States of America
| | - Olivier Bourry
- Department of Medical Microbiology & Immunology, University of California, Davis, Davis, California, United States of America
| | - William K. Hu
- Department of Medical Microbiology & Immunology, University of California, Davis, Davis, California, United States of America
| | - Monsicha Somrit
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, University of California, Davis, Davis, California, United States of America
| | - Sumathi Sankaran-Walters
- Department of Medical Microbiology & Immunology, University of California, Davis, Davis, California, United States of America
| | - Chris A. Gaulke
- Department of Medical Microbiology & Immunology, University of California, Davis, Davis, California, United States of America
| | - Anne N. Fenton
- Department of Medical Microbiology & Immunology, University of California, Davis, Davis, California, United States of America
| | - Jay A. Li
- Department of Medical Microbiology & Immunology, University of California, Davis, Davis, California, United States of America
| | - Robert W. Crawford
- Department of Medical Microbiology & Immunology, University of California, Davis, Davis, California, United States of America
| | - Frank Chuang
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Medicine, University of California, Davis, Davis, California, United States of America
| | - Ross Tarara
- Department of Primate Medicine, California National Primate Center, Davis, California, United States of America
| | - Maria L. Marco
- Department of Food Science and Technology, University of California, Davis, Davis, California, United States of America
| | - Andreas J. Bäumler
- Department of Medical Microbiology & Immunology, University of California, Davis, Davis, California, United States of America
| | - Holland Cheng
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, University of California, Davis, Davis, California, United States of America
| | - Satya Dandekar
- Department of Medical Microbiology & Immunology, University of California, Davis, Davis, California, United States of America
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Aging of the human innate immune system in HIV infection. Curr Opin Immunol 2014; 29:127-36. [PMID: 24997358 DOI: 10.1016/j.coi.2014.06.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/28/2014] [Revised: 06/06/2014] [Accepted: 06/09/2014] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
HIV infection is associated with a chronic inflammatory state arising from multiple factors, including innate immune recognition of HIV, increased microbial translocation, and release of endogenous ligands from damaged cells (such as CD4 T cells). In many respects, this heightened pro-inflammatory environment resembles that associated with aging in the absence of HIV infection, and evidence of dysregulated innate immune responses can be found in not only older HIV-negative adults, but also adults with HIV infection. While the study of innate immune aging in HIV infection is still in its early stages, it seems likely that at least additive, or potentially synergistic effects of aging and HIV infection will be found.
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28
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Bahr GM. Immune deficiency in HIV-1 infection: novel therapeutic approaches targeting innate and adaptive responses. Expert Rev Clin Immunol 2014; 1:529-47. [DOI: 10.1586/1744666x.1.4.529] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
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Chang JJ, Altfeld M. Immune activation and the role of TLRs and TLR agonists in the pathogenesis of HIV-1 infection in the humanized mouse model. J Infect Dis 2013; 208 Suppl 2:S145-9. [PMID: 24151321 DOI: 10.1093/infdis/jit402] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Immune activation plays a critical role in HIV-1 pathogenesis, but the pathways that are responsible for HIV-1-associated immune activation are not well understood. Recent advances in the development of a humanized mouse model for HIV-1 infection might provide new approaches to study the mechanisms of HIV-1 associated immune activation, and to test interventions aimed at reducing HIV-1 pathogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Judy Chang
- Ragon Institute of Massachusetts General Hospital, Massachusetts Institute of Technology and Harvard, Harvard Medical School, Boston
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Siewe B, Keshavarzian A, French A, Demarais P, Landay A. A role for TLR signaling during B cell activation in antiretroviral-treated HIV individuals. AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses 2013; 29:1353-60. [PMID: 23763346 DOI: 10.1089/aid.2013.0115] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/27/2023] Open
Abstract
The mechanisms underlying B cell activation that persists during antiretroviral therapy (ART) are unknown. Toll-like receptor (TLR) signaling is a critical mediator of innate cell activation and though B cells express TLRs, few studies have investigated a role for TLR signaling in B cell activation during HIV infection. We addressed this question by assessing the activated phenotype and TLR expression/responsiveness of B cells from ART-treated HIV-infected subjects (HIVART(+)). We evaluated activation markers implicated in B cell-mediated T cell trans infection during HIV pathogenesis. We found no significant difference in TLR expression between B cells of HIVART(+) and HIV(-) subjects. However, B cells of HIVART(+) subjects exhibited heightened endogenous expression levels of IL-6 (p=0.0051), T cell cognate ligands CD40 (p=0.0475), CD54 (p=0.0229), and phosphorylated p38 (p<0.0001), a marker of TLR signaling. In vitro, B cells of HIVART(+) individuals were less responsive to TLR stimulation compared to B cells of HIV(-) subjects. The activated phenotype of in vitro TLR-stimulated B cells of HIV(-) subjects was similar to ex vivo B cells from HIVART(+) individuals. TLR2 stimulation was a potent mediator of B cell activation, whereas B cells were least responsive to TLR4 stimulation. Compared to HIV(-) subjects, the serum level of lipoteichoic acid (TLR2 ligand) in HIVART(+) subjects was significantly higher (p=0.0207), correlating positively with viral load (p=0.0127, r=0.6453). Our data suggest that during HIV infection TLR-activated B cells may exert a pathogenic role and B cells from HIVART(+) subjects respond to in vitro TLR stimulation, yet exhibit a TLR tolerant phenotype suggesting prior in vivo TLR stimulation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Basile Siewe
