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Pinto K, Requicha JF. Cannabis sativa in veterinary medicine: Foundations and therapeutic applications. THE CANADIAN VETERINARY JOURNAL = LA REVUE VETERINAIRE CANADIENNE 2024; 65:948-958. [PMID: 39219599 PMCID: PMC11339888] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 09/04/2024]
Abstract
An increase in products containing phytocannabinoids, particularly cannabidiol, is often observed in human and veterinary markets following the legalization of hemp (cannabis) for industrial purposes. In veterinary medicine, derivatives of Cannabis sativa are used for managing pain (osteoarticular, oncological, and neuropathic), epilepsy, and behavioral disorders, as well as oncological, immune-mediated, cardiovascular, and respiratory diseases. In addition, there is growing interest in incorporating C. sativa into livestock feed. To elucidate the mechanisms of action of phytocannabinoids, a thorough understanding of the endocannabinoid system and its role in maintaining homeostasis is essential. Short-term use of phytocannabinoid products appears generally safe, but further research is required to understand the routes of administration, pharmacokinetics, and pharmacodynamics across various species. Although literature on phytocannabinoids in veterinary patients is limited, the available data suggest significant therapeutic potential.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karla Pinto
- Acupuncture and Veterinary Physical Rehabilitation, 2870-240 Montijo, Portugal (Pinto); Veterinary and Animal Research Centre (CECAV), Associate Laboratory for Animal and Veterinary Sciences (AL4AnimalS), University of Trás-os-Montes e Alto Douro, 5000-801 Vila Real, Portugal (Pinto, Requicha); Department of Veterinary Sciences, University of Trás-os-Montes e Alto Douro, Quinta de Prados, 5000-801 Vila Real, Portugal (Requicha)
| | - João F Requicha
- Acupuncture and Veterinary Physical Rehabilitation, 2870-240 Montijo, Portugal (Pinto); Veterinary and Animal Research Centre (CECAV), Associate Laboratory for Animal and Veterinary Sciences (AL4AnimalS), University of Trás-os-Montes e Alto Douro, 5000-801 Vila Real, Portugal (Pinto, Requicha); Department of Veterinary Sciences, University of Trás-os-Montes e Alto Douro, Quinta de Prados, 5000-801 Vila Real, Portugal (Requicha)
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2
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Cheng YC, Kerrigan S. Factors influencing the in situ formation of Δ9-THC from cannabidiol during GC-MS analysis. Drug Test Anal 2024; 16:989-1001. [PMID: 38049934 DOI: 10.1002/dta.3617] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/13/2023] [Revised: 11/08/2023] [Accepted: 11/09/2023] [Indexed: 12/06/2023]
Abstract
Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) is widely used for the identification of cannabinoids in seized plant material. Conditions used for instrumental analysis should maximize decarboxylation, while minimizing the in situ production of Δ9-THC inside the GC inlet. In this study, decarboxylation of the acidic Δ9-THC precursor and in situ degradation of cannabidiol (CBD) were investigated using seven commercial GC liners with different deactivation chemistries and geometries. While the inlet temperature was previously optimized at 250°C in a previously validated assay, we systematically examined the temperature-dependent decarboxylation of tetrahydrocannabinolic acid-A (Δ9-THCA-A) and cyclization of CBD between 230°C and 310°C using different liners using favorable and unfavorable conditions. Significant differences in decarboxylation rate and CBD cyclization were observed between different liner types. While no temperature-dependent differences in decarboxylation rate were observed within liner type, liner-dependent differences were observed (α = 0.05), particularly between those with different geometry. In contrast, temperature and liner-dependent differences were observed for in situ formation of Δ9-THC (α = 0.05). This was influenced by liner geometry and to a smaller extent by surface deactivation. Effects were exacerbated with liner usage. While significant differences were observed using new and used GC liners, differences between liners of the same type but different lot numbers were not observed. Inter-instrument differences using the same liner were also evaluated and had minimal effect. Liner- and temperature-dependent effects were also confirmed using more than 20 cannabis plant extracts. Careful selection of liner, inlet conditions, and regular preventive maintenance can mitigate the risks associated with in situ formation Δ9-THC from CBD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ya-Chih Cheng
- Department of Forensic Science, Sam Houston State University, Huntsville, Texas, USA
| | - Sarah Kerrigan
- Department of Forensic Science, Sam Houston State University, Huntsville, Texas, USA
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3
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Balenzano G, Racaniello GF, Spennacchio A, Lopalco A, Iacobazzi RM, Lopedota AA, Laquintana V, Denora N. Harnessing therapeutic deep eutectic solvents in self-emulsifying systems to improve CBD delivery. Int J Pharm 2024; 659:124267. [PMID: 38797251 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpharm.2024.124267] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2024] [Revised: 05/16/2024] [Accepted: 05/21/2024] [Indexed: 05/29/2024]
Abstract
In this study, Cannabidiol crystals (CBD) were used as a BCS class II model drug to generate a novel therapeutic deep eutectic solvent (THEDES) with easy preparation using caprylic acid (CA). The hydrogen bonding interaction was confirmed by different techniques such as FT-IR and NMR, resulting in a hydrophobic system suitable for liquid formulations. The CBD-based THEDES, combined with a specific mixture of surfactants and co-surfactants, successfully formed a self-emulsifying drug delivery system (SEDDS) that generated uniform nano-sized droplets once dispersed in water. Hence, the THEDES showed compatibility with the self-emulsifying approach, offering an alternative method to load drugs at their therapeutic dosage. Physical stability concerns regarding the unconventional oily phase were addressed through stress tests using multiple and dynamic light scattering, demonstrating the robustness of the system. In addition, the formulated SEDDS proved effective in protecting CBD from the harsh acidic gastric environment for up to 2 h at pH 1.2. Furthermore, in vitro studies have confirmed the safety of the formulation and the ability of CBD to permeate Caco-2 cells when formulated. This investigation highlights the potential incorporation of THEDES in lipid-based formulations like SEDDS, expanding the avenues for innovative oral drug delivery approaches.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gennaro Balenzano
- Department of Pharmacy - Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Bari "Aldo Moro", Via E. Orabona, 4 I-70125, Bari, Italy
| | - Giuseppe Francesco Racaniello
- Department of Pharmacy - Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Bari "Aldo Moro", Via E. Orabona, 4 I-70125, Bari, Italy
| | - Antonio Spennacchio
- Department of Pharmacy - Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Bari "Aldo Moro", Via E. Orabona, 4 I-70125, Bari, Italy
| | - Antonio Lopalco
- Department of Pharmacy - Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Bari "Aldo Moro", Via E. Orabona, 4 I-70125, Bari, Italy
| | - Rosa Maria Iacobazzi
- Department of Pharmacy - Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Bari "Aldo Moro", Via E. Orabona, 4 I-70125, Bari, Italy
| | - Angela Assunta Lopedota
- Department of Pharmacy - Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Bari "Aldo Moro", Via E. Orabona, 4 I-70125, Bari, Italy
| | - Valentino Laquintana
- Department of Pharmacy - Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Bari "Aldo Moro", Via E. Orabona, 4 I-70125, Bari, Italy
| | - Nunzio Denora
- Department of Pharmacy - Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Bari "Aldo Moro", Via E. Orabona, 4 I-70125, Bari, Italy.
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4
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Yang S, Sun M. Recent Advanced Methods for Extracting and Analyzing Cannabinoids from Cannabis-Infused Edibles and Detecting Hemp-Derived Contaminants in Food (2013-2023): A Comprehensive Review. JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2024. [PMID: 38857901 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jafc.4c01286] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/12/2024]
Abstract
Cannabis-infused edibles are food products infused with a cannabis extract. These edibles include baked goods, candies, and beverages, offering an alternative way to consume cannabis instead of smoking or vaporizing it. Ensuring the accurate detection of cannabis-infused edibles and identification of any contaminants is crucial for public health and safety. This is particularly important for compliance with legal regulations as these substances can have significant psychoactive effects, especially on unsuspecting consumers such as children or individuals with certain medical conditions. Using efficient extraction methods can greatly improve detection accuracy, ensuring that the concentration of cannabinoids in edibles is measured correctly and adheres to dosage guidelines and legal limits. This review comprehensively examines the preparation and extraction techniques for cannabinoid edibles. It covers methods such as solid-phase extraction, enhanced matrix removal-lipid, QuEChERS, dissolution and dispersion techniques, liquid-phase extraction, and other emerging methodologies along with analytical techniques for cannabinoid analysis. The main analytical techniques employed for the determination of cannabinoids include liquid chromatography (LC), gas chromatography (GC), direct analysis in real time (DART), and mass spectrometry (MS). The application of these extraction and analytical techniques is further demonstrated through their use in analyzing specific edible samples, including oils, candies, beverages, solid coffee and tea, snacks, pet food, and contaminated products.
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Affiliation(s)
- Siyun Yang
- Department of Biology, Kean University, Union, New Jersey 07083, United States
| | - Mingjing Sun
- Department of Chemistry and Physics, Kean University, Union, New Jersey 07083, United States
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5
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Moreno S, Trouten-Ebert A, Richards-Waugh LL, Quiñones R. An evaluation of the cannabinoid content of the liquid and thermal degradation analysis of cannabis-labeled vape liquids. J Forensic Sci 2024; 69:905-918. [PMID: 38491781 DOI: 10.1111/1556-4029.15508] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/08/2023] [Revised: 03/06/2024] [Accepted: 03/06/2024] [Indexed: 03/18/2024]
Abstract
Cannabidiol (CBD) vape pen usage has been on the rise given the changing political and scientific climate as well as the promotion of these delivery systems as a more accessible and lower-risk option for consumers. Despite being marketed as a safer way to use cannabis, CBD vape liquids are sold without restrictions or meticulous quality control procedures such as toxicological and clinical assessment, standards for product preservation, or investigative degradation analyses. Nine CBD-labeled vape liquid samples purchased and manufactured in the United States were evaluated and assessed for cannabinoid content. Quantification and validation of cannabinoids and matrix components was accomplished using gas and liquid chromatography with mass spectrometry analysis (GC-MS and LC-MS/MS) following liquid-liquid extraction with methanol. Samples degraded by temperature (analyzed by GC-MS) showed a greater disparity from the labeled CBD content compared with samples analyzed as purchased (by LC-MS/MS). Thermal degradation of the vape liquids showed increased levels of tetrahydrocannabinol (THC). Also, extended time and temperature degradation were evaluated in vape liquids by storing them for 15 months and then varying temperature conditions before analysis, which indicated CBD transformed into other cannabinoids leading to different cannabinoid content within the vape samples. Evaluation conducted on these vape liquids indicated the route of exposure, storage conditions, and length of storage could expose consumers to unintended cannabinoids and showed a concerning level of disagreement between the products' labeled cannabinoid content and the results generated by these analyses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sara Moreno
- Chemistry Department, Marshall University, Huntington, West Virginia, USA
- Forensic Science, Marshall University, Huntington, West Virginia, USA
| | | | | | - Rosalynn Quiñones
- Chemistry Department, Marshall University, Huntington, West Virginia, USA
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6
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Qian L, Beers JL, Jackson KD, Zhou Z. CBD and THC in Special Populations: Pharmacokinetics and Drug-Drug Interactions. Pharmaceutics 2024; 16:484. [PMID: 38675145 PMCID: PMC11054161 DOI: 10.3390/pharmaceutics16040484] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/18/2024] [Revised: 03/13/2024] [Accepted: 03/25/2024] [Indexed: 04/28/2024] Open
Abstract
Cannabinoid use has surged in the past decade, with a growing interest in expanding cannabidiol (CBD) and delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) applications into special populations. Consequently, the increased use of CBD and THC raises the risk of drug-drug interactions (DDIs). Nevertheless, DDIs for cannabinoids, especially in special populations, remain inadequately investigated. While some clinical trials have explored DDIs between therapeutic drugs like antiepileptic drugs and CBD/THC, more potential interactions remain to be examined. This review summarizes the published studies on CBD and THC-drug interactions, outlines the mechanisms involved, discusses the physiological considerations in pharmacokinetics (PK) and DDI studies in special populations (including pregnant and lactating women, pediatrics, older adults, patients with hepatic or renal impairments, and others), and presents modeling approaches that can describe the DDIs associated with CBD and THC in special populations. The PK of CBD and THC in special populations remain poorly characterized, with limited studies investigating DDIs involving CBD/THC in these populations. Therefore, it is critical to evaluate potential DDIs between CBD/THC and medications that are commonly used in special populations. Modeling approaches can aid in understanding these interactions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lixuan Qian
- Department of Chemistry, York College, City University of New York, Jamaica, NY 11451, USA;
| | - Jessica L. Beers
- Division of Pharmacotherapy and Experimental Therapeutics, Eshelman School of Pharmacy, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC 27599, USA (K.D.J.)
| | - Klarissa D. Jackson
- Division of Pharmacotherapy and Experimental Therapeutics, Eshelman School of Pharmacy, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC 27599, USA (K.D.J.)
| | - Zhu Zhou
- Department of Chemistry, York College, City University of New York, Jamaica, NY 11451, USA;
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7
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Zhang M, Bai LB, Yau LF, Tong TT, Zhang W, Jiang ZH. Identification of Cannabidivarin Metabolites in Different Mouse Organs Using Ultra-Performance Liquid Chromatography Coupled to a Quadrupole Time-of-Flight Mass Spectrometer. Cannabis Cannabinoid Res 2024; 9:386-396. [PMID: 36342908 DOI: 10.1089/can.2022.0161] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
Background and Objectives: As a natural analog of cannabidiol (CBD), nonpsychoactive cannabidivarin (CBDV) has therapeutic potential. However, the precise metabolism of CBDV either in vivo or in vitro has not been fully understood. Objective and Experimental Approach: Therefore, mice were intragastrically administered CBDV, and metabolite-rich and potential target organs and tissues were collected and analyzed by ultrahigh-performance liquid chromatography-quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry. The metabolic pathways of CBDV in mice were illustrated more comprehensively for the first time. Results: Twenty-one metabolites were found, all of which, except decarbonylated CBDV, were initially identified. Compared with CBD, the newly identified metabolic pathways were single dehydrogenation, combined decarbonylation and monohydroxylation, and glutathione conjugations of CBDV and its phase I metabolite. Conclusions: According to the very low response in plasma and the extremely high response in intestinal contents 1 h later after the administration, it was assumed that the oral bioavailability of CBDV was as poor as that of CBD, and the major forms to excrete were conjugates of glutathione and glucuronic acid. In contrast to CBDV, decarbonylated CBDV in the keto form and enol form had considerable responses in plasma and preferred to target fatty tissues and organs owing to their higher lipophilicity. Whether these forms can function as genuine active substances in vivo instead of CBDV is worthy of investigation. These results and supposes contribute notable information regarding the pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of CBDV.
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Affiliation(s)
- Min Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Quality Research in Chinese Medicines, Macau Institute for Applied Research in Medicine and Health, Macau University of Science and Technology, Taipa, Macau, China
| | - Long-Bo Bai
- State Key Laboratory of Quality Research in Chinese Medicines, Macau Institute for Applied Research in Medicine and Health, Macau University of Science and Technology, Taipa, Macau, China
| | - Lee-Fong Yau
- State Key Laboratory of Quality Research in Chinese Medicines, Macau Institute for Applied Research in Medicine and Health, Macau University of Science and Technology, Taipa, Macau, China
| | - Tian-Tian Tong
- State Key Laboratory of Quality Research in Chinese Medicines, Macau Institute for Applied Research in Medicine and Health, Macau University of Science and Technology, Taipa, Macau, China
| | - Wei Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Quality Research in Chinese Medicines, Macau Institute for Applied Research in Medicine and Health, Macau University of Science and Technology, Taipa, Macau, China
| | - Zhi-Hong Jiang
- State Key Laboratory of Quality Research in Chinese Medicines, Macau Institute for Applied Research in Medicine and Health, Macau University of Science and Technology, Taipa, Macau, China
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8
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Alvarez JC, Pelissier AL, Mura P, Goullé JP. [Cannabidiol (CBD): Analytical and toxicological aspects]. Therapie 2023; 78:639-645. [PMID: 36868996 DOI: 10.1016/j.therap.2023.02.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/05/2022] [Revised: 01/31/2023] [Accepted: 02/14/2023] [Indexed: 02/22/2023]
Abstract
Cannabidiol (CBD) is a phytocannabinoid present in cannabis, obtained either by extraction from the plant or by synthesis. The latter has the advantage of being pure and contains few impurities, unlike CBD of plant origin. It is used by inhalation, ingestion or skin application. In France, the law stipulates that specialties containing CBD may contain up to 0.3% of tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), the psychoactive principle of cannabis. From an analytical point of view, it is therefore important to be able to quantify the two compounds as well as their metabolites in the various matrices that can be used clinically or forensically, in particular saliva and blood. The transformation of CBD into THC, which has long been suggested, appears to be an analytical artifact under certain conditions. CBD is not without toxicity, whether acute or chronic, as seems to attest to the serious adverse effects recorded by pharmacovigilance during the experiment currently being conducted in France by the Agence Nationale de Sécurité du Médicament et des Produits de Santé. Although CBD does not seem to modify driving abilities, driving a vehicle after consuming CBD containing up to 0.3% THC, and sometimes much more in products bought on the internet, can lead to a positive result in screening and confirmation tests by law enforcement agencies, whether salivary or blood tests, and therefore lead to a legal sanction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jean-Claude Alvarez
- Laboratoire de pharmacologie/toxicologie, CHU Garches, université Paris-Saclay (Versailles-St Quentin-en-Yvelines), plateforme de spectrométrie de masse MasSpecLab, UFR médecine Simone Veil, Inserm U-1018, CESP, Équipe MOODS, 92380 Garches, France.
| | - Anne-Laure Pelissier
- Laboratoire de toxicologie, service de médecine légale, AP-HM, CHU Timone, Aix-Marseille université, 13005 Marseille, France
| | - Patrick Mura
- Académie nationale de Pharmacie, 75270 Paris, France
| | - Jean-Pierre Goullé
- Laboratoire de toxicologie, UNIROUEN, UR ABTE EA 4651, UFR de santé, université de Rouen, 76183 Rouen, France
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9
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Sedlmayr V, Horn C, Wurm DJ, Spadiut O, Quehenberger J. Archaeosomes facilitate storage and oral delivery of cannabidiol. Int J Pharm 2023; 645:123434. [PMID: 37739097 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpharm.2023.123434] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/23/2023] [Revised: 08/15/2023] [Accepted: 09/19/2023] [Indexed: 09/24/2023]
Abstract
Cannabidiol (CBD) has received great scientific interest due to its numerous therapeutic applications. Degradation in the gastrointestinal (GI) tract, first-pass metabolism, and low water solubility restrain bioavailability of CBD to only 6% in current oral administration. Lipid-based nanocarriers are delivery systems that may enhance accessibility and solubility of hydrophobic payloads, such as CBD. Conventional lecithin-derived liposomes, however, have limitations regarding stability in the GI tract and long-term storage. Ether lipid-based archaeosomes may have the potential to overcome these problems due to chemical and structural uniqueness. In this study, we compared lecithin-derived liposomes with archaeosomes in their applicability as an oral delivery system of CBD. We evaluated drug load, storage stability, stability in a simulated GI tract, and in vitro particle uptake in Caco-2 cells. Loading capacity was 6-fold higher in archaeosomes than conventional liposomes while providing a stable formulation over six months after lyophilization. In a simulated GI tract, CBD recovery in archaeosomes was 57 ± 3% compared to only 34 ± 1% in conventional liposomes and particle uptake in Caco-2 cells was enhanced up to 6-fold. Our results demonstrate that archaeosomes present an interesting solution to tackle current issues of oral CBD formulations due to improved stability and endocytosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Viktor Sedlmayr
- TU Wien, Institute of Chemical, Environmental and Bioscience Engineering, Vienna, Austria
| | | | | | - Oliver Spadiut
- TU Wien, Institute of Chemical, Environmental and Bioscience Engineering, Vienna, Austria
| | - Julian Quehenberger
- TU Wien, Institute of Chemical, Environmental and Bioscience Engineering, Vienna, Austria; NovoArc GmbH, Vienna, Austria.
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Hart ED, Mullen L, Vikingsson S, Cone EJ, Winecker RE, Hayes ED, Flegel RR. Conversion of water-soluble CBD to ∆9-THC in synthetic gastric fluid-An unlikely cause of positive drug tests. J Anal Toxicol 2023; 47:632-635. [PMID: 37440360 DOI: 10.1093/jat/bkad043] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/07/2023] [Revised: 07/03/2023] [Accepted: 07/11/2023] [Indexed: 07/15/2023] Open
Abstract
Cannabidiol (CBD) has been shown to convert to ∆9-tetrahydrocannabinol (∆9-THC) in acidic environments, raising a concern of conversion when exposed to gastric fluid after consumption. Using synthetic gastric fluid (SGF), it has been demonstrated that the conversion requires surfactants, such as sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS), due to limited solubility of CBD. Recently, water-compatible nanoemulsions of CBD have been prepared as a means of fortifying beverages and water-based foods with CBD. Since these emulsions contain surfactants as part of their formulation, it is possible that these preparations might enhance the production of ∆9-THC even in the absence of added surfactants. Three THC-free CBD products, an oil, an anhydrous powder and a water-soluble formulation, were incubated for 3 h in SGF without SDS. The water-soluble CBD product produced a dispersion, while the powder and the oil did not mix with the SGF. No THC was detected with the CBD oil (<0.0006% conversion), and up to 0.063% and 0.0045% conversion to ∆9-THC was observed with the water-soluble CBD and the CBD powder, respectively. No formation of ∆8-THC was observed. In comparison, when the nano-formulated CBD was incubated in SGF with 1% SDS, 33-36% conversion to ∆9-THC was observed. Even though the rate of conversion with the water-soluble CBD was at least 100-fold higher compared to the CBD oil, it was still smaller than ∆9-THC levels reported in CBD products labeled "THC-free" or "<0.3% THC" based on the Agricultural Improvement Act of 2018 (the Farm Bill). Assuming a daily CBD dose of around 30 mg/day, it is unlikely that conversion of CBD to ∆9-THC could produce a positive urinary drug test for 11-Nor-9-carboxy-∆9-THC (15 ng/mL cut-off).
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Affiliation(s)
- E Dale Hart
- Center for Forensic Science Advancement and Application, RTI International, 3040 East Cornwallis Rd, Research Triangle Park, NC 27709, USA
| | - Lawrance Mullen
- Center for Forensic Science Advancement and Application, RTI International, 3040 East Cornwallis Rd, Research Triangle Park, NC 27709, USA
| | - Svante Vikingsson
- Center for Forensic Science Advancement and Application, RTI International, 3040 East Cornwallis Rd, Research Triangle Park, NC 27709, USA
| | - Edward J Cone
- Behavioral Pharmacology Research Unit, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, 5510 Nathan Shock Dr., Baltimore, MD 21224, USA
| | - Ruth E Winecker
- Center for Forensic Science Advancement and Application, RTI International, 3040 East Cornwallis Rd, Research Triangle Park, NC 27709, USA
| | - Eugene D Hayes
- Division of Workplace Programs, Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration, 5600 Fishers Lane, Rockville, MD 20857, USA
| | - Ronald R Flegel
- Division of Workplace Programs, Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration, 5600 Fishers Lane, Rockville, MD 20857, USA
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11
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Geci M, Scialdone M, Tishler J. The Dark Side of Cannabidiol: The Unanticipated Social and Clinical Implications of Synthetic Δ 8-THC. Cannabis Cannabinoid Res 2023; 8:270-282. [PMID: 36264171 PMCID: PMC10061328 DOI: 10.1089/can.2022.0126] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Introduction: The explosive growth of the cannabis industry in the United States over the past decade has spurred a multitude of products derived from phytocannabinoids produced by Cannabis sativa L. Decades of cannabis prohibition coupled with the more recent 2018 Farm Bill have lead to several unanticipated consequences and the widespread availability of synthetic cannabinoids derived from hemp CBD, including Δ8-THC, Δ10-THC and HHC. Methods: Herein, we review the available literature of the complexity of the chemistry of its current manufacture, namely, the acid-catalyzed ring closure of cannabidiol (ACRCC), the myriad of issues involving the unsolved technical problems with quality control of ACRCC-Δ8-THC and the multitude of isomerized byproducts, and the lack of consistent regulation regarding consumer safety and labeling. Results: We provide what we believe is the first comprehensive listing of all the documented ACRCC-Δ8-THC byproducts. Perhaps, most importantly, we highlight the growing concern that, other than Δ8-THC itself, the compounds in ACRCC-Δ8-THC product mixtures have not been subjected to any human toxicological evaluation. This is especially troubling as ACRCC-Δ8-THC products relate to vaping, and their contribution to a growing and lethal epidemic of electronic cigarette, or vaping, product use-associated lung injury (EVALI). Conclusions: Quality control is totally inadequate in the newly emerging Δ8-THC industry. American consumers are ingesting products that are mislabeled with many compounds that have never received any toxicological testing. EVALI cases continue to be reported with a fatality rate approaching 2% (in California).
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael Geci
- Whole Health & Healing Integrative Clinic, Cherry Valley, New York, USA
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12
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Zhao Y, Sepehr E, Vaught C, Yourick J, Sprando RL. Development and validation of a fit-for-purpose UHPLC-ESI-MS/MS method for the quantitation of cannabinoids in different matrices. J Chromatogr B Analyt Technol Biomed Life Sci 2023; 1218:123629. [PMID: 36854205 DOI: 10.1016/j.jchromb.2023.123629] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/05/2022] [Revised: 01/18/2023] [Accepted: 02/11/2023] [Indexed: 02/25/2023]
Abstract
Several cannabinoids (cannabidivarin (CBDV), cannabigerol (CBG), cannabidiol (CBD), cannabinol (CBN) and cannabichromene (CBC)) and ethanol hemp extract are being used in primary human hepatocytes (PHH), Caenorhabditis elegans (C. elegans) and in vitro buccal membrane absorption models to elucidate their potential toxicological mechanisms, evaluate their oromucosal absorption, and to identify their metabolites. William's E medium, C. elegans habitation medium (CeHM), and HEPES-buffered hanks' balanced salt solution (HHBSS) are matrices used with these predictive test systems. Therefore, we developed and validated a sensitive fit-for-purpose ultra-high performance liquid chromatography-electrospray-tandem mass spectrometry (UHPLC-ESI-MS/MS) method for the quantitation of CBDV, CBG, CBD, CBN, and CBC in extracellular matrices used with these models for the first time. The separation of the analytes was performed on a Waters ACQUITY UPLC BEH C18 column (130 Å, 1.7 μm, 2.1 × 100 mm) protected with a Waters ACQUITY UPLC BEH C18 guard column (130 Å, 1.7 μm, 2.1 × 5 mm). Positive electrospray ionization and multiple reaction monitoring (MRM) modes were used. Under the developed experimental conditions, good linearities were obtained over the concentration range of 0.025-40 µg/ml with coefficients of determination (R2) varying from 0.9953 to 0.9998. The intra-day precisions were between 0.5 and 9.6% with accuracies within ± 16.7%, and the inter-day precisions ranged from 0.6 to 13.1 % with accuracies within ± 13.7%. The method recoveries were between 85.8 and 105.1%. In addition, time-consuming sample preparation was avoided by applying a simple and efficient extraction procedure, which meets the need for potential large-scale routine analysis. The described method was successfully applied to quantitate the analytes in samples produced with different models as well as in ethanolic hemp extract.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yang Zhao
- Division of Toxicology, Office of Applied Research and Safety Assessment, Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition, United States Food and Drug Administration, Laurel, MD 20708, USA.
| | - Estatira Sepehr
- Division of Toxicology, Office of Applied Research and Safety Assessment, Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition, United States Food and Drug Administration, Laurel, MD 20708, USA
| | - Cory Vaught
- Division of Toxicology, Office of Applied Research and Safety Assessment, Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition, United States Food and Drug Administration, Laurel, MD 20708, USA
| | - Jeffrey Yourick
- Division of Toxicology, Office of Applied Research and Safety Assessment, Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition, United States Food and Drug Administration, Laurel, MD 20708, USA
| | - Robert L Sprando
- Division of Toxicology, Office of Applied Research and Safety Assessment, Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition, United States Food and Drug Administration, Laurel, MD 20708, USA
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13
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Holt AK, Poklis JL, Peace MR. The history, evolution, and practice of cannabis and E-cigarette industries highlight necessary public health and public safety considerations. JOURNAL OF SAFETY RESEARCH 2023; 84:192-203. [PMID: 36868647 PMCID: PMC10829760 DOI: 10.1016/j.jsr.2022.10.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2021] [Revised: 05/29/2022] [Accepted: 10/25/2022] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Alaina K Holt
- Department of Forensic Science, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, VA, United States; Integrative Life Sciences Doctoral Program, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, VA, United States.
| | - Justin L Poklis
- Department of Pharmacology & Toxicology, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, VA, United States.
| | - Michelle R Peace
- Department of Forensic Science, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, VA, United States.