- Rush University Medical Center, Chicago, Illinois
| | - Ali Keshavarzian
- Rush University Medical Center, Chicago, Illinois
- Division of Pharmacology, Utrecht Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Faculty of Science, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Audrey French
- Rush University Medical Center, Chicago, Illinois
- Ruth M Rothstein CORE Center/Stroger Hospital of Cook County, Chicago, Illinois
| | - Patricia Demarais
- Ruth M Rothstein CORE Center/Stroger Hospital of Cook County, Chicago, Illinois
| | - Alan Landay
- Rush University Medical Center, Chicago, Illinois
- Division of Pharmacology, Utrecht Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Faculty of Science, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands
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Increased Escherichia coli-induced interleukin-23 production by CD16+ monocytes correlates with systemic immune activation in untreated HIV-1-infected individuals. J Virol 2013; 87:13252-62. [PMID: 24067979 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.01767-13] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
The level of microbial translocation from the intestine is increased in HIV-1 infection. Proinflammatory cytokine production by peripheral antigen-presenting cells in response to translocated microbes or microbial products may contribute to systemic immune activation, a hallmark of HIV-1 infection. We investigated the cytokine responses of peripheral blood myeloid dendritic cells (mDCs) and monocytes to in vitro stimulation with commensal enteric Escherichia coli in peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC) from untreated HIV-1-infected subjects and from uninfected controls. Levels of interleukin 23 (IL-23) produced by PBMC from HIV-1-infected subjects in response to E. coli stimulation were significantly higher than those produced by PBMC from uninfected subjects. IL-23 was produced primarily by CD16(+) monocytes. This subset of monocytes was increased in frequency and expressed higher levels of Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) in HIV-1-infected individuals than in controls. Blocking TLR4 on total CD14(+) monocytes reduced IL-23 production in response to E. coli stimulation. Levels of soluble CD27, an indicator of systemic immune activation, were elevated in HIV-1-infected subjects and were associated with the percentage of CD16(+) monocytes and the induction of IL-23 by E. coli, providing a link between these parameters and systemic inflammation. Taken together, these results suggest that IL-23 produced by CD16(+) monocytes in response to microbial stimulation may contribute to systemic immune activation in HIV-1-infected individuals.
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Hernandez JC, Latz E, Urcuqui-Inchima S. HIV-1 Induces the First Signal to Activate the NLRP3 Inflammasome in Monocyte-Derived Macrophages. Intervirology 2013; 57:36-42. [DOI: 10.1159/000353902] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/04/2012] [Accepted: 06/20/2013] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
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Nagy LH, Grishina I, Macal M, Hirao LA, Hu WK, Sankaran-Walters S, Gaulke CA, Pollard R, Brown J, Suni M, Baumler AJ, Ghanekar S, Marco ML, Dandekar S. Chronic HIV infection enhances the responsiveness of antigen presenting cells to commensal Lactobacillus. PLoS One 2013; 8:e72789. [PMID: 24023646 PMCID: PMC3758347 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0072789] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/07/2013] [Accepted: 07/11/2013] [Indexed: 01/23/2023] Open
Abstract
Chronic immune activation despite long-term therapy poses an obstacle to immune recovery in HIV infection. The role of antigen presenting cells (APCs) in chronic immune activation during HIV infection remains to be fully determined. APCs, the frontline of immune defense against pathogens, are capable of distinguishing between pathogens and non-pathogenic, commensal bacteria. We hypothesized that HIV infection induces dysfunction in APC immune recognition and response to some commensal bacteria and that this may promote chronic immune activation. Therefore we examined APC inflammatory cytokine responses to commensal lactobacilli. We found that APCs from HIV-infected patients produced an enhanced inflammatory response to Lactobacillus plantarum WCFS1 as compared to APCs from healthy, HIV-negative controls. Increased APC expression of TLR2 and CD36, signaling through p38-MAPK, and decreased expression of MAP kinase phosphatase-1 (MKP-1) in HIV infection was associated with this heightened immune response. Our findings suggest that chronic HIV infection enhances the responsiveness of APCs to commensal lactobacilli, a mechanism that may partly contribute to chronic immune activation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lauren H. Nagy
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Immunology, University of California Davis, Davis, California, United States of America
| | - Irina Grishina
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Immunology, University of California Davis, Davis, California, United States of America
| | - Monica Macal
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Immunology, University of California Davis, Davis, California, United States of America
| | - Lauren A. Hirao
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Immunology, University of California Davis, Davis, California, United States of America
| | - William K. Hu
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Immunology, University of California Davis, Davis, California, United States of America
| | - Sumathi Sankaran-Walters
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Immunology, University of California Davis, Davis, California, United States of America
| | - Christopher A. Gaulke