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14
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Filer CN. On the Uncatalyzed Thermal Conversion of Cannabidiol to Delta-9-Tetrahydrocannabinol. Cannabis Cannabinoid Res 2023. [PMID: 36716192 DOI: 10.1089/can.2022.0337] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/31/2023] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Crist N Filer
- Department of Reagents, PerkinElmer Health Sciences, Inc., Waltham, Massachusetts, USA
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15
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Jiang F, Wu P, Zhang W. Synthesis and Biological Evaluation of 3′,5′‐d
2
‐Cannabidiol. ChemistrySelect 2023. [DOI: 10.1002/slct.202204628] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Fan Jiang
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry School of Pharmacy Fudan University 826 Zhangheng Road Shanghai 201203 China
| | - Ping Wu
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry School of Pharmacy Fudan University 826 Zhangheng Road Shanghai 201203 China
| | - Wei Zhang
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry School of Pharmacy Fudan University 826 Zhangheng Road Shanghai 201203 China
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16
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Franz S, Herzog J, Skopp G, Musshoff F. Will tetrahydrocannabinol be formed from cannabidiol in gastric fluid? An in vivo experiment. Int J Legal Med 2023; 137:79-87. [PMID: 36190564 DOI: 10.1007/s00414-022-02896-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/12/2022] [Accepted: 09/19/2022] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Abstract
Cannabidiol (CBD) products have ascribed an uprising trend for their health-promoting effects worldwide. In contrast to Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), CBD exhibits no state of euphoria. Since conversion of CBD into THC in an acidic environment has been reported, it has not been proved whether this degradation will also occur in human gastric fluid. A total of 9 subjects ingested 400 mg CBD as a water-soluble liquid together with lecithin as an emulsifier and ethanol as a solubilizer. Blood samples were taken up to 4 h, and urine samples were submitted up to 48 h. THC, 11-hydroxy-Δ9-THC (THC-OH), 11-nor-9-carboxy-Δ9-THC (THC-COOH), CBD, 7-hydroxy cannabidiol (7-OH-CBD), and 7-carboxy cannabidiol (7-CBD-COOH) were determined in blood and THC-COOH and 7-CBD-COOH in urine by LC-MS/MS. Neither THC, THC-OH, nor THC-COOH were detectable in any serum specimen. Only two urine samples revealed THC-COOH values slightly above the threshold of 10 ng/ml, which could also be caused by trace amounts of THC being present in the CBD liquid. It can be concluded that negative consequences for participants of a drug testing program due to a conversion of CBD into THC in human gastric fluid appear unlikely, especially considering a single intake of dosages of less than 400 mg. Nevertheless, there is a reasonable risk for consumers of CBD products being tested positive for THC or THC metabolites. However, this is probably not caused by CBD cyclization into THC in human gastric fluid but is most likely due to THC being present as an impurity of CBD products.
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Affiliation(s)
- Simon Franz
- Forensic Toxicological Center (FTC) Munich, Dessauerstr. 13-15, 80992, Munich, Germany.
| | - Josefine Herzog
- Forensic Toxicological Center (FTC) Munich, Dessauerstr. 13-15, 80992, Munich, Germany
| | - Gisela Skopp
- Forensic Toxicological Center (FTC) Munich, Dessauerstr. 13-15, 80992, Munich, Germany
| | - Frank Musshoff
- Forensic Toxicological Center (FTC) Munich, Dessauerstr. 13-15, 80992, Munich, Germany
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17
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Jaidee W, Siridechakorn I, Nessopa S, Wisuitiprot V, Chaiwangrach N, Ingkaninan K, Waranuch N. Kinetics of CBD, Δ 9-THC Degradation and Cannabinol Formation in Cannabis Resin at Various Temperature and pH Conditions. Cannabis Cannabinoid Res 2022; 7:537-547. [PMID: 34096805 PMCID: PMC9418372 DOI: 10.1089/can.2021.0004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Introduction: Cannabidiol (CBD), cannabinol (CBN), and Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (Δ9-THC) are major cannabinoids in cannabis resin and products. The kinetic of the chemical reaction of resin cannabis is important for product development and storage. A few reports are available in the literature on the rate of CBD and Δ9-THC degradation, and CBN formation in dried resin and solutions of various pH. Materials and Methods: Thermal degradation of CBD, Δ9-THC, and formation of CBN was studied at 50°C, 60°C, 70°C, and 80°C for dried cannabis resin. The effect of pH and temperature on cannabinoids transformation in cannabis solution was also examined at pH 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, and 12 and at 40°C, 50°C, 60°C, and 70°C. High-performance chromatography coupled with diode-array detection (HPLC-DAD) was used for the analysis of CBD, CBN, and Δ9-THC transformation. The values of activation energies (Ea), shelf-life (t90% - t110%), and rate constant (k) were calculated for the CBD, Δ9-THC, and CBN. The effect of temperature and pH on the dried cannabis resin was adequately modeled with the Arrhenius equation. Results: The results indicated that the chemical kinetics in the thermal degradation of CBD, Δ9-THC, and formation of CBN were the zero-order, pseudo-zero-order, and first-order reactions, respectively, in cannabis resin. The first-order and pseudo-first-order degradation kinetics were evidenced for CBD and Δ9-THC, respectively, in cannabis solutions, whereas the zero-order formation kinetic was detected for the CBN. The transformation rate of the CBD, CBN, and Δ9-THC increased with increasing temperature, especially as temperature increased to 70°C at pH 2.0. The optimum pH for CBD stability was between pH 4 and 6, whereas the optimum pH for Δ9-THC stability was between pH 4 and 12. Conclusion: The major cannabinoids (CBD, CBN, and Δ9-THC) reacted more quickly at high temperature and in an acidic solution. Especially, the minimum transformation of CBD, CBN, and Δ9-THC was achieved by using on a low temperature, slightly to moderately acidic pH values, and short-time processing. These results may help to improve the storage condition of CBD, CBN, and Δ9-THC products and in the manufacturing process.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wuttichai Jaidee
- Cosmetics and Natural Products Research Center, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Naresuan University, Phitsanulok, Thailand
- Medicinal Plant Innovation Center of Mae Fah Luang University, Mae Fah Luang University, Chiang Rai, Thailand
| | - Ittipon Siridechakorn
- Cosmetics and Natural Products Research Center, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Naresuan University, Phitsanulok, Thailand
| | - Siwames Nessopa
- Cosmetics and Natural Products Research Center, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Naresuan University, Phitsanulok, Thailand
| | - Vanuchawan Wisuitiprot
- Cosmetics and Natural Products Research Center, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Naresuan University, Phitsanulok, Thailand
| | - Nathareen Chaiwangrach
- Center of Excellence in Cannabis Research, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Naresuan University, Phitsanulok, Thailand
| | - Kornkanok Ingkaninan
- Cosmetics and Natural Products Research Center, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Naresuan University, Phitsanulok, Thailand
- Center of Excellence in Cannabis Research, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Naresuan University, Phitsanulok, Thailand
| | - Neti Waranuch
- Cosmetics and Natural Products Research Center, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Naresuan University, Phitsanulok, Thailand
- Department of Pharmaceutical Technology, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences and Center of Excellence for Innovation in Chemistry, Naresuan University, Phitsanulok, Thailand
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18
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Licitra R, Marchese M, Naef V, Ogi A, Martinelli M, Kiferle C, Fronte B, Santorelli FM. A Review on the Bioactivity of Cannabinoids on Zebrafish Models: Emphasis on Neurodevelopment. Biomedicines 2022; 10:biomedicines10081820. [PMID: 36009367 PMCID: PMC9404760 DOI: 10.3390/biomedicines10081820] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2022] [Revised: 07/26/2022] [Accepted: 07/27/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
For centuries, the cannabis plant has been used as a source of food, fiber, and medicine. Recently, scientific interest in cannabis has increased considerably, as its bioactive compounds have shown promising potential in the treatment of numerous musculoskeletal and neurological diseases in humans. However, the mechanisms that underlie its possible effects on neurodevelopment and nervous-system functioning remain poorly understood and need to be further investigated. Although the bulk of research on cannabis and cannabinoids is based on in vitro or rodent models, the zebrafish has now emerged as a powerful in vivo model for drug-screening studies and translational research. We here review the available literature on the use of cannabis/cannabinoids in zebrafish, and particularly in zebrafish models of neurological disorders. A critical analysis suggests that zebrafish could serve as an experimental tool for testing the bioactivity of cannabinoids, and they could thus provide important insights into the safety and efficacy of different cannabis-extract-based products. The review showed that zebrafish exhibit similar behaviors to rodents following cannabinoid exposure. The authors stress the importance of analyzing the full spectrum of naturally occurring cannabinoids, rather than just the main ones, THC and CBD, and they offer some pointers on performing behavioral analysis in zebrafish.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rosario Licitra
- Molecular Medicine and Neurobiology—ZebraLab, IRCCS Fondazione Stella Maris, 56128 Pisa, Italy; (R.L.); (V.N.); (A.O.)
| | - Maria Marchese
- Molecular Medicine and Neurobiology—ZebraLab, IRCCS Fondazione Stella Maris, 56128 Pisa, Italy; (R.L.); (V.N.); (A.O.)
- Correspondence: (M.M.); (F.M.S.)
| | - Valentina Naef
- Molecular Medicine and Neurobiology—ZebraLab, IRCCS Fondazione Stella Maris, 56128 Pisa, Italy; (R.L.); (V.N.); (A.O.)
| | - Asahi Ogi
- Molecular Medicine and Neurobiology—ZebraLab, IRCCS Fondazione Stella Maris, 56128 Pisa, Italy; (R.L.); (V.N.); (A.O.)
| | - Marco Martinelli
- PlantLab, Institute of Life Sciences, Scuola Superiore Sant’Anna, 56124 Pisa, Italy; (M.M.); (C.K.)
| | - Claudia Kiferle
- PlantLab, Institute of Life Sciences, Scuola Superiore Sant’Anna, 56124 Pisa, Italy; (M.M.); (C.K.)
| | - Baldassare Fronte
- Department of Veterinary Science, University of Pisa, 56124 Pisa, Italy;
| | - Filippo Maria Santorelli
- Molecular Medicine and Neurobiology—ZebraLab, IRCCS Fondazione Stella Maris, 56128 Pisa, Italy; (R.L.); (V.N.); (A.O.)
- Correspondence: (M.M.); (F.M.S.)
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19
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Turck D, Bohn T, Castenmiller J, De Henauw S, Hirsch‐Ernst KI, Maciuk A, Mangelsdorf I, McArdle HJ, Naska A, Pelaez C, Pentieva K, Siani A, Thies F, Tsabouri S, Vinceti M, Cubadda F, Frenzel T, Heinonen M, Marchelli R, Neuhäuser‐Berthold M, Poulsen M, Prieto Maradona M, Schlatter JR, Trezza V, van Loveren H, Albert O, Dumas C, Germini A, Gelbmann W, Kass G, Kouloura E, Noriega Fernandez E, Rossi A, Knutsen HK. Statement on safety of cannabidiol as a novel food: data gaps and uncertainties. EFSA J 2022; 20:e07322. [PMID: 35686177 PMCID: PMC9172591 DOI: 10.2903/j.efsa.2022.7322] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
Abstract
The European Commission has determined that cannabidiol (CBD) can be considered as a novel food (NF), and currently, 19 applications are under assessment at EFSA. While assessing these, it has become clear that there are knowledge gaps that need to be addressed before a conclusion on the safety of CBD can be reached. Consequently, EFSA has issued this statement, summarising the state of knowledge on the safety of CBD consumption and highlighting areas where more data are needed. Literature searches for both animal and human studies have been conducted to identify safety concerns. Many human studies have been carried out with Epidyolex®, a CBD drug authorised to treat refractory epilepsies. In the context of medical conditions, adverse effects are tolerated if the benefit outweighs the adverse effect. This is, however, not acceptable when considering CBD as a NF. Furthermore, most of the human data referred to in the CBD applications investigated the efficacy of Epidyolex (or CBD) at therapeutic doses. No NOAEL could be identified from these studies. Given the complexity and importance of CBD receptors and pathways, interactions need to be taken into account when considering CBD as a NF. The effects on drug metabolism need to be clarified. Toxicokinetics in different matrices, the half‐life and accumulation need to be examined. The effect of CBD on liver, gastrointestinal tract, endocrine system, nervous system and on psychological function needs to be clarified. Studies in animals show significant reproductive toxicity, and the extent to which this occurs in humans generally and in women of child‐bearing age specifically needs to be assessed. Considering the significant uncertainties and data gaps, the Panel concludes that the safety of CBD as a NF cannot currently be established.
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20
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Wall MB, Freeman TP, Hindocha C, Demetriou L, Ertl N, Freeman AM, Jones AP, Lawn W, Pope R, Mokrysz C, Solomons D, Statton B, Walker HR, Yamamori Y, Yang Z, Yim JL, Nutt DJ, Howes OD, Curran HV, Bloomfield MA. Individual and combined effects of cannabidiol and Δ 9-tetrahydrocannabinol on striato-cortical connectivity in the human brain. J Psychopharmacol 2022; 36:732-744. [PMID: 35596578 PMCID: PMC9150138 DOI: 10.1177/02698811221092506] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Cannabidiol (CBD) and Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) are the two major constituents of cannabis with contrasting mechanisms of action. THC is the major psychoactive, addiction-promoting, and psychotomimetic compound, while CBD may have opposite effects. The brain effects of these drugs alone and in combination are poorly understood. In particular, the striatum is implicated in the pathophysiology of several psychiatric disorders, but it is unclear how THC and CBD influence striato-cortical connectivity. AIMS To examine effects of THC, CBD, and THC + CBD on functional connectivity of striatal sub-divisions (associative, limbic and sensorimotor). METHOD Resting-state functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI) was used across two within-subjects, placebo-controlled, double-blind studies, with a unified analysis approach. RESULTS Study 1 (N = 17; inhaled cannabis containing 8 mg THC, 8 mg THC + 10 mg CBD or placebo) showed strong disruptive effects of both THC and THC + CBD on connectivity in the associative and sensorimotor networks, but a specific effect of THC in the limbic striatum network which was not present in the THC + CBD condition. In Study 2 (N = 23, oral 600 mg CBD, placebo), CBD increased connectivity in the associative network, but produced only relatively minor disruptions in the limbic and sensorimotor networks. OUTCOMES THC strongly disrupts striato-cortical networks, but this effect is mitigated by co-administration of CBD in the limbic striatum network. Oral CBD administered has a more complex effect profile of relative increases and decreases in connectivity. The insula emerges as a key region affected by cannabinoid-induced changes in functional connectivity, with potential implications for understanding cannabis-related disorders, and the development of cannabinoid therapeutics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthew B Wall
- Invicro London, London, UK.,Clinical Psychopharmacology Unit, University College London, London, UK.,Faculty of Medicine, Imperial College London, London, UK
| | - Tom P Freeman
- Clinical Psychopharmacology Unit, University College London, London, UK.,Addiction and Mental Health Group (AIM), Department of Psychology, University of Bath, Bath, UK
| | - Chandni Hindocha
- Clinical Psychopharmacology Unit, University College London, London, UK
| | - Lysia Demetriou
- Invicro London, London, UK.,Faculty of Medicine, Imperial College London, London, UK.,Nuffield Department of Women's & Reproductive Health, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
| | - Natalie Ertl
- Invicro London, London, UK.,Faculty of Medicine, Imperial College London, London, UK
| | - Abigail M Freeman
- Clinical Psychopharmacology Unit, University College London, London, UK
| | | | - Will Lawn
- Clinical Psychopharmacology Unit, University College London, London, UK
| | - Rebecca Pope
- Clinical Psychopharmacology Unit, University College London, London, UK
| | - Claire Mokrysz
- Clinical Psychopharmacology Unit, University College London, London, UK
| | | | - Ben Statton
- MRC London Institute of Medical Sciences, London, UK
| | - Hannah R Walker
- Division of Psychiatry, University College London, London, UK
| | - Yumeya Yamamori
- Division of Psychiatry, University College London, London, UK
| | - Zixu Yang
- Faculty of Medicine, Imperial College London, London, UK
| | - Jocelyn Ll Yim
- Division of Psychiatry, University College London, London, UK
| | - David J Nutt
- Faculty of Medicine, Imperial College London, London, UK
| | - Oliver D Howes
- MRC London Institute of Medical Sciences, London, UK.,Department of Psychosis Studies, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology and Neuroscience, King's College London, London, UK.,South London and Maudsley NHS Foundation Trust, London, UK
| | - H Valerie Curran
- Clinical Psychopharmacology Unit, University College London, London, UK
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21
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Vikingsson S, Winecker RE, Cone EJ, Kuntz DJ, Dorsey B, Jacques M, Senter M, Flegel RR, Hayes ED. Prevalence of Cannabidiol, Δ9- and Δ8-Tetrahydrocannabinol and Metabolites in Workplace Drug Testing Urine Specimens. J Anal Toxicol 2022; 46:866-874. [PMID: 35260906 DOI: 10.1093/jat/bkac013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/17/2021] [Revised: 02/10/2022] [Accepted: 03/08/2022] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Given the recent popularity of cannabidiol (CBD) use and the emergence of Δ8-tetrahydrocannabinol (Δ8-THC), the prevalence and concentration of these and other cannabinoids was investigated in 2,000 regulated and 4,000 non-regulated specimens from workplace drug testing. All specimens were screened using LC-MS-MS for the presence of 7-hydroxy-CBD (7-OH-CBD) and ∆9-tetrahydrocannabinol-9-carboxylic acid (Δ9-THC-COOH), with a cutoff of 2 ng/mL. Specimens screening positive by LC-MS-MS were analyzed by immunoassay at 20, 50 and 100 ng/mL cutoffs, and by an LC-MS-MS confirmation method for 11 cannabinoids and metabolites with a 1 ng/mL cutoff. Using a 1 ng/mL cutoff, 98 (4.9%) regulated and 331 (8.3%) non-regulated specimens were positive for Δ9-THC-COOH. Of these, 64% had concentrations below 15 ng/mL. Similarly, 59 (3.0%) regulated and 162 (4.2%) non-regulated specimens were positive for 7-OH-CBD (n=210), CBD (n=120) and/or 7-carboxy-cannabidiol (CBD-COOH, n=120). The median concentrations of 7-OH-CBD, CBD and CBD-COOH in those 221 specimens were 6.3, 1.1 and 1.2 ng/mL, respectively. Δ8-Tetrahydrocannabinol-9-carboxylic acid (Δ8-THC-COOH) was identified in 76 (1.3%) specimens. Parent Δ8-THC is a minor cannabinoid in marijuana, which appears to account for the typically low Δ8-THC-COOH concentrations (median 3.4 ng/mL) in most positive specimens. However, elevated concentrations suggested use of Δ8-THC-containing products in some cases (range 1.0-415 ng/mL). Although 93% agreement was observed between confirmatory LC-MS-MS (15 ng/mL cutoff) and immunoassay (50 ng/mL cutoff), a false negative specimen (66 ng/mL Δ9-THC-COOH) was identified.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Edward J Cone
- Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, 21224 USA
| | - David J Kuntz
- Clinical Reference Laboratory, Lenexa, KS 66215, USA
| | - Brian Dorsey
- Clinical Reference Laboratory, Lenexa, KS 66215, USA
| | | | | | - Ronald R Flegel
- Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration, Rockville, MD, 20857 USA
| | - Eugene D Hayes
- Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration, Rockville, MD, 20857 USA
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22
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Mahmoudinoodezh H, Telukutla SR, Bhangu SK, Bachari A, Cavalieri F, Mantri N. The Transdermal Delivery of Therapeutic Cannabinoids. Pharmaceutics 2022; 14:pharmaceutics14020438. [PMID: 35214170 PMCID: PMC8876728 DOI: 10.3390/pharmaceutics14020438] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/17/2021] [Revised: 01/24/2022] [Accepted: 01/26/2022] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Recently, several studies have indicated an increased interest in the scientific community regarding the application of Cannabis sativa plants, and their extracts, for medicinal purposes. This plant of enormous medicinal potential has been legalised in an increasing number of countries globally. Due to the recent changes in therapeutic and recreational legislation, cannabis and cannabinoids are now frequently permitted for use in clinical settings. However, with their highly lipophilic features and very low aqueous solubility, cannabinoids are prone to degradation, specifically in solution, as they are light-, temperature-, and auto-oxidation-sensitive. Thus, plant-derived cannabinoids have been developed for oral, nasal-inhalation, intranasal, mucosal (sublingual and buccal), transcutaneous (transdermal), local (topical), and parenteral deliveries. Among these administrations routes, topical and transdermal products usually have a higher bioavailability rate with a prolonged steady-state plasma concentration. Additionally, these administrations have the potential to eliminate the psychotropic impacts of the drug by its diffusion into a nonreactive, dead stratum corneum. This modality avoids oral administration and, thus, the first-pass metabolism, leading to constant cannabinoid plasma levels. This review article investigates the practicality of delivering therapeutic cannabinoids via skin in accordance with existing literature.
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Affiliation(s)
- Haleh Mahmoudinoodezh
- The Pangenomics Lab, School of Science, RMIT University, Bundoora, VIC 3083, Australia; (H.M.); (S.R.T.); (A.B.)
| | - Srinivasa Reddy Telukutla
- The Pangenomics Lab, School of Science, RMIT University, Bundoora, VIC 3083, Australia; (H.M.); (S.R.T.); (A.B.)
| | | | - Ava Bachari
- The Pangenomics Lab, School of Science, RMIT University, Bundoora, VIC 3083, Australia; (H.M.); (S.R.T.); (A.B.)
| | - Francesca Cavalieri
- Applied Chemistry and Environmental Science, RMIT University, Melbourne, VIC 3000, Australia;
| | - Nitin Mantri
- The Pangenomics Lab, School of Science, RMIT University, Bundoora, VIC 3083, Australia; (H.M.); (S.R.T.); (A.B.)
- The UWA Institute of Agriculture, The University of Western Australia, Perth, WA 6009, Australia
- Correspondence:
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Nedelescu H, Wagner GE, De Ness GL, Carroll A, Kerr TM, Wang J, Zhang S, Chang S, Than AH, Emerson NE, Suto N, Weiss F. Cannabidiol Produces Distinct U-Shaped Dose-Response Effects on Cocaine-Induced Conditioned Place Preference and Associated Recruitment of Prelimbic Neurons in Male Rats. BIOLOGICAL PSYCHIATRY GLOBAL OPEN SCIENCE 2022; 2:70-78. [PMID: 35252951 PMCID: PMC8896771 DOI: 10.1016/j.bpsgos.2021.06.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Cannabidiol (CBD) has received attention for the treatment of substance use disorders. In preclinical models of relapse, CBD attenuates drug seeking across several drugs of abuse, including cocaine. However, in these models CBD has not been consistently effective. This inconsistency in CBD effects may be related to presently insufficient information on the full spectrum of CBD dose effects on drug-related behaviors. Methods We address this issue by establishing a full dose-response profile of CBD’s actions using expression of cocaine-induced conditioned place preference as a model for drug-motivated behavior in male rats and by concurrently identifying dose-dependent effects of CBD on underlying neuronal activation and distinct neuronal phenotypes showing dose-dependent activation changes. Additionally, we established CBD levels in plasma and brain samples. Results CBD produced linear increases in CBD brain/plasma concentrations but suppressed conditioned place preference in a distinct U-shaped manner. In parallel with its behavioral effects, CBD produced U-shaped suppressant effects on neuronal activation in the prelimbic but not infralimbic cortex or nucleus accumbens core and shell. RNAscope in situ hybridization identified suppression of glutamatergic and GABAergic (gamma-aminobutyric acidergic) signaling in the prelimbic cortex as a possible cellular mechanism for the attenuation of cocaine-induced conditioned place preference by CBD. Conclusions The findings extend previous evidence on the potential of CBD in preventing drug-motivated behavior. However, CBD’s dose-response profile may have important dosing implications for future clinical applications and may contribute to the understanding of discrepant CBD effects on drug seeking reported in the literature.
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Rehman M, Fahad S, Du G, Cheng X, Yang Y, Tang K, Liu L, Liu FH, Deng G. Evaluation of hemp (Cannabis sativa L.) as an industrial crop: a review. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2021; 28:52832-52843. [PMID: 34476693 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-021-16264-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/16/2021] [Accepted: 08/26/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Rising human population has increased the utilization of available resources for food, clothes, medicine, and living space, thus menacing natural environment and mounting the gap between available resources, and the skills to meet human desires is necessary. Humans are satisfying their desires by depleting available natural resources. Therefore, multifunctional plants can contribute towards the livelihoods of people, to execute their life requirements without degrading natural resources. Thus, research on multipurpose industrial crops should be of high interest among scientists. Hemp, or industrial hemp, is gaining research interest because of its fastest growth and utilization in commercial products including textile, paper, medicine, food, animal feed, paint, biofuel, biodegradable plastic, and construction material. High biomass production and ability to grow under versatile conditions make hemp, a good candidate species for remediation of polluted soils also. Present review highlights the morphology, adaptability, nutritional constituents, textile use, and medicinal significance of industrial hemp. Moreover, its usage in environmental conservation, building material, and biofuel production has also been discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Muzammal Rehman
- School of Agriculture, Yunnan University, Kunming, 650504, Yunnan, China
| | - Shah Fahad
- Hainan Key Laboratory for Sustainable Utilization of Tropical Bioresource, College of Tropical Crops, Hainan University, Haikou, 570228, China.
- Department of Agronomy, the University of Haripur, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, 22620, Pakistan.
| | - Guanghui Du
- School of Agriculture, Yunnan University, Kunming, 650504, Yunnan, China
| | - Xia Cheng
- College of Agriculture and Life Sciences, Kunming University, Kunming, 650241, Yunnan, China
| | - Yang Yang
- School of Agriculture, Yunnan University, Kunming, 650504, Yunnan, China
| | - Kailei Tang
- School of Agriculture, Yunnan University, Kunming, 650504, Yunnan, China
| | - Lijun Liu
- College of Plant Science and Technology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, 430070, Hubei, China
| | - Fei-Hu Liu
- School of Agriculture, Yunnan University, Kunming, 650504, Yunnan, China.
| | - Gang Deng
- School of Agriculture, Yunnan University, Kunming, 650504, Yunnan, China.
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Charytoniuk T, Sztolsztener K, Harasim-Symbor E, Berk K, Chabowski A, Konstantynowicz-Nowicka K. Cannabidiol - A phytocannabinoid that widely affects sphingolipid metabolism under conditions of brain insulin resistance. Biomed Pharmacother 2021; 142:112057. [PMID: 34435590 DOI: 10.1016/j.biopha.2021.112057] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/11/2021] [Revised: 08/02/2021] [Accepted: 08/13/2021] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Obesity-related insulin resistance (IR) and attenuated brain insulin signaling are significant risk factors for neurodegenerative disorders, e.g., Alzheimer's disease. IR and type 2 diabetes correlate with an increased concentration of sphingolipids, a class of lipids that play an essential structural role in cellular membranes and cell signaling pathways. Cannabidiol (CBD) is a nonpsychoactive constituent of Cannabis sativa plant that interacts with the endocannabinoidome. Despite known positive effects of CBD on improvement in diabetes and its aftermath, e.g., anti-inflammatory and anti-oxidant effects, there are no studies evaluating the effect of phytocannabinoids on the brain insulin resistance and sphingolipid metabolism. Our experiment was carried out on Wistar rats that received a high-fat diet and/or intraperitoneal CBD injections. In our study, we indicated inhibition of de novo synthesis and salvage pathways, which resulted in significant changes in the concentration of sphingolipids, e.g., ceramide and sphingomyelin. Furthermore, we observed reduced brain IR and decreased tau protein phosphorylation what might be protective against neuropathologies development. We believe that our research will concern a new possible therapeutic approach with Cannabis -plant derived compounds and within a few years, cannabinoids would be considered as prominent substances for targeting both metabolic and neurodegenerative pathologies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tomasz Charytoniuk
- Department of Physiology, Medical University of Bialystok, Mickiewicz Str. 2C, 15-222 Bialystok, Poland.
| | - Klaudia Sztolsztener
- Department of Physiology, Medical University of Bialystok, Mickiewicz Str. 2C, 15-222 Bialystok, Poland.
| | - Ewa Harasim-Symbor
- Department of Physiology, Medical University of Bialystok, Mickiewicz Str. 2C, 15-222 Bialystok, Poland.
| | - Klaudia Berk
- Department of Physiology, Medical University of Bialystok, Mickiewicz Str. 2C, 15-222 Bialystok, Poland.
| | - Adrian Chabowski
- Department of Physiology, Medical University of Bialystok, Mickiewicz Str. 2C, 15-222 Bialystok, Poland.