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Immunology, University of California Davis, Davis, California, United States of America
| | - Richard Pollard
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Immunology, University of California Davis, Davis, California, United States of America
| | - Jennifer Brown
- Department of Internal Medicine, University of California Davis, Davis, California, United States of America
| | - Maria Suni
- Becton Dickinson Biosciences, San Jose, California, United States of America
| | - Andreas J. Baumler
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Immunology, University of California Davis, Davis, California, United States of America
| | - Smita Ghanekar
- Becton Dickinson Biosciences, San Jose, California, United States of America
| | - Maria L. Marco
- Food Science and Technology University of California Davis, Davis, California, USA
| | - Satya Dandekar
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Immunology, University of California Davis, Davis, California, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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Wu JQ, Sassé TR, Wolkenstein G, Conceicao V, Saksena MM, Soedjono M, Perera SS, Wang B, Dwyer DE, Saksena NK. Transcriptome analysis of primary monocytes shows global down-regulation of genetic networks in HIV viremic patients versus long-term non-progressors. Virology 2012; 435:308-19. [PMID: 23158100 DOI: 10.1016/j.virol.2012.10.026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/04/2012] [Revised: 09/23/2012] [Accepted: 10/16/2012] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
Despite significant contributions of monocytes to HIV persistence, the genomic basis of HIV-infection of monocytes and its association with plasma viremia remain elusive. To understand HIV interactions with monocytes during disease progression, monocytic transcriptomes from long-term non-progressors (LTNP), HIV+ patients with viral load <1000, with viral load >1000, and seronegative controls were analyzed using Illumina microarray. Differentially expressed genes were identified (fold change >2; adjusted p<0.05) and GSEA between HIV+ groups demonstrated that the down-regulation of the pathways including Toll-like receptor (TLR) signaling, cytokine-cytokine receptor interaction, cell cycle and apoptosis was significantly associated with the viremic groups, whereas their up-regulation with the LTNP group. The down-regulation of TLR pathway in the viremic patients was exemplified by the decreased expression of TLR with the subsequent tuning down of MAPK, NF-κB, JAK-STAT, and IRF cascades. These data provide the first transcriptomic distinction between HIV+ progressors and LTNPs based on primary monocytes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jing Qin Wu
- School of Biomedical Sciences and Pharmacy, Faculty of Health, The University of Newcastle, University Drive, Callaghan, NSW 2308, Australia.
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Hernández JC, Stevenson M, Latz E, Urcuqui-Inchima S. HIV type 1 infection up-regulates TLR2 and TLR4 expression and function in vivo and in vitro. AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses 2012; 28:1313-28. [PMID: 22280204 DOI: 10.1089/aid.2011.0297] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Toll-like receptors (TLRs) play a critical role in innate immunity against pathogens. Their stimulation induces the activation of NF-κB, an important inducer of HIV-1 replication. In recent years, an increasing number of studies using several cells types from HIV-infected patients indicate that TLRs play a key role in regulating the expression of proinflammatory cytokines and viral pathogenesis. In the present study, the effect of HIV-1 stimulation of monocyte-derived macrophage (MDM) and peripheral blood mononuclear cell (PBMC) subpopulations from healthy donors on the expression and functions of TLR2 and TLR4 was examined. In addition, and to complete the in vitro study, the expression pattern of TLR2 and TLR4 in 49 HIV-1-infected patients, classified according to viral load and the use of HAART, was determined and compared with 25 healthy subjects. An increase of TLR expression and production of proinflammatory cytokines were observed in MDMs and PBMCs infected with HIV-1 in vitro and in response to TLR stimulation, compared to the mock. In addition, an association between TLR expression and up-regulation of CD80 in plasmacytoid dendritic cells (pDCs) was observed. The ex vivo analysis indicated increased expression of TLR2 and TLR4 in myeloid dendritic cells (mDCs), but only of TLR2 in monocytes obtained from HIV-1-infected patients, compared to healthy subjects. Remarkably, the expression was higher in cells from patients who do not use HAART. In monocytes, there was a positive correlation between both TLRs and viral load, but not CD4(+) T cell numbers. Together, our in vitro and ex vivo results suggest that TLR expression and function can be up-regulated in response to HIV-1 infection and could affect the inflammatory response. We propose that modulation of TLRs represents a mechanism to promote HIV-1 replication or AIDS progression in HIV-1-infected patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juan C. Hernández
- Grupo Inmunovirología, Sede de Investigación Universitaria, Universidad de Antioquia, Medellín, Colombia
- INFETARE, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad Cooperativa de Colombia, Medellin, Colombia
| | - Mario Stevenson
- Developmental Center for AIDS Research, University of Miami, Miami, Florida
| | - Eicke Latz
- Institute of Innate Immunity, University Hospital, University of Bonn, Bonn, Germany
- Department of Infectious Diseases and Immunology, University of Massachusetts Medical School, Worcester, Massachusetts
| | - Silvio Urcuqui-Inchima
- Grupo Inmunovirología, Sede de Investigación Universitaria, Universidad de Antioquia, Medellín, Colombia
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Xiong Y, Song C, Snyder GA, Sundberg EJ, Medvedev AE. R753Q polymorphism inhibits Toll-like receptor (TLR) 2 tyrosine phosphorylation, dimerization with TLR6, and recruitment of myeloid differentiation primary response protein 88. J Biol Chem 2012; 287:38327-37. [PMID: 22992740 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m112.375493] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