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26
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McCartney D, Kevin RC, Suraev AS, Irwin C, Grunstein RR, Hoyos CM, McGregor IS. Orally administered cannabidiol does not produce false-positive tests for Δ 9 -tetrahydrocannabinol on the Securetec DrugWipe® 5S or Dräger DrugTest® 5000. Drug Test Anal 2021; 14:137-143. [PMID: 34412166 PMCID: PMC9292716 DOI: 10.1002/dta.3153] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/15/2021] [Revised: 07/21/2021] [Accepted: 08/16/2021] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Many jurisdictions use point‐of‐collection (POC) oral fluid testing devices to identify driving under the influence of cannabis, indexed by the presence of Δ9‐tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), an intoxicating cannabinoid, in oral fluid. Although the use of the non‐intoxicating cannabinoid, cannabidiol (CBD), is not prohibited among drivers, it is unclear whether these devices can reliably distinguish between CBD and THC, which have similar chemical structures. This study determined whether orally administered CBD produces false‐positive tests for THC on standard, POC oral fluid testing devices. In a randomised, double‐blind, crossover design, healthy participants (n = 17) completed four treatment sessions involving the administration of either placebo or 15‐, 300‐ or 1500‐mg pure CBD in a high‐fat dietary supplement. Oral fluid was sampled, and the DrugWipe®‐5S (DW‐5S; 10 ng·ml−1 THC cut‐off) and Drug Test® 5000 (DT5000; 10 ng·mL−1 THC cut‐off) devices administered, at baseline (pretreatment) and ~20‐, ~145‐ and ~185‐min posttreatment. Oral fluid cannabinoid concentrations were measured using ultra‐high performance liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry. Median (interquartile range [IQR]) oral fluid CBD concentrations were highest at ~20 min, quantified as 0.4 (6.0), 15.8 (41.6) and 167 (233) ng·ml−1 on the 15‐, 300‐ and 1500‐mg CBD treatments, respectively. THC, cannabinol and cannabigerol were not detected in any samples. A total of 259 DW‐5S and 256 DT5000 tests were successfully completed, and no THC‐positive tests were observed. Orally administered CBD does not appear to produce false‐positive (or true‐positive) tests for THC on the DW‐5S and DT5000. The likelihood of an individual who is using a CBD (only) oral formulation being falsely accused of DUIC therefore appears low.
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Affiliation(s)
- Danielle McCartney
- Lambert Initiative for Cannabinoid Therapeutics, University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia.,Brain and Mind Centre, University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia.,Faculty of Science, School of Psychology, University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia.,Centre for Sleep and Chronobiology, Woolcock Institute of Medical Research, University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Richard C Kevin
- Lambert Initiative for Cannabinoid Therapeutics, University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia.,Brain and Mind Centre, University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia.,Faculty of Science, School of Psychology, University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Anastasia S Suraev
- Lambert Initiative for Cannabinoid Therapeutics, University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia.,Brain and Mind Centre, University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia.,Faculty of Science, School of Psychology, University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia.,Centre for Sleep and Chronobiology, Woolcock Institute of Medical Research, University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Christopher Irwin
- Menzies Health Institute Queensland, School of Health Sciences and Social Work, Griffith University, Gold Coast, Queensland, Australia
| | - Ronald R Grunstein
- Centre for Sleep and Chronobiology, Woolcock Institute of Medical Research, University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia.,Royal Prince Alfred Hospital, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia.,Faculty of Medicine and Health, Central Clinical School, University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Camilla M Hoyos
- Brain and Mind Centre, University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia.,Faculty of Science, School of Psychology, University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia.,Centre for Sleep and Chronobiology, Woolcock Institute of Medical Research, University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Iain S McGregor
- Lambert Initiative for Cannabinoid Therapeutics, University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia.,Brain and Mind Centre, University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia.,Faculty of Science, School of Psychology, University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
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27
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Ma H, Li H, Liu C, Seeram NP. Evaluation of cannabidiol's inhibitory effect on alpha-glucosidase and its stability in simulated gastric and intestinal fluids. J Cannabis Res 2021; 3:20. [PMID: 34162444 PMCID: PMC8223390 DOI: 10.1186/s42238-021-00077-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/13/2020] [Accepted: 05/20/2021] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Cannabidiol (CBD) has been reported to have anti-diabetic effects in pre-clinical and clinical studies but its inhibitory effects on α-glucosidase, a carbohydrate hydrolyzing enzyme, remain unknown. Herein, we evaluated CBD's inhibitory effects on α-glucosidase using in vitro assays and computational studies. METHODS CBD's inhibitory effect on α-glucosidase activity was evaluated in a yeast enzymatic assay and by molecular docking. The stability of CBD in simulated gastric and intestinal fluids was evaluated by high-performance liquid chromatography analyses. RESULTS CBD, at 10, 19, 38, 76, 152, 304, 608, and 1216 μM, inhibited α-glucosidase activity with inhibition of 17.1, 20.4, 48.1, 56.6, 59.1, 63.7, 74.1, and 95.4%, respectively. Acarbose, the positive control, showed a comparable inhibitory activity (with 85.1% inhibition at 608 μM). CBD's inhibitory effect on α-glucosidase was supported by molecular docking showing binding energy (-6.39 kcal/mol) and interactions between CBD and the α-glucosidase protein. CBD was stable in simulated gastric and intestinal fluids for two hours (maintained ≥ 90.0%). CONCLUSIONS CBD showed moderate inhibitory effect against yeast α-glucosidase activity and was stable in gastric and intestinal fluids. However, further studies on CBD's anti-α-glucosidase effects using cellular and in vivo models are warranted to support its potential application for the management of type II diabetes mellitus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hang Ma
- Bioactive Botanical Research Laboratory, Department of Biomedical and Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, University of Rhode Island, 7 Greenhouse Rd, Kingston, RI, 02881, USA.
| | - Huifang Li
- Bioactive Botanical Research Laboratory, Department of Biomedical and Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, University of Rhode Island, 7 Greenhouse Rd, Kingston, RI, 02881, USA
| | - Chang Liu
- Bioactive Botanical Research Laboratory, Department of Biomedical and Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, University of Rhode Island, 7 Greenhouse Rd, Kingston, RI, 02881, USA
| | - Navindra P Seeram
- Bioactive Botanical Research Laboratory, Department of Biomedical and Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, University of Rhode Island, 7 Greenhouse Rd, Kingston, RI, 02881, USA.
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28
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Yangsud J, Santasanasuwan S, Ahkkarachinoreh P, Maha A, Madaka F, Suksaeree J, Songsak T, Vutthipong A, Monton C. Stability of cannabidiol, ∆9-tetrahydrocannabinol, and cannabinol under stress conditions. ADVANCES IN TRADITIONAL MEDICINE 2021. [DOI: 10.1007/s13596-021-00590-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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29
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Sholler DJ, Spindle TR, Cone EJ, Goffi E, Kuntz D, Mitchell JM, Winecker RE, Bigelow GE, Flegel RR, Vandrey R. Urinary Pharmacokinetic Profile of Cannabidiol (CBD), Δ9-Tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), and their Metabolites Following Oral and Vaporized CBD and Vaporized CBD-Dominant Cannabis Administration. J Anal Toxicol 2021; 46:494-503. [PMID: 34089060 DOI: 10.1093/jat/bkab059] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2020] [Revised: 05/16/2021] [Accepted: 06/04/2021] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
The market for products containing cannabidiol (CBD) is booming globally. However, the pharmacokinetics of CBD in different oral formulations and the impact of CBD use on urine drug testing outcomes for cannabis (e.g., 11-nor-9-carboxy-Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (∆9-THCCOOH)) are understudied. This study characterized the urinary pharmacokinetics of CBD (100 mg) following vaporization or oral administration (including 3 formulations: gelcap, pharmacy-grade syrup, or Epidiolex) as well as vaporized CBD-dominant cannabis (containing 100 mg CBD and 3.7 mg Δ9-THC) in healthy adults (n=18). A subset of participants (n=6) orally administered CBD syrup following overnight fasting (versus low-fat breakfast). Urine specimens were collected before and for 58 hours after dosing on a residential research unit. Immunoassay (IA) screening (cutoffs: 20, 50, 100 ng/mL) for ∆9-THCCOOH was performed, and quantitation of cannabinoids was completed via LC-MS-MS. Urinary CBD concentrations (ng/mL) were higher after oral (mean Cmax: 734; mean Tmax: 4.7 h, n=18) versus vaporized CBD (mean Cmax: 240; mean Tmax: 1.3 h, n=18), and oral dose formulation significantly impacted mean Cmax (Epidiolex=1274 ng/mL, capsule=776 ng/mL, syrup=151 ng/mL, n=6/group) with little difference in Tmax. Overnight fasting had limited impact on CBD excretion in urine, and there was no evidence of CBD conversion to ∆8- or ∆9-THC in any route or formulation in which pure CBD was administered. Following acute administration of vaporized CBD-dominant cannabis, 3 of 18 participants provided a total of 6 urine samples in which ∆9-THCCOOH concentrations ≥15 ng/mL. All 6 specimens screened positive at a 20 ng/mL IA cutoff, and 2 of 6 screened positive at a 50 ng/mL cutoff. These data show that absorption/elimination of CBD is impacted by drug formulation, route of administration, and gastric contents. Although pure CBD is unlikely to impact drug testing, it is possible that hemp products containing low amounts of ∆9-THC may produce a cannabis-positive urine drug test.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dennis J Sholler
- Behavioral Pharmacology Research Unit, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, 5510 Nathan Shock Dr., Baltimore, MD, 21224, USA
| | - Tory R Spindle
- Behavioral Pharmacology Research Unit, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, 5510 Nathan Shock Dr., Baltimore, MD, 21224, USA
| | - Edward J Cone
- Behavioral Pharmacology Research Unit, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, 5510 Nathan Shock Dr., Baltimore, MD, 21224, USA
| | - Elia Goffi
- Behavioral Pharmacology Research Unit, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, 5510 Nathan Shock Dr., Baltimore, MD, 21224, USA
| | - David Kuntz
- Clinical Reference Laboratory, 8433 Quivira Rd, Lenexa, KS 66214, USA
| | - John M Mitchell
- RTI International, 3040 East Cornwallis Rd., Research Triangle Park, NC, 27709, USA
| | - Ruth E Winecker
- RTI International, 3040 East Cornwallis Rd., Research Triangle Park, NC, 27709, USA
| | - George E Bigelow
- Behavioral Pharmacology Research Unit, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, 5510 Nathan Shock Dr., Baltimore, MD, 21224, USA
| | - Ronald R Flegel
- Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA), Division of Workplace Programs (DWP), 5600 Fishers Lane, Rockville, MD, 20857, USA
| | - Ryan Vandrey
- Behavioral Pharmacology Research Unit, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, 5510 Nathan Shock Dr., Baltimore, MD, 21224, USA
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30
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Hart ED, Vikingsson S, Mitchell JM, Winecker RE, Flegel R, Hayes ED. Conversion of 7-Carboxy-Cannabidiol (7-COOH-CBD) to 11-nor-9-Carboxy-Tetrahydrocannabinol (THC-COOH) During Sample Preparation for GC-MS Analysis. J Anal Toxicol 2021; 46:573-576. [PMID: 33987675 DOI: 10.1093/jat/bkab046] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/25/2021] [Revised: 04/29/2021] [Accepted: 05/13/2021] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
The growing use of cannabidiol (CBD) products by the general public is expected to result in an increase in the prevalence of CBD and the CBD metabolites in drug testing laboratories. CBD converts into tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) under acid conditions which could produce false positive results but little is known about how the presence of the urinary metabolite of CBD, 7-carboxy-cannabidiol (7-COOH-CBD) would affect urine drug testing for 11-nor-9-carboxy-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC-COOH). As the operators of the National Laboratory Certification Program (NLCP) we prepared a set of performance testing (PT) samples containing 7-COOH-CBD for cannabinoids testing at the laboratories accredited by the NLCP to investigate if 7-COOH-CBD can produce false positive results for THC-COOH during immunological screening analysis and if 7-COOH-CBD can be converted to THC-COOH. At concentrations up to 2,500 ng/mL, 7-COOH-CBD was not reactive by immunoassay in any of the four different immunoassay kits used. Additionally, we did not observe any significant conversion of 7-COOH-CBD to THC-COOH in assays used by NLCP certified laboratories. However, we did see conversion when we requested that selected laboratories retest their samples using derivatization with perfluorinated anhydrides in combination with perfluorinated alcohols or when samples containing 7-COOH-CBD were exposed to acid for an extended time.
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Affiliation(s)
- E Dale Hart
- RTI International, Research Triangle Park, 3040 East Cornwallis Rd., NC, 27709, USA
| | - Svante Vikingsson
- RTI International, Research Triangle Park, 3040 East Cornwallis Rd., NC, 27709, USA
| | - John M Mitchell
- RTI International, Research Triangle Park, 3040 East Cornwallis Rd., NC, 27709, USA
| | - Ruth E Winecker
- RTI International, Research Triangle Park, 3040 East Cornwallis Rd., NC, 27709, USA
| | - Ronald Flegel
- Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration, Rockville, MD, 20857 USA
| | - Eugene D Hayes
- Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration, Rockville, MD, 20857 USA
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31
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Analakkattillam S, Langsi VK, Hanrahan JP, Moore E. Comparative Study of Dissolution for Cannabidiol in EU and US Hemp Oil Products by HPLC. J Pharm Sci 2021; 110:3091-3098. [PMID: 33862070 DOI: 10.1016/j.xphs.2021.03.028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2020] [Revised: 03/04/2021] [Accepted: 03/18/2021] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
Abstract
For the first time, a simple and robust HPLC method has been developed for dissolution studies for cannabidiol (CBD) in hemp oil products. An isocratic elution of samples performed on SOLAS™ C18 150 mm x 4.6 mm, 5 μm column with a mobile phase consisting of 75:25 acetonitrile-water v/v, delivered at a flow rate 1.5 mL/minutes to variable wavelength detector using 214 nm. An in-house validated assay test was executed for calculating the purity of hemp oil products and also for considering the dissolution medium to be used. For dissolution studies, equivalent of 5 mg and/or 10 mg of the active was introduced into 500 mL of simulated gastric and intestinal fluids separately, and dissolution was performed at 50 rpm using paddles for 180 min. Dissolution profiles for hemp oil products purchased from the United States and Europe were compared. Additionally, dissolution testing was conducted to study the effect of percentage CBD release on increased agitation speed of 75 and 100 rpm and also, on extended dissolution runtime of 240 min.
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Affiliation(s)
- S Analakkattillam
- Glantreo Limited, ERI Building, Lee Road, Cork City, Ireland; School of Chemistry, University College Cork, Cork, Ireland
| | - V K Langsi
- Glantreo Limited, ERI Building, Lee Road, Cork City, Ireland
| | - J P Hanrahan
- Glantreo Limited, ERI Building, Lee Road, Cork City, Ireland
| | - E Moore
- School of Chemistry, University College Cork, Cork, Ireland.
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32
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Mitchell VA, Harley J, Casey SL, Vaughan AC, Winters BL, Vaughan CW. Oral efficacy of Δ(9)-tetrahydrocannabinol and cannabidiol in a mouse neuropathic pain model. Neuropharmacology 2021; 189:108529. [PMID: 33741405 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropharm.2021.108529] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2021] [Accepted: 03/07/2021] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
The psychoactive and non-psychoactive constituents of cannabis, Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) and cannabidiol (CBD), have synergistic analgesic efficacy in animal models of neuropathic pain when injected systemically. However, the relevance of this preclinical synergy to clinical neuropathic pain studies is unclear because many of the latter use oral administration. We therefore examined the oral effectiveness of these phytocannabinoids and their interactions in a mouse chronic constriction injury (CCI) model of neuropathic pain. THC produced a dose-dependent reduction in mechanical and cold allodynia, but also induced side-effects with similar potency. CBD also reduced allodynia, albeit with lower potency than THC, but did not produce cannabinoid-like side-effects at any dose tested. Combination THC:CBD produced a dose-dependent reduction in allodynia, however, it displayed little to no synergy. Combination THC:CBD produced substantial, synergistic side-effects which increased with the proportion of CBD. These findings demonstrate that oral THC and CBD, alone and in combination, have analgesic efficacy in an animal neuropathic pain model. Unlike prior systemic injection studies, combination THC:CBD lacks analgesic synergy when delivered orally. Furthermore, both THC and combination THC:CBD display a relatively poor therapeutic window when delivered orally. This suggests that CBD provides a safer, albeit lower efficacy, oral treatment for nerve injury induced neuropathic pain than THC-containing preparations. This article is part of the special issue on 'Cannabinoids'.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vanessa A Mitchell
- Pain Management Research Institute, Kolling Institute of Medical Research, Northern Clinical School, University of Sydney at Royal North Shore Hospital, NSW, Australia
| | - Juliette Harley
- Pain Management Research Institute, Kolling Institute of Medical Research, Northern Clinical School, University of Sydney at Royal North Shore Hospital, NSW, Australia
| | - Sherelle L Casey
- Pain Management Research Institute, Kolling Institute of Medical Research, Northern Clinical School, University of Sydney at Royal North Shore Hospital, NSW, Australia
| | - Arabella C Vaughan
- Pain Management Research Institute, Kolling Institute of Medical Research, Northern Clinical School, University of Sydney at Royal North Shore Hospital, NSW, Australia
| | - Bryony L Winters
- Pain Management Research Institute, Kolling Institute of Medical Research, Northern Clinical School, University of Sydney at Royal North Shore Hospital, NSW, Australia
| | - Christopher W Vaughan
- Pain Management Research Institute, Kolling Institute of Medical Research, Northern Clinical School, University of Sydney at Royal North Shore Hospital, NSW, Australia.
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Cannabis-Based Oral Formulations for Medical Purposes: Preparation, Quality and Stability. Pharmaceuticals (Basel) 2021; 14:ph14020171. [PMID: 33671760 PMCID: PMC7926486 DOI: 10.3390/ph14020171] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/19/2021] [Revised: 02/17/2021] [Accepted: 02/19/2021] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Current legislation in Italy provides that medical Cannabis may be administered orally or by inhalation. One of the fundamental criteria for the administration of oral formulations is that they deliver a known consistent quantity of the active ingredients to ensure uniform therapies leading to the optimisation of the risks/benefits. In 2018, our group developed an improved Cannabis oil extraction technique. The objective of the present work was to carry out a stability study for the oil extracts obtained by this method. Furthermore, in order to facilitate the consumption of the prescribed medical Cannabis therapy by patients, a standard procedure was defined for the preparation of a single-dose preparation for oral use (hard capsules) containing the oil extract; thereafter, the quality and stability were evaluated. The hard capsules loaded with the oil extract were analysed and found to be uniform in content. The encapsulation process did not alter the quantity of the active molecule present in the oil. The stability tests yielded excellent results. Since the capsule dosage form is easily transported and administered, has pleasant organoleptic properties and is stable at room temperature for extended periods of time, this would facilitate the adherence to therapy by patients in treatment.
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34
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Peng H, Shahidi F. Cannabis and Cannabis Edibles: A Review. JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2021; 69:1751-1774. [PMID: 33555188 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jafc.0c07472] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Cannabis is an excellent natural source of fiber and various bioactive cannabinoids. So far, at least 120 cannabinoids have been identified, and more novel cannabinoids are gradually being unveiled by detailed cannabis studies. However, cannabinoids in both natural and isolated forms are especially vulnerable to oxygen, heat, and light. Therefore, a diversity of cannabinoids is associated with their chemical instability to a large extent. The research status of structural conversion of cannabinoids is introduced. On the other hand, the use of drug-type cannabis and the phytocannabinoids thereof has been rapidly popularized and plays an indispensable role in both medical therapy and daily recreation. The recent legalization of edible cannabis further extends its application into the food industry. The varieties of legal edible cannabis products in the current commercial market are relatively monotonous due to rigorous restrictions under the framework of Cannabis Regulations and infancy of novel developments. Meanwhile, patents/studies related to the safety and quality assurance systems of cannabis edibles are still rare and need to be developed. Furthermore, along with cannabinoids, many phytochemicals such as flavonoids, lignans, terpenoids, and polysaccharides exist in the cannabis matrix, and these may exhibit prebiotic/probiotic properties and improve the composition of the gut microbiome. During metabolism and excretion, the bioactive phytochemicals of cannabis, mostly the cannabinoids, may be structurally modified during enterohepatic detoxification and gut fermentation. However, the potential adverse effects of both acute and chronic exposure to cannabinoids and their vulnerable groups have been clearly recognized. Therefore, a comprehensive understanding of the chemistry, metabolism, toxicity, commercialization, and regulations regarding cannabinoid edibles is reviewed and updated in this contribution.
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Affiliation(s)
- Han Peng
- Department of Biochemistry Memorial University of Newfoundland, St. John's, Newfoundland, Canada A1B 3X9
| | - Fereidoon Shahidi
- Department of Biochemistry Memorial University of Newfoundland, St. John's, Newfoundland, Canada A1B 3X9
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Citti C, Russo F, Linciano P, Strallhofer SS, Tolomeo F, Forni F, Vandelli MA, Gigli G, Cannazza G. Origin of Δ 9-Tetrahydrocannabinol Impurity in Synthetic Cannabidiol. Cannabis Cannabinoid Res 2021; 6:28-39. [PMID: 33614950 DOI: 10.1089/can.2020.0021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Introduction: Cannabidiol (CBD), the nonintoxicating constituent of cannabis, is largely employed for pharmaceutical and cosmetic purposes. CBD can be extracted from the plant or chemically synthesized. Impurities of psychotropic cannabinoids Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (Δ9-THC) and Δ8-THC have been found in extracted CBD, thus hypothesizing a possible contamination from the plant. Materials and Methods: In this study, synthetic and extracted CBD samples were analyzed by ultrahigh-performance liquid chromatography coupled to high-resolution mass spectrometry and the parameters that can be responsible of the conversion of CBD into THC were evaluated by an accelerated stability test. Results: In synthetic and extracted CBD no trace of THC species was detected. In contrast, CBD samples stored in the dark at room temperature on the benchtop for 3 months showed the presence of such impurities. Experiments carried out under inert atmosphere in the absence of humidity or carbon dioxide led to no trace of THC over time even at high temperature. Conclusions: The results suggested that the copresence of carbon dioxide and water from the air could be the key for creating the acidic environment responsible for the cyclization of CBD. These findings suggest that it might be appropriate to review the storage conditions indicated on the label of commercially available CBD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cinzia Citti
- Mediteknology s.r.l. (CNR Spin-off Company), Lecce, Italy.,CNR NANOTEC-Institute of Nanotechnology, Lecce, Italy.,Department of Life Sciences, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, Modena, Italy
| | - Fabiana Russo
- Department of Life Sciences, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, Modena, Italy
| | - Pasquale Linciano
- Department of Life Sciences, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, Modena, Italy
| | - Sarah Sylvana Strallhofer
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Graz, Graz, Austria
| | | | - Flavio Forni
- Department of Life Sciences, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, Modena, Italy
| | | | | | - Giuseppe Cannazza
- CNR NANOTEC-Institute of Nanotechnology, Lecce, Italy.,Department of Life Sciences, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, Modena, Italy
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Kintz P. Vaping Pure Cannabidiol e-Cigarettes Does Not Produce Detectable Amount of ∆9-THC in Human Blood. J Anal Toxicol 2021; 44:e1-e2. [PMID: 32020167 DOI: 10.1093/jat/bkaa008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/21/2019] [Revised: 11/27/2019] [Accepted: 12/25/2019] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Pascal Kintz
- X-Pertise Consulting, 42 Rue Principale, 67206 Mittelhausbergen, France
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Mastinu A, Ribaudo G, Ongaro A, Bonini SA, Memo M, Gianoncelli A. Critical Review on the Chemical Aspects of Cannabidiol (CBD) and Harmonization of Computational Bioactivity Data. Curr Med Chem 2021; 28:213-237. [PMID: 32039672 DOI: 10.2174/0929867327666200210144847] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/14/2019] [Revised: 01/10/2020] [Accepted: 01/14/2020] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Cannabidiol (CBD) is a non-psychotropic phytocannabinoid which represents one of the constituents of the "phytocomplex" of Cannabis sativa. This natural compound is attracting growing interest since when CBD-based remedies and commercial products were marketed. This review aims to exhaustively address the extractive and analytical approaches that have been developed for the isolation and quantification of CBD. Recent updates on cutting-edge technologies were critically examined in terms of yield, sensitivity, flexibility and performances in general, and are reviewed alongside original representative results. As an add-on to currently available contributions in the literature, the evolution of the novel, efficient synthetic approaches for the preparation of CBD, a procedure which is appealing for the pharmaceutical industry, is also discussed. Moreover, with the increasing interest on the therapeutic potential of CBD and the limited understanding of the undergoing biochemical pathways, the reader will be updated about recent in silico studies on the molecular interactions of CBD towards several different targets attempting to fill this gap. Computational data retrieved from the literature have been integrated with novel in silico experiments, critically discussed to provide a comprehensive and updated overview on the undebatable potential of CBD and its therapeutic profile.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrea Mastinu
- Department of Molecular and Translational Medicine, Division of Pharmacology, University of Brescia, Brescia, Italy
| | - Giovanni Ribaudo
- Department of Molecular and Translational Medicine, Division of Pharmacology, University of Brescia, Brescia, Italy
| | - Alberto Ongaro
- Department of Molecular and Translational Medicine, Division of Pharmacology, University of Brescia, Brescia, Italy
| | - Sara Anna Bonini
- Department of Molecular and Translational Medicine, Division of Pharmacology, University of Brescia, Brescia, Italy
| | - Maurizio Memo
- Department of Molecular and Translational Medicine, Division of Pharmacology, University of Brescia, Brescia, Italy
| | - Alessandra Gianoncelli
- Department of Molecular and Translational Medicine, Division of Pharmacology, University of Brescia, Brescia, Italy
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Riboulet-Zemouli K. ‘Cannabis’ ontologies I: Conceptual issues with Cannabis and cannabinoids terminology. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2020. [DOI: 10.1177/2050324520945797] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Objective Identify a coherent nomenclature for Cannabis sativa L. derived products and their analogues. Design Research undertaken in parallel to the three-year assessment of Cannabis derivatives by the World Health Organisation. The scope is limited to Cannabis products intended for human incorporation (internal and topical consumption). Primarily embedded in pharmacognosy, the study incorporates a wide range of scholarly and grey literature, folk knowledge, archives, pharmacopœias, international law, field pharmacy, clinical and herbal medicine data, under a philosophical scrutiny. Generic and Cannabis-specific nomenclatural frames are compared to determine the extent to which they coincide or conflict. Results All lexica reviewed use weak, ambiguous, or inconsistent terms. There is insufficient scientific basis for terms and concepts related to Cannabis at all levels. No sound classification exists: current models conflict by adopting idiosyncratic, partial, outdated, or utilitarian schemes to arrange the extraordinarily numerous and diverse derivatives of the C. sativa plant. In law and policy, no clear or unequivocal boundary between herbal and non-herbal drugs, nor natural and synthetic cannabinoids was found; current nomenclatures need updates. In science, the botanical Cannabis lexicon overlooks parthenocarpy, and wide disagreement remains as to the taxonomy and systematics of the plant; chemical research should address differences in kinds between synthetic cannabinoids; pharmacopœias include little information related to Cannabis, and disagree on broader classes of herbal medicines, virtually failing to embrace many known Cannabis medicines. Since existing products and compounds fail to be categorised in an evidence-based manner, confusions will likely increase as novel cannabinoid compounds, genetic and biotechnological modifications surge. Conclusions The lack of clarity is comprehensive: for patients, physicians, and regulators. This study proposes an update of terms at several levels. It points at gaps in morphological descriptions in botany and pharmacognosy and a need for a metaphysical address of cannabinoids. Methods of obtention are identified as a common criterion to distinguish products; the way forward suggests a mutually exclusive nomenclatural pattern based on the smallest common denominator of obtention methods. In the context of a swelling number of Cannabis products being consumed (be it via medical prescription, adult-use, ‘hemp’ foodstuff and cosmetics, or other purposes), this study can assist research, contribute to transparent labelling of products, consumer safety and awareness, pharmacovigilance, medical standards of care, and an update of prevention and harm reduction approaches. It can also better inform regulatory policies surrounding C. sativa, its derivatives, and other cannabinoid-containing products.