The R753Q polymorphism in the Toll-IL-1 receptor domain of Toll-like receptor 2 (TLR2) has been linked to increased incidence of tuberculosis and other infectious diseases, but the mechanisms by which it affects TLR2 functions are unclear. Here, we studied the impact of the R753Q polymorphism on TLR2 expression, hetero-dimerization with TLR6, tyrosine phosphorylation, and recruitment of myeloid differentiation primary response protein (MyD) 88 and MyD88 adapter-like (Mal). Complementation of HEK293 cells with transfected WT or R753Q TLR2 revealed their comparable total levels and only minimal changes in cell surface expression of the mutant species. Notably, even a 100-fold increase in amounts of transfected R753Q TLR2 versus WT variant did not overcome the compromised ability of the mutant TLR2 to activate nuclear factor κB (NF-κB), indicating that a minimal decrease in cell surface levels of the R753Q TLR2 cannot account for the signaling deficiency. Molecular modeling studies suggested that the R753Q mutation changes the electrostatic potential of the DD loop and results in a discrete movement of the residues critical for protein-protein interactions. Confirming these predictions, biochemical assays demonstrated that R753Q TLR2 exhibits deficient agonist-induced tyrosine phosphorylation, hetero-dimerization with TLR6, and recruitment of Mal and MyD88. These proximal signaling deficiencies correlated with impaired capacities of the R753Q TLR2 to mediate p38 phosphorylation, NF-κB activation, and induction of IL-8 mRNA in transfected HEK293 cells challenged with inactivated Mycobacterium tuberculosis or mycobacterial components. Thus, the R753Q polymorphism renders TLR2 signaling-incompetent by impairing its tyrosine phosphorylation, dimerization with TLR6, and recruitment of Mal and MyD88.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yanbao Xiong
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland 21201, USA
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Mir KD, Mavigner M, Silvestri G. The myeloid cytokine network in AIDS pathogenesis. Cytokine Growth Factor Rev 2012; 23:223-31. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cytogfr.2012.05.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
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Constitutive gene expression in monocytes from chronic HIV-1 infection overlaps with acute Toll-like receptor induced monocyte activation profiles. PLoS One 2012; 7:e41153. [PMID: 22815948 PMCID: PMC3399809 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0041153] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/22/2012] [Accepted: 06/18/2012] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Elevated TLR expression/signalling in monocyte/macrophages has been shown to mediate systemic immune activation, a hallmark of progressive HIV-1 infection. Here we show, via differential gene expression comparisons, the presence of a constitutive in vivo TLR-like gene activation signature in steady-state circulating monocytes from chronically HIV-1 infected subjects. The TLR2-like gene signature was defined as an 82 gene subset of the 376 genes constitutively modulated in in vivo HIV-1 monocytes, based on their overlap with de novo TLR2-induced genes in uninfected subjects' monocytes following acute ex vivo stimulation with Staphylococcus Aureus Cowan (SAC). Additional comparison of in vivo gene networks with available datasets from acute TLR activations in M/M expanded the overlap to 151-gene concordance among the 376 differential genes with emphasis on ERK/MAPK, TNF/IL6 (NFκB) and p53 gene networks. TLR2 stimulation of monocytes from HIV-1 infected subjects resulted in further upregulation of inflammatory genes indicative of a sustained transcriptional potential upon stimulation. In summary, our data support the presence of a sustained TLR-like gene activation profile in circulating monocyte from steady-state viremia in HIV-1 infected subjects.
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Milk matters: soluble Toll-like receptor 2 (sTLR2) in breast milk significantly inhibits HIV-1 infection and inflammation. PLoS One 2012; 7:e40138. [PMID: 22792230 PMCID: PMC3391222 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0040138] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/03/2012] [Accepted: 06/01/2012] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
The majority of infants who breastfeed from their HIV-positive mothers remain uninfected despite constant and repeated exposure to virus over weeks to years. This phenomenon is not fully understood but has been closely linked to innate factors in breast milk (BM). Most recently we have focused on one such innate factor, soluble Toll-like receptor 2 (sTLR2) for its significant contribution as an inhibitor of inflammation triggered by bacterial and viral antigens. We hypothesized that sTLR2 in BM inhibits immune activation/inflammation and HIV-1 infection. sTLR2 protein profiles were analyzed in HIV-uninfected BM and showed dramatic variability in expression concentration and predominant sTLR2 forms between women. sTLR2 immunodepleted BM, versus mock-depleted BM, incubated with Pam3CSK4 lead to significant increases in IL-8 production in a TLR2-dependant fashion in U937, HEK293-TLR2, and Caco-2. Importantly, TLR2-specific polyclonal and monoclonal antibody addition to BM prior to cell-free R5 HIV-1 addition led to significantly (P<0.01, P<0.001, respectively) increased HIV-1 infection in TZM-bl reporter cells. To confirm these findings, sTLR2-depletion in BM led to significantly (P<0.001) increased HIV-1 infection in TZM-bl cells. Notably, immunodepletion does not allow for the complete removal of sTLR2 from BM, thus functional testing shown here may underestimate the total effect elicited by sTLR2 against HIV-1 and synthetic bacterial ligand. This study provides evidence for the first time that sTLR2 in BM may provide a dual protective role for infants breastfeeding from their HIV-infected mothers by; (1) immunomodulating pro-inflammatory responses to bacterial ligands, and (2) directly inhibiting cell-free HIV-1 infection. Thus, sTLR2 in BM may be critical to infant health and prove beneficial in decreasing vertical HIV-1 transmission to infants.
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Berzsenyi MD, Roberts SK, Preiss S, Woollard DJ, Beard MR, Skinner NA, Bowden DS, Visvanathan K. Hepatic TLR2 & TLR4 expression correlates with hepatic inflammation and TNF-α in HCV & HCV/HIV infection. J Viral Hepat 2011; 18:852-60. [PMID: 21050341 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2893.2010.01390.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Signalling activated by Toll-like receptors (TLRs) can result in the production of tumour necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α) which is implicated in hepatitis C virus (HCV) and human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection. No study has examined or compared hepatic expression of TLRs in both HCV and HCV/HIV. Liver and peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) were obtained from HCV & HCV/HIV-infected patients and PBMCs from HIV-infected patients. Liver RNA was analysed by microarray and reverse transcription quantitative PCR (RT-qPCR). PBMCs were analysed by flow cytometry. Associations with hepatic histology and infection type were sought. Forty-six HCV, 20 HIV and 27 HCV/HIV-infected patients were recruited. Increasing Metavir inflammatory activity score was associated with increased hepatic TLR mRNA by RT-qPCR: TLR2 (P ≤ 0.001), TLR4 (P = 0.008) and TNF-α (P ≤ 0.001). A high degree of correlation was seen between hepatic mRNA expression of TNF-αvs TLR2 (r(2) = 0.66, P < 0.0001) and TLR4 (r(2) = 0.60, P < 0.0001). No differences in TLR gene or protein expression was observed between HCV, HCV/HIV- or HIV-infected groups. Hepatic TLR2, TLR4 and TNF-α mRNA are associated with hepatic inflammation in both HCV and HCV/HIV infection. High correlation between TNF-α and TLR2/TLR4 suggests a role for the innate immune response in TNF-α production. Activation of the innate immune response appears to be independent of infection type.
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Affiliation(s)
- M D Berzsenyi
- Department of Gastroenterology, Alfred Hospital, Prahran, Victoria, Australia.
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41
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Hernández JC, Arteaga J, Paul S, Kumar A, Latz E, Urcuqui-Inchima S. Up-regulation of TLR2 and TLR4 in dendritic cells in response to HIV type 1 and coinfection with opportunistic pathogens. AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses 2011; 27:1099-109. [PMID: 21406030 DOI: 10.1089/aid.2010.0302] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
The ability to trigger an innate immune response against opportunistic pathogens associated with HIV-1 infection is an important aspect of AIDS pathogenesis. Toll-like receptors (TLRs) play a critical role in innate immunity against pathogens, but in HIV-1 patients coinfected with opportunistic infections, the regulation of TLR expression has not been studied. In this context, we have evaluated the expression of TLR2 and TLR4 in monocytes, plasmacytoid dendritic cells, and myeloid dendritic cells of HIV-1 patients with or without opportunistic infections. Forty-nine HIV-1-infected individuals were classified according to viral load, highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART), and the presence or absence of opportunistic infections, and 21 healthy subjects served as controls. Increased expression of TLR2 and TLR4 was observed in myeloid dendritic cells of HIV-1 patients coinfected with opportunistic infections (without HAART), while TLR4 increased in plasmacytoid dendritic cells, compared to both HIV-1 without opportunistic infections and healthy subjects. Moreover, TLR2 expression was higher in patients with opportunistic infections without HAART and up-regulation of TLR expression in HIV-1 patients coinfected with opportunistic infections was more pronounced in dendritic cells derived from individuals coinfected with Mycobacterium tuberculosis. The results indicate that TLR expression in innate immune cells is up-regulated in patients with a high HIV-1 load and coinfected with opportunistic pathogens. We suggest that modulation of TLRs expression represents a mechanism that promotes HIV-1 replication and AIDS pathogenesis in patients coinfected with opportunistic pathogens.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Jose Arteaga
- Inmunología y Epidemiología Molecular, Universidad Industrial de Santander, Bucaramanga, Colombia
| | - Stéphane Paul
- GIMAP EA3064, Université de Lyon, Faculté de Médecine de Saint Etienne, Lyon, France
| | - Ajit Kumar
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, George Washington University, Washington, District of Columbia
| | - Eicke Latz
- Institute of Innate Immunity, University Hospitals, University of Bonn, Bonn, Germany
- Department of Infectious Diseases and Immunology, University of Massachusetts Medical School, Worcester, Massachusetts
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42
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Weinberg A, Naglik JR, Kohli A, Tugizov SM, Fidel PL, Liu Y, Herzberg M. Innate immunity including epithelial and nonspecific host factors: workshop 1B. Adv Dent Res 2011; 23:122-9. [PMID: 21441493 DOI: 10.1177/0022034511399917] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
The majority of HIV infections are initiated at mucosal sites. The oral mucosal tissue has been shown to be a potential route of entry in humans and primates. Whereas HIV RNA, proviral DNA, and infected cells are detected in the oral mucosa and saliva of infected individuals, it appears that the oral mucosa is not permissive for efficient HIV replication and therefore may differ in susceptibility to infection when compared to other mucosal sites. Since there is no definitive information regarding the fate of the HIV virion in mucosal epithelium, there is a pressing need to understand what occurs when the virus is in contact with this tissue, what mechanisms are in play to determine the outcome, and to what degree the mechanisms and outcomes differ between mucosal sites. Workshop 1B tackled 5 important questions to define current knowledge about epithelial cell-derived innate immune agents, commensal and endogenous pathogens, and epithelial cells and cells of the adaptive immune system and how they contribute to dissemination or resistance to HIV infection. Discovering factors that explain the differential susceptibility and resistance to HIV infection in mucosal sites will allow for the identification and development of novel protective strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Weinberg
- Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, Ohio, USA
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43
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Roy S, Ninkovic J, Banerjee S, Charboneau RG, Das S, Dutta R, Kirchner VA, Koodie L, Ma J, Meng J, Barke RA. Opioid drug abuse and modulation of immune function: consequences in the susceptibility to opportunistic infections. J Neuroimmune Pharmacol 2011; 6:442-65. [PMID: 21789507 DOI: 10.1007/s11481-011-9292-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 222] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/26/2011] [Accepted: 06/27/2011] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Infection rate among intravenous drug users (IDU) is higher than the general public, and is the major cause of morbidity and hospitalization in the IDU population. Epidemiologic studies provide data on increased prevalence of opportunistic bacterial infections such as TB and pneumonia, and viral infections such as HIV-1 and hepatitis in the IDU population. An important component in the intravenous drug abuse population and in patients receiving medically indicated chronic opioid treatment is opioid withdrawal. Data on bacterial virulence in the context of opioid withdrawal suggest that mice undergoing withdrawal had shortened survival and increased bacterial load in response to Salmonella infection. As the body of evidence in support of opioid dependency and its immunosuppressive effects is growing, it is imperative to understand the mechanisms by which opioids exert these effects and identify the populations at risk that would benefit the most from the interventions to counteract opioid immunosuppressive effects. Thus, it is important to refine the existing animal model to closely match human conditions and to cross-validate these findings through carefully controlled human studies. Better understanding of the mechanisms will facilitate the search for new therapeutic modalities to counteract adverse effects including increased infection rates. This review will summarize the effects of morphine on innate and adaptive immunity, identify the role of the mu opioid receptor in these functions and the signal transduction activated in the process. The role of opioid withdrawal in immunosuppression and the clinical relevance of these findings will also be discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sabita Roy
- Department of Surgery, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN 55455, USA.