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Nelson KM, Bisson J, Singh G, Graham JG, Chen SN, Friesen JB, Dahlin JL, Niemitz M, Walters MA, Pauli GF. The Essential Medicinal Chemistry of Cannabidiol (CBD). J Med Chem 2020; 63:12137-12155. [PMID: 32804502 PMCID: PMC7666069 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jmedchem.0c00724] [Citation(s) in RCA: 76] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
This Perspective of the published essential medicinal chemistry of cannabidiol (CBD) provides evidence that the popularization of CBD-fortified or CBD-labeled health products and CBD-associated health claims lacks a rigorous scientific foundation. CBD's reputation as a cure-all puts it in the same class as other "natural" panaceas, where valid ethnobotanicals are reduced to single, purportedly active ingredients. Such reductionist approaches oversimplify useful, chemically complex mixtures in an attempt to rationalize the commercial utility of natural compounds and exploit the "natural" label. Literature evidence associates CBD with certain semiubiquitous, broadly screened, primarily plant-based substances of undocumented purity that interfere with bioassays and have a low likelihood of becoming therapeutic agents. Widespread health challenges and pandemic crises such as SARS-CoV-2 create circumstances under which scientists must be particularly vigilant about healing claims that lack solid foundational data. Herein, we offer a critical review of the published medicinal chemistry properties of CBD, as well as precise definitions of CBD-containing substances and products, distilled to reveal the essential factors that impact its development as a therapeutic agent.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kathryn M. Nelson
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, Institute for Therapeutics Discovery and Development, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota 55414, United States
| | - Jonathan Bisson
- Center for Natural Product Technologies, Program for Collaborative Research in the Pharmaceutical Sciences (PCRPS), and Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, University of Illinois at Chicago, 833 South Wood Street, Chicago, Illinois 60612, United States
- Institute for Tuberculosis Research, College of Pharmacy, University of Illinois at Chicago, 833 South Wood Street, Chicago, Illinois 60612, United States
| | - Gurpreet Singh
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, Institute for Therapeutics Discovery and Development, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota 55414, United States
| | - James G. Graham
- Center for Natural Product Technologies, Program for Collaborative Research in the Pharmaceutical Sciences (PCRPS), and Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, University of Illinois at Chicago, 833 South Wood Street, Chicago, Illinois 60612, United States
- Institute for Tuberculosis Research, College of Pharmacy, University of Illinois at Chicago, 833 South Wood Street, Chicago, Illinois 60612, United States
| | - Shao-Nong Chen
- Center for Natural Product Technologies, Program for Collaborative Research in the Pharmaceutical Sciences (PCRPS), and Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, University of Illinois at Chicago, 833 South Wood Street, Chicago, Illinois 60612, United States
- Institute for Tuberculosis Research, College of Pharmacy, University of Illinois at Chicago, 833 South Wood Street, Chicago, Illinois 60612, United States
| | - J. Brent Friesen
- Center for Natural Product Technologies, Program for Collaborative Research in the Pharmaceutical Sciences (PCRPS), and Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, University of Illinois at Chicago, 833 South Wood Street, Chicago, Illinois 60612, United States
| | - Jayme L. Dahlin
- Department of Pathology, Brigham and Women’s Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts 02115, United States
- Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts 02115, United States
| | | | - Michael A. Walters
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, Institute for Therapeutics Discovery and Development, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota 55414, United States
| | - Guido F. Pauli
- Center for Natural Product Technologies, Program for Collaborative Research in the Pharmaceutical Sciences (PCRPS), and Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, University of Illinois at Chicago, 833 South Wood Street, Chicago, Illinois 60612, United States
- Institute for Tuberculosis Research, College of Pharmacy, University of Illinois at Chicago, 833 South Wood Street, Chicago, Illinois 60612, United States
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The Effects of Cannabidiol, a Non-Intoxicating Compound of Cannabis, on the Cardiovascular System in Health and Disease. Int J Mol Sci 2020; 21:ijms21186740. [PMID: 32937917 PMCID: PMC7554803 DOI: 10.3390/ijms21186740] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/08/2020] [Revised: 09/09/2020] [Accepted: 09/10/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Cannabidiol (CBD) is a non-intoxicating and generally well-tolerated constituent of cannabis which exhibits potential beneficial properties in a wide range of diseases, including cardiovascular disorders. Due to its complex mechanism of action, CBD may affect the cardiovascular system in different ways. Thus, we reviewed the influence of CBD on this system in health and disease to determine the potential risk of cardiovascular side effects during CBD use for medical and wellness purposes and to elucidate its therapeutic potential in cardiovascular diseases. Administration of CBD to healthy volunteers or animals usually does not markedly affect hemodynamic parameters. Although CBD has been found to exhibit vasodilatory and antioxidant properties in hypertension, it has not affected blood pressure in hypertensive animals. Hypotensive action of CBD has been mainly revealed under stress conditions. Many positive effects of CBD have been observed in experimental models of heart diseases (myocardial infarction, cardiomyopathy, myocarditis), stroke, neonatal hypoxic ischemic encephalopathy, sepsis-related encephalitis, cardiovascular complications of diabetes, and ischemia/reperfusion injures of liver and kidneys. In these pathological conditions CBD decreased organ damage and dysfunction, oxidative and nitrative stress, inflammatory processes and apoptosis, among others. Nevertheless, further clinical research is needed to recommend the use of CBD in the treatment of cardiovascular diseases.
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Wakshlag JJ, Schwark WS, Deabold KA, Talsma BN, Cital S, Lyubimov A, Iqbal A, Zakharov A. Pharmacokinetics of Cannabidiol, Cannabidiolic Acid, Δ9-Tetrahydrocannabinol, Tetrahydrocannabinolic Acid and Related Metabolites in Canine Serum After Dosing With Three Oral Forms of Hemp Extract. Front Vet Sci 2020; 7:505. [PMID: 33102539 PMCID: PMC7498943 DOI: 10.3389/fvets.2020.00505] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/07/2020] [Accepted: 07/03/2020] [Indexed: 01/10/2023] Open
Abstract
Cannabidiol (CBD)-rich hemp extract use is increasing in veterinary medicine with little examination of serum cannabinoids. Many products contain small amounts of Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), and precursor carboxylic acid forms of CBD and THC known as cannabidiolic acid (CBDA) and tetrahydrocannabinolic acid (THCA). Examination of the pharmacokinetics of CBD, CBDA, THC, and THCA on three oral forms of CBD-rich hemp extract that contained near equal amounts of CBD and CBDA, and minor amounts (<0.3% by weight) of THC and THCA in dogs was performed. In addition, we assess the metabolized psychoactive component of THC, 11-hydroxy-Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (11-OH-THC) and CBD metabolites 7-hydroxycannabidiol (7-OH-CBD) and 7-nor-7-carboxycannabidiol (7-COOH-CBD) to better understand the pharmacokinetic differences between three formulations regarding THC and CBD, and their metabolism. Six purpose-bred female beagles were utilized for study purposes, each having an initial 7-point, 24-h pharmacokinetic study performed using a dose of 2 mg/kg body weight of CBD/CBDA (~1 mg/kg CBD and ~1 mg/kg CBDA). Dogs were then dosed every 12 h for 2 weeks and had further serum analyses at weeks 1 and 2, 6 h after the morning dose to assess serum cannabinoids. Serum was analyzed for each cannabinoid or cannabinoid metabolite using liquid chromatography and tandem mass spectroscopy (LC-MS/MS). Regardless of the form provided (1, 2, or 3) the 24-h pharmacokinetics for CBD, CBDA, and THCA were similar, with only Form 2 generating enough data above the lower limit of quantitation to assess pharmacokinetics of THC. CBDA and THCA concentrations were 2- to 3-fold higher than CBD and THC concentrations, respectively. The 1- and 2-week steady-state concentrations were not significantly different between the two oils or the soft chew forms. CBDA concentrations were statistically higher with Form 2 than the other forms, showing superior absorption/retention of CBDA. Furthermore, Form 1 showed less THCA retention than either the soft chew Form 3 or Form 2 at weeks 1 and 2. THC was below the quantitation limit of the assay for nearly all samples. Overall, these findings suggest CBDA and THCA are absorbed or eliminated differently than CBD or THC, respectively, and that a partial lecithin base provides superior absorption and/or retention of CBDA and THCA.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joseph J Wakshlag
- Department of Clinical Sciences, Cornell University College of Veterinary Medicine, Ithaca, NY, United States
| | - Wayne S Schwark
- Department of Molecular Medicine, Cornell University College of Veterinary Medicine, Ithaca, NY, United States
| | - Kelly A Deabold
- University of Florida Comparative Diagnostic and Population Medicine, Gainesville, FL, United States
| | - Bryce N Talsma
- University of Florida Comparative Diagnostic and Population Medicine, Gainesville, FL, United States
| | - Stephen Cital
- Ellevet Sciences, Product Development and Scientific Communications, Portland, ME, United States
| | - Alex Lyubimov
- Toxicology Research Laboratory, Department of Pharmacology, College of Medicine, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL, United States
| | - Asif Iqbal
- Toxicology Research Laboratory, Department of Pharmacology, College of Medicine, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL, United States
| | - Alexander Zakharov
- Toxicology Research Laboratory, Department of Pharmacology, College of Medicine, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL, United States
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Lawn W, Hill J, Hindocha C, Yim J, Yamamori Y, Jones G, Walker H, Green SF, Wall MB, Howes OD, Curran HV, Freeman TP, Bloomfield MAP. The acute effects of cannabidiol on the neural correlates of reward anticipation and feedback in healthy volunteers. J Psychopharmacol 2020; 34:969-980. [PMID: 32755273 PMCID: PMC7745615 DOI: 10.1177/0269881120944148] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Cannabidiol has potential therapeutic benefits for people with psychiatric disorders characterised by reward function impairment. There is existing evidence that cannabidiol may influence some aspects of reward processing. However, it is unknown whether cannabidiol acutely affects brain function underpinning reward anticipation and feedback. HYPOTHESES We predicted that cannabidiol would augment brain activity associated with reward anticipation and feedback. METHODS We administered a single 600 mg oral dose of cannabidiol and matched placebo to 23 healthy participants in a double-blind, placebo-controlled, repeated-measures design. We employed the monetary incentive delay task during functional magnetic resonance imaging to assay the neural correlates of reward anticipation and feedback. We conducted whole brain analyses and region-of-interest analyses in pre-specified reward-related brain regions. RESULTS The monetary incentive delay task elicited expected brain activity during reward anticipation and feedback, including in the insula, caudate, nucleus accumbens, anterior cingulate and orbitofrontal cortex. However, across the whole brain, we did not find any evidence that cannabidiol altered reward-related brain activity. Moreover, our Bayesian analyses showed that activity in our regions-of-interest was similar following cannabidiol and placebo. Additionally, our behavioural measures of motivation for reward did not show a significant difference between cannabidiol and placebo. DISCUSSION Cannabidiol did not acutely affect the neural correlates of reward anticipation and feedback in healthy participants. Future research should explore the effects of cannabidiol on different components of reward processing, employ different doses and administration regimens, and test its reward-related effects in people with psychiatric disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Will Lawn
- Clinical Psychopharmacology Unit, University College London, London, UK
| | - James Hill
- Translational Psychiatry Research Group, University College London, London, UK
| | - Chandni Hindocha
- Clinical Psychopharmacology Unit, University College London, London, UK
- Translational Psychiatry Research Group, University College London, London, UK
- NIHR University College London Hospitals Biomedical Research Centre, University College Hospital, London, UK
| | - Jocelyn Yim
- Translational Psychiatry Research Group, University College London, London, UK
| | - Yumeya Yamamori
- Translational Psychiatry Research Group, University College London, London, UK
- Institute of Cognitive Neuroscience, University College London, London, UK
- Department of Neuroscience, Physiology and Pharmacology, University College London, London, UK
| | - Gus Jones
- Translational Psychiatry Research Group, University College London, London, UK
| | - Hannah Walker
- Translational Psychiatry Research Group, University College London, London, UK
| | - Sebastian F Green
- Translational Psychiatry Research Group, University College London, London, UK
| | - Matthew B Wall
- Clinical Psychopharmacology Unit, University College London, London, UK
- Invicro London, Hammersmith Hospital, London, UK
| | - Oliver D Howes
- Psychiatric Imaging Group, Imperial College London, London, UK
| | - H Valerie Curran
- Clinical Psychopharmacology Unit, University College London, London, UK
- NIHR University College London Hospitals Biomedical Research Centre, University College Hospital, London, UK
| | - Tom P Freeman
- Clinical Psychopharmacology Unit, University College London, London, UK
- Translational Psychiatry Research Group, University College London, London, UK
- Addiction and Mental Health Group (AIM), University of Bath, Bath, UK
- National Addiction Centre, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology and Neuroscience, London, UK
| | - Michael AP Bloomfield
- Clinical Psychopharmacology Unit, University College London, London, UK
- Translational Psychiatry Research Group, University College London, London, UK
- NIHR University College London Hospitals Biomedical Research Centre, University College Hospital, London, UK
- Psychiatric Imaging Group, Imperial College London, London, UK
- The Traumatic Stress Clinic, St Pancras Hospital, London, UK
- National Hospital for Neurology and Neurosurgery, London, UK
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McCartney D, Benson MJ, Suraev AS, Irwin C, Arkell TR, Grunstein RR, Hoyos CM, McGregor IS. The effect of cannabidiol on simulated car driving performance: A randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled, crossover, dose-ranging clinical trial protocol. Hum Psychopharmacol 2020; 35:e2749. [PMID: 32729120 DOI: 10.1002/hup.2749] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/03/2020] [Revised: 05/16/2020] [Accepted: 05/28/2020] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Interest in the use of cannabidiol (CBD) is increasing worldwide as its therapeutic effects are established and legal restrictions moderated. Unlike Δ9 -tetrahydrocannabinol (Δ9 -THC), CBD does not appear to cause cognitive or psychomotor impairment. However, further assessment of its effects on cognitively demanding day-to-day activities, such as driving, is warranted. Here, we describe a study investigating the effects of CBD on simulated driving and cognitive performance. METHODS Thirty healthy individuals will be recruited to participate in this randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled crossover trial. Participants will complete four research sessions each involving two 30-min simulated driving performance tests completed 45 and 210 min following oral ingestion of placebo or 15, 300, or 1,500 mg CBD. Cognitive function and subjective drug effects will be measured, and blood and oral fluid sampled, at regular intervals. Oral fluid drug testing will be performed using the Securetec DrugWipe® 5S and Dräger DrugTest® 5000 devices to determine whether CBD increases the risk of "false-positive" roadside tests to Δ9 -THC. Noninferiority analyses will test the hypothesis that CBD is no more impairing than placebo. CONCLUSION This study will clarify the risks involved in driving following CBD use and assist in ensuring the safe use of CBD by drivers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Danielle McCartney
- Lambert Initiative for Cannabinoid Therapeutics, The University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
- Brain and Mind Centre, The University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
- Faculty of Science, School of Psychology, The University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
- Centre for Sleep and Chronobiology, Woolcock Institute of Medical Research, University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Melissa J Benson
- Lambert Initiative for Cannabinoid Therapeutics, The University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
- Brain and Mind Centre, The University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
- Faculty of Science, School of Psychology, The University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Anastasia S Suraev
- Lambert Initiative for Cannabinoid Therapeutics, The University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
- Brain and Mind Centre, The University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
- Faculty of Science, School of Psychology, The University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
- Centre for Sleep and Chronobiology, Woolcock Institute of Medical Research, University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Christopher Irwin
- School of Allied Health Sciences, Griffith University, Gold Coast, Queensland, Australia
- Menzies Health Institute Queensland, Gold Coast, Queensland, Australia
| | - Thomas R Arkell
- Lambert Initiative for Cannabinoid Therapeutics, The University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
- Brain and Mind Centre, The University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
- Faculty of Science, School of Psychology, The University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Ronald R Grunstein
- Centre for Sleep and Chronobiology, Woolcock Institute of Medical Research, University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
- Royal Prince Alfred Hospital, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
- University of Sydney, Faculty of Medicine and Health, Central Clinical School, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Camilla M Hoyos
- Brain and Mind Centre, The University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
- Faculty of Science, School of Psychology, The University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
- Centre for Sleep and Chronobiology, Woolcock Institute of Medical Research, University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Iain S McGregor
- Lambert Initiative for Cannabinoid Therapeutics, The University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
- Brain and Mind Centre, The University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
- Faculty of Science, School of Psychology, The University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
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Plasma concentrations of eleven cannabinoids in cattle following oral administration of industrial hemp (Cannabis sativa). Sci Rep 2020; 10:12753. [PMID: 32728233 PMCID: PMC7391639 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-020-69768-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/15/2020] [Accepted: 07/14/2020] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Cannabinoid production for medicinal purposes has renewed interest in utilizing byproducts of industrial hemp (IH) as a feed source for livestock. However, the presence of bioactive residues in animal tissues may pose a risk to consumers. The purpose of this study was to characterize the plasma pharmacokinetics (PK) of cannabinoids and their metabolites in cattle after a single oral exposure to IH. Eight castrated male Holstein calves received a single oral dose of 35 g of IH to achieve a target dose of 5.4 mg/kg cannabidiolic acid (CBDA). Blood samples were collected for 96 h after dosing. Plasma cannabinoid concentrations were profiled using liquid chromatography coupled with mass-spectroscopy (UPLC) and PK parameters were calculated using noncompartmental methods. The cannabinoids CBDA, tetrahydrocannabinolic acid-A (THCA-A), cannabidivarinic acid (CBDVA), and cannabichromenic acid (CBCA) were detected in all cattle after IH dosing. The geometric mean maximum concentration of CBDA of 72.7 ng/mL was observed at 14 h after administration. The geometric mean half-life of CBDA was 14.1 h. No changes in serum biochemistry analysis were observed following IH dosing compared to baseline values. These results show acidic cannabinoids, especially CBDA, are readily absorbed from the rumen and available for distribution throughout the body.