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44
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El-Hage N, Podhaizer EM, Sturgill J, Hauser KF. Toll-like receptor expression and activation in astroglia: differential regulation by HIV-1 Tat, gp120, and morphine. Immunol Invest 2011; 40:498-522. [PMID: 21425908 DOI: 10.3109/08820139.2011.561904] [Citation(s) in RCA: 74] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
In this study, we aimed to determine whether morphine alone or in combination with HIV-1 Tat or gp120 affects the expression of Toll-like receptors (TLRs) by astrocytes and to assess whether TLRs expressed by astrocytes function in the release of inflammatory mediators in vitro. TLR profiling by immunofluorescence microscopy, flow cytometry, in-cell westerns, and RT-PCR showed that subpopulations of astrocytes possessed TLR 2, TLR3, TLR4, and TLR9 antigenicity. Exposure to HIV-1 Tat, gp120, and/or morphine significantly altered the proportion of TLR-immunopositive and/or TLR expression by astroglia in a TLR-specific manner. Subsets of astroglia displayed significant increases in TLR2 with reciprocal decreases in TLR9 expression in response to Tat or gp120 ± morphine treatment. TLR9 expression was also significantly decreased by morphine alone. Exposing astrocytes to the TLR agonists LTA (TLR2), poly I:C (TLR3), LPS (TLR4) and unmethylated CpG ODN (TLR9) resulted in increased secretion of MCP-1/CCL2 and elevations in reactive oxygen species. TLR3 and TLR4 stimulation increased the secretion of TNF-α, IL-6, and RANTES/CCL5, while activation of TLR2 caused a significant increase in nitric oxide levels. The results suggest that HIV-1 proteins and/or opioid abuse disrupt the innate immune response of the central nervous system (CNS) which may lead to increased pathogenicity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nazira El-Hage
- Department of Pharmacology & Toxicology, Virginia Commonwealth University, Medical College of Virginia Campus, Richmond, USA.
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45
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Morris A, Crothers K, Beck JM, Huang L. An official ATS workshop report: Emerging issues and current controversies in HIV-associated pulmonary diseases. PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN THORACIC SOCIETY 2011; 8:17-26. [PMID: 21364216 PMCID: PMC5830656 DOI: 10.1513/pats.2009-047ws] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
Abstract
Pulmonary diseases are major causes of morbidity and death in persons with HIV infection. Millions of people with HIV/AIDS throughout the world are at risk of opportunistic pneumonias such as tuberculosis, bacterial pneumonia, and Pneumocystis pneumonia. However, the availability of combination antiretroviral therapy has turned HIV into a chronic disease, and noninfectious lung diseases such as lung cancer, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, and pulmonary arterial hypertension are also emerging as important causes of illness. Despite the importance of these diseases and the rapidly evolving understanding of their pathogenesis and epidemiology, few avenues exist for the discussion and dissemination of new clinical and basic insights. In May of 2008, the American Thoracic Society sponsored a 1-day workshop, "Emerging Issues and Current Controversies in HIV-Associated Pulmonary Diseases," which brought together basic and clinical researchers in HIV-associated pulmonary disease. A review of the literature was performed by workshop participants, and the workshop included 18 presentations on diverse topics summarized in this article.
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MESH Headings
- AIDS-Related Opportunistic Infections/diagnosis
- AIDS-Related Opportunistic Infections/drug therapy
- AIDS-Related Opportunistic Infections/epidemiology
- Anti-Bacterial Agents/therapeutic use
- Anti-HIV Agents/therapeutic use
- Antitubercular Agents/therapeutic use
- Comorbidity
- Female
- Humans
- Incidence
- Male
- Pneumonia, Bacterial/diagnosis
- Pneumonia, Bacterial/drug therapy
- Pneumonia, Bacterial/epidemiology
- Pneumonia, Pneumocystis/diagnosis
- Pneumonia, Pneumocystis/drug therapy
- Pneumonia, Pneumocystis/epidemiology
- Practice Guidelines as Topic
- Prognosis
- Risk Assessment
- Severity of Illness Index
- Societies, Medical
- Survival Rate
- Tuberculosis, Pulmonary/diagnosis
- Tuberculosis, Pulmonary/drug therapy
- Tuberculosis, Pulmonary/epidemiology
- United States/epidemiology
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Ahmed N, Hayashi T, Hasegawa A, Furukawa H, Okamura N, Chida T, Masuda T, Kannagi M. Suppression of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 replication in macrophages by commensal bacteria preferentially stimulating Toll-like receptor 4. J Gen Virol 2010; 91:2804-13. [PMID: 20719993 DOI: 10.1099/vir.0.022442-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Protection from primary human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) infection has not yet been accomplished by vaccines inducing HIV-1-specific acquired immunity. Nevertheless, it has been reported that a small subgroup of women remain resistant to HIV-1 infection under natural conditions. If similar conditions can be induced in uninfected individuals, it will contribute the first line of protection against HIV-1 infection, and also improve the effects of anti-HIV-1 vaccines. We reasoned that innate immunity may be involved in the resistance to HIV-1 infection, and investigated the effects of various Toll-like receptor (TLR) ligands and commensal bacteria on HIV-1 replication in macrophages, one of the initial targets of HIV-1 infection and also the main mediators of innate immunity. We established the HIV-1 reporter monocytic cell line, THP-1/NL4-3luc, which could be differentiated into macrophage-like cells in vitro. In these cells, stimulation of TLR3 and TLR4 by their ligands suppressed HIV-1 expression partly through type I interferon (IFN). Among the commensal bacteria tested, Escherichia coli, Veillonella parvula and Neisseria mucosa suppressed HIV-1 expression, whereas Lactobacillus acidophilus, Prevotella melaninogenica, P. bivia and Mycobacterium smegmatis enhanced it. The bacteria with suppressive effects preferentially stimulated TLR4, whereas the ones with enhancing effects stimulated TLR2. Neutralizing antibodies against TLR4 and IFN-α/β receptor abrogated bacterially mediated HIV-1 suppression. Suppressive effects of E. coli, V. parvula and N. mucosa on HIV-1 replication were reproducible in primary monocyte-derived macrophages following acute HIV-1 infection. These findings suggest that certain commensal bacteria preferentially stimulating TLR4 potentially produce local environments resistant to HIV-1 infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nursarat Ahmed
- Department of Immunotherapeutics, Graduate School, Tokyo Medical and Dental University, Tokyo, Japan
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47
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Song Y, Zhuang Y, Zhai S, Huang D, Zhang Y, Kang W, Li X, Liu Q, Yu Q, Sun Y. Increased expression of TLR7 in CD8(+) T cells leads to TLR7-mediated activation and accessory cell-dependent IFN-gamma production in HIV type 1 infection. AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses 2009; 25:1287-95. [PMID: 19954299 DOI: 10.1089/aid.2008.0303] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
It has recently been demonstrated that toll-like receptors (TLRs) can recognize structural conserved motifs carried by circulating microbial products and lead to systemic immune responses in individuals infected with HIV-1. TLRs have been detected in CD8(+) T cells at either a protein or RNA level. The role of TLRs on CD8(+) T cells involved in the host's immune responses during HIV-1 infection has not been well characterized. In this study, we analyzed expression of TLR4, TLR5, TLR7, and TLR8 in CD8(+) T cells in HIV-1 infection. All these four TLRs could be detected in CD8(+) T cells, but only TLR7 in CD8(+) T cells from HIV-1-infected individuals showed a higher expression level compared with that from healthy individuals (p < 0.05). The function of TLR7 in CD8(+) T cells was then investigated. We found that TLR7 ligand responsiveness significantly increased the expression of immune activation markers on purified CD8(+) T cells in HIV-1-infected individuals compared with healthy controls. And the levels of these markers were equivalent to those achieved by CD8(+) T cells from peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs). However, we also observed that TLR7 ligand stimulated significant IFN-gamma production by CD8(+) T cells in an accessory cell-dependent manner. Therefore, although CD8(+) T cells can be directly activated by TLR7, accessory cells must play an essential role in the activation of effective functions such as IFN-gamma production. These findings suggest that the abnormal expression of TLR7 in CD8(+) T cells from HIV-1-infected individuals may contribute to the abnormal immune activation in HIV-1 infection and play an important role in HIV-1 pathogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yang Song
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Tangdu Hospital Affiliated to the Fourth Military Medical University, Xi'an 710038, P.R. China
| | - Yan Zhuang
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Tangdu Hospital Affiliated to the Fourth Military Medical University, Xi'an 710038, P.R. China
| | - Song Zhai
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Tangdu Hospital Affiliated to the Fourth Military Medical University, Xi'an 710038, P.R. China
| | - Dedong Huang
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Tangdu Hospital Affiliated to the Fourth Military Medical University, Xi'an 710038, P.R. China
| | - Ying Zhang
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Tangdu Hospital Affiliated to the Fourth Military Medical University, Xi'an 710038, P.R. China
| | - Wenzhen Kang
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Tangdu Hospital Affiliated to the Fourth Military Medical University, Xi'an 710038, P.R. China
| | - Xinhong Li
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Tangdu Hospital Affiliated to the Fourth Military Medical University, Xi'an 710038, P.R. China
| | - Qingquan Liu
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Tangdu Hospital Affiliated to the Fourth Military Medical University, Xi'an 710038, P.R. China
| | - Qigui Yu
- Hawaii AIDS Clinical Research Program, John A. Burns School of Medicine, University of Hawaii, Honolulu, Hawaii 96812
| | - Yongtao Sun
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Tangdu Hospital Affiliated to the Fourth Military Medical University, Xi'an 710038, P.R. China
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Human immunodeficiency virus infection alters tumor necrosis factor alpha production via Toll-like receptor-dependent pathways in alveolar macrophages and U1 cells. J Virol 2008; 82:7790-8. [PMID: 18524817 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.00362-08] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-positive persons are predisposed to pulmonary infections, even after receiving effective highly active antiretroviral therapy. The reasons for this are unclear but may involve changes in innate immune function. HIV type 1 infection of macrophages impairs effector functions, including cytokine production. We observed decreased constitutive tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-alpha) concentrations and increased soluble tumor necrosis factor receptor type II (sTNFRII) in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid samples from HIV-positive subjects compared to healthy controls. Moreover, net proinflammatory TNF-alpha activity, as measured by the TNF-alpha/sTNFRII ratio, decreased as HIV-related disease progressed, as manifested by decreasing CD4 cell count and increasing HIV RNA (viral load). Since TNF-alpha is an important component of the innate immune system and is produced upon activation of Toll-like receptor (TLR) pathways, we hypothesized that the mechanism associated with deficient TNF-alpha production in the lung involved altered TLR expression or a deficit in the TLR signaling cascade. We found decreased Toll-like receptor 1 (TLR1) and TLR4 surface expression in HIV-infected U1 monocytic cells compared to the uninfected parental U937 cell line and decreased TLR message in alveolar macrophages (AMs) from HIV-positive subjects. In addition, stimulation with TLR1/2 ligand (Pam(3)Cys) or TLR4 ligand (lipopolysaccharide) resulted in decreased intracellular phosphorylated extracellular signal-regulated kinase and subsequent decreased transcription and expression of TNF-alpha in U1 cells compared to U937 cells. AMs from HIV-positive subjects also showed decreased TNF-alpha production in response to these TLR2 and TLR4 ligands. We postulate that HIV infection alters expression of TLRs with subsequent changes in mitogen-activated protein kinase signaling and cytokine production that ultimately leads to deficiencies of innate immune responses that predispose HIV-positive subjects to infection.
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Abstract
OBJECTIVES Toll-like receptors (TLR) are important in pathogen recognition and may play a role in HIV disease. We evaluated the effect of chronic untreated and treated HIV-1 infection on systemic TLR expression and TLR signalling. METHODS Two hundred HIV-infected and uninfected women from a Kenya cohort participated in the studies. TLR1 to TLR10 messenger RNA expression was determined by quantitative reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction in peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC). TLR ligand responsiveness was determined in or using ex-vivo PBMC by cytokine production in culture supernatants. RESULTS Chronic, untreated HIV-1 infection was significantly associated with increased mRNA expression of TLR6, TLR7, and TLR8 and when analysis was limited to those with advanced disease (CD4 cell count < 200 cells/ml) TLR2, TLR3, and TLR4 were additionally elevated. TLR expression correlated with the plasma HIV-RNA load, which was significant for TLR6 and TLR7. In vitro HIV single-stranded RNA alone could enhance TLR mRNA expression. PBMC of HIV-infected subjects also demonstrated profoundly increased proinflammatory responsiveness to TLR ligands, suggesting sensitization of TLR signalling in HIV. Finally, viral suppression by HAART was associated with a normalization of TLR levels. CONCLUSION Together, these data indicate that chronic viraemic HIV-1 is associated with increased TLR expression and responsiveness, which may perpetuate innate immune dysfunction and activation that underlies HIV pathogenesis, and thus reveal potential new targets for therapy.
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50
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Salaria S, Badkoobehi H, Rockenstein E, Crews L, Chana G, Masliah E, Everall IP. Toll-like receptor pathway gene expression is associated with human immunodeficiency virus-associated neurodegeneration. J Neurovirol 2008; 13:496-503. [PMID: 18097881 DOI: 10.1080/13550280701558616] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
The innate immune system is a significant component of the brain's defense against infection, especially as the blood-brain barrier restricts access of the members of the adaptive immune system, such as T and B cells. The innate immune system includes Toll-like receptors (TLRs) that recognize pathogen-associated molecular patterns. Within the central nervous system, they are expressed on glial cells and their expression can be modulated by pathological states. Although their function is to recognize foreign pathogens and stimulate a protective immune response through the production of cytokines and interferons, there is emerging evidence that activation of these receptors can result in neurodegeneration. In the current study, the authors assessed the expression of TLR-related genes, using a customized Superarray gene chip, and correlated the expression findings with indices of neurodegeneration. We found that, using a stringent threshold for statistical significance to overcome the potential problem of multiple statistical testing, there were significant correlations between the expression of nine TLR-related genes and reduction in dendritic and synaptic staining. Two of these genes, TLR4 and SIGIRR, were validated by quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction. Additionally, the authors demonstrated in vitro at the protein level that human primary astrocytes exposed to the toxic human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) envelope protein gp120 had a significant increase in TLR4 protein expression. In conclusion, these findings indicate that TLR-related gene expression may contribute to the development of HIV-related neurodegeneration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shahid Salaria
- Department of Psychiatry, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California 92093-0603, USA
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