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McCartney D, Benson MJ, Desbrow B, Irwin C, Suraev A, McGregor IS. Cannabidiol and Sports Performance: a Narrative Review of Relevant Evidence and Recommendations for Future Research. SPORTS MEDICINE - OPEN 2020; 6:27. [PMID: 32632671 PMCID: PMC7338332 DOI: 10.1186/s40798-020-00251-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/05/2020] [Accepted: 05/17/2020] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Cannabidiol (CBD) is a non-intoxicating cannabinoid derived from Cannabis sativa. CBD initially drew scientific interest due to its anticonvulsant properties but increasing evidence of other therapeutic effects has attracted the attention of additional clinical and non-clinical populations, including athletes. Unlike the intoxicating cannabinoid, Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (Δ9-THC), CBD is no longer prohibited by the World Anti-Doping Agency and appears to be safe and well-tolerated in humans. It has also become readily available in many countries with the introduction of over-the-counter "nutraceutical" products. The aim of this narrative review was to explore various physiological and psychological effects of CBD that may be relevant to the sport and/or exercise context and to identify key areas for future research. As direct studies of CBD and sports performance are is currently lacking, evidence for this narrative review was sourced from preclinical studies and a limited number of clinical trials in non-athlete populations. Preclinical studies have observed robust anti-inflammatory, neuroprotective and analgesic effects of CBD in animal models. Preliminary preclinical evidence also suggests that CBD may protect against gastrointestinal damage associated with inflammation and promote healing of traumatic skeletal injuries. However, further research is required to confirm these observations. Early stage clinical studies suggest that CBD may be anxiolytic in "stress-inducing" situations and in individuals with anxiety disorders. While some case reports indicate that CBD improves sleep, robust evidence is currently lacking. Cognitive function and thermoregulation appear to be unaffected by CBD while effects on food intake, metabolic function, cardiovascular function, and infection require further study. CBD may exert a number of physiological, biochemical, and psychological effects with the potential to benefit athletes. However, well controlled, studies in athlete populations are required before definitive conclusions can be reached regarding the utility of CBD in supporting athletic performance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Danielle McCartney
- The University of Sydney, Faculty of Science, School of Psychology, Sydney, New South Wales, 2050, Australia.
- The University of Sydney, Lambert Initiative for Cannabinoid Therapeutics, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia.
- The University of Sydney, Brain and Mind Centre, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia.
| | - Melissa J Benson
- The University of Sydney, Faculty of Science, School of Psychology, Sydney, New South Wales, 2050, Australia
- The University of Sydney, Lambert Initiative for Cannabinoid Therapeutics, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
- The University of Sydney, Brain and Mind Centre, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Ben Desbrow
- School of Allied Health Sciences, Griffith University, Gold Coast, Queensland, Australia
| | - Christopher Irwin
- School of Allied Health Sciences, Griffith University, Gold Coast, Queensland, Australia
- Menzies Health Institute Queensland, Gold Coast, Queensland, Australia
| | - Anastasia Suraev
- The University of Sydney, Faculty of Science, School of Psychology, Sydney, New South Wales, 2050, Australia
- The University of Sydney, Lambert Initiative for Cannabinoid Therapeutics, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
- The University of Sydney, Brain and Mind Centre, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Iain S McGregor
- The University of Sydney, Faculty of Science, School of Psychology, Sydney, New South Wales, 2050, Australia
- The University of Sydney, Lambert Initiative for Cannabinoid Therapeutics, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
- The University of Sydney, Brain and Mind Centre, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
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Golombek P, Müller M, Barthlott I, Sproll C, Lachenmeier DW. Conversion of Cannabidiol (CBD) into Psychotropic Cannabinoids Including Tetrahydrocannabinol (THC): A Controversy in the Scientific Literature. TOXICS 2020; 8:E41. [PMID: 32503116 PMCID: PMC7357058 DOI: 10.3390/toxics8020041] [Citation(s) in RCA: 71] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/27/2020] [Revised: 05/26/2020] [Accepted: 05/29/2020] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
Abstract
Cannabidiol (CBD) is a naturally occurring, non-psychotropic cannabinoid of the hemp plant Cannabis sativa L. and has been known to induce several physiological and pharmacological effects. While CBD is approved as a medicinal product subject to prescription, it is also widely sold over the counter (OTC) in the form of food supplements, cosmetics and electronic cigarette liquids. However, regulatory difficulties arise from its origin being a narcotic plant or its status as an unapproved novel food ingredient. Regarding the consumer safety of these OTC products, the question whether or not CBD might be degraded into psychotropic cannabinoids, most prominently tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), under in vivo conditions initiated an ongoing scientific debate. This feature review aims to summarize the current knowledge of CBD degradation processes, specifically the results of in vitro and in vivo studies. Additionally, the literature on psychotropic effects of cannabinoids was carefully studied with a focus on the degradants and metabolites of CBD, but data were found to be sparse. While the literature is contradictory, most studies suggest that CBD is not converted to psychotropic THC under in vivo conditions. Nevertheless, it is certain that CBD degrades to psychotropic products in acidic environments. Hence, the storage stability of commercial formulations requires more attention in the future.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | - Dirk W. Lachenmeier
- Chemisches und Veterinäruntersuchungsamt (CVUA) Karlsruhe, Weissenburger Straße 3, 76187 Karlsruhe, Germany; (P.G.); (M.M.); (I.B.); (C.S.)
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Calabrò RS, Russo M, Naro A, Ciurleo R, D'Aleo G, Rifici C, Balletta T, La Via C, Destro M, Bramanti P, Sessa E. Nabiximols plus robotic assisted gait training in improving motor performances in people with Multiple Sclerosis. Mult Scler Relat Disord 2020; 43:102177. [PMID: 32447249 DOI: 10.1016/j.msard.2020.102177] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/21/2019] [Revised: 03/03/2020] [Accepted: 05/02/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Multiple sclerosis (MS) is an autoimmune demyelinating disease of the central nervous system, affecting ambulation even in people with only mild neurological signs. Patients with MS frequently experience spasticity, which contributes significantly to impair their motor functions, including ambulation, owing to muscle stiffness, spasms, and pain. OBJECTIVES To clarify the role of delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol(THC):cannabidiol(CBD) oromucosal spray, coupled to robot-aided gait training (RAGT) using the Lokomat©Pro to improve functional ambulation in patients with MS. METHODS We compared 20 patients with MS, who were treated with THC:CBD oromucosal spray in add-on to the ongoing oral antispastic therapy (OAT) (group A), with 20 individuals with MS (matched for clinical-demographic characteristics) who were treated only with OAT (group B). Both the groups underwent RAGT using the Lokomat-Pro (three 45-minute sessions per week). Our primary outcome measures were the Functional Independence Measure (FIM) and the 10 meters walking test (10MWT). As secondary outcome measures we evaluated the brain cortical excitability by using Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation. Both parameters were taken before and after the end of the RAGT. RESULTS FIM improved in group A more than in group B (p<0.001). Moreover, 10MWT decreased in group A more than in group B (p<0.001). These clinical findings were paralleled by a more evident reshape of intracortical excitability in both upper and lower limbs, as suggested by motor evoked potential amplitude increase (p<0.001), intracortical inhibition strengthening (p<0.001), and intracortical facilitation decrease (p=0.01) in group A as compared to group B. CONCLUSIONS Our results suggest that the combined THC:CBD-RAGT approach could be useful in improving gait performance in patients with MS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rocco Salvatore Calabrò
- IRCCS Centro Neurolesi Bonino Pulejo, Via Palermo, SS 113, Ctr. Casazza; 98124, Messina, Italy.
| | - Margherita Russo
- IRCCS Centro Neurolesi Bonino Pulejo, Via Palermo, SS 113, Ctr. Casazza; 98124, Messina, Italy
| | - Antonino Naro
- IRCCS Centro Neurolesi Bonino Pulejo, Via Palermo, SS 113, Ctr. Casazza; 98124, Messina, Italy
| | - Rossella Ciurleo
- IRCCS Centro Neurolesi Bonino Pulejo, Via Palermo, SS 113, Ctr. Casazza; 98124, Messina, Italy
| | - Giangaetano D'Aleo
- IRCCS Centro Neurolesi Bonino Pulejo, Via Palermo, SS 113, Ctr. Casazza; 98124, Messina, Italy
| | - Carmela Rifici
- IRCCS Centro Neurolesi Bonino Pulejo, Via Palermo, SS 113, Ctr. Casazza; 98124, Messina, Italy
| | - Tina Balletta
- IRCCS Centro Neurolesi Bonino Pulejo, Via Palermo, SS 113, Ctr. Casazza; 98124, Messina, Italy
| | - Cristian La Via
- IRCCS Centro Neurolesi Bonino Pulejo, Via Palermo, SS 113, Ctr. Casazza; 98124, Messina, Italy
| | - Massimo Destro
- IRCCS Centro Neurolesi Bonino Pulejo, Via Palermo, SS 113, Ctr. Casazza; 98124, Messina, Italy
| | - Placido Bramanti
- IRCCS Centro Neurolesi Bonino Pulejo, Via Palermo, SS 113, Ctr. Casazza; 98124, Messina, Italy
| | - Edoardo Sessa
- IRCCS Centro Neurolesi Bonino Pulejo, Via Palermo, SS 113, Ctr. Casazza; 98124, Messina, Italy
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Alzeer J, Abou Hadeed K, Basar H, Al-Razem F, Abdel-Wahhab MA, Alhamdan Y. Cannabis and Its Permissibility Status. Cannabis Cannabinoid Res 2020; 6:451-456. [PMID: 33998850 DOI: 10.1089/can.2020.0017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Cannabis has been used and misused to treat many disorders. Δ9-Tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) and cannabidiol (CBD) are the most important components of cannabis and could be used for recreational and medical purposes. The permissibility (Halal) status of cannabis is controversial, and its rational use is ambiguous. Global awareness and interest in cannabis use are increasing and its permissibility status, especially for recreational and medical purposes, needs to be addressed. Rationalizing the scientific value and Halal status of cannabis is useful for the rational use and maintenance of the compatible system. It is rare in Muslim countries to discuss the permissibility status of cannabis from the perspective of its value and composition. Using the analogy concept, the CBD component extracted from a cannabis plant in a clean and pure form is permissible to use in industry, particularly in cosmetics and pharmaceuticals. If THC component is present in <1% and CBD is >99%, the mixture is considered permissible as long as THC is not intentionally added or intentionally left, but is mainly present due to the limited capabilities and efficiency of the purification methods. However, any amount of THC prepared with the intention to be used as an intoxicant is considered non-Halal.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jawad Alzeer
- Department of Applied Chemistry, College of Applied Sciences, Palestine Polytechnic University, Hebron, Palestine
| | - Khaled Abou Hadeed
- Department of Chemistry, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland.,Research and Development Department, Halalopathic Research Unit, Dübendorf, Switzerland
| | - Hayriye Basar
- Research and Development Department, KannaSwiss, Kölliken, Switzerland
| | - Fawzi Al-Razem
- Department of Applied Chemistry, College of Applied Sciences, Palestine Polytechnic University, Hebron, Palestine
| | - Mosaad A Abdel-Wahhab
- Department of Food Toxicology & Contaminants, National Research Center Food Toxicology and Contaminants Department National Research Center, Cairo, Egypt
| | - Yousef Alhamdan
- Department of Physiotherapy, Allied Medical Science, Arab American University, Jenin, Palestine
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Calapai F, Cardia L, Sorbara EE, Navarra M, Gangemi S, Calapai G, Mannucci C. Cannabinoids, Blood-Brain Barrier, and Brain Disposition. Pharmaceutics 2020; 12:pharmaceutics12030265. [PMID: 32183416 PMCID: PMC7150944 DOI: 10.3390/pharmaceutics12030265] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/28/2020] [Revised: 02/21/2020] [Accepted: 03/12/2020] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Potential therapeutic actions of the cannabinoids delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) and cannabidiol (CBD) are based on their activity as analgesics, anti-emetics, anti-inflammatory agents, anti-seizure compounds. THC and CBD lipophilicity and their neurological actions makes them candidates as new medicinal approaches to treat central nervous system (CNS) diseases. However, they show differences about penetrability and disposition in the brain. The present article is an overview about THC and CBD crossing the blood-brain barrier (BBB) and their brain disposition. Several findings indicate that CBD can modify the deleterious effects on BBB caused by inflammatory cytokines and may play a pivotal role in ameliorating BBB dysfunction consequent to ischemia. Thus supporting the therapeutic potential of CBD for the treatment of ischemic and inflammatory diseases of CNS. Cannabinoids positive effects on cognitive function could be also considered through the aspect of protection of BBB cerebrovascular structure and function, indicating that they may purchase substantial benefits through the protection of BBB integrity. Delivery of these cannabinoids in the brain following different routes of administration (subcutaneous, oral, and pulmonary) is illustrated and commented. Finally, the potential role of cannabinoids in drug-resistance in the clinical management of neurological or psychiatric diseases such as epilepsy and schizophrenia is discussed on the light of their crossing the BBB.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fabrizio Calapai
- Department of Biomedical and Dental Sciences and Morphological and Functional Imaging, University of Messina, 98125 Messina, Italy; (F.C.); (E.E.S.); (C.M.)
| | - Luigi Cardia
- Anesthesia, Intensive Care and Pain Therapy, A.O.U.G. Martino Messina, University of Messina, 98125 Messina, Italy;
| | - Emanuela Elisa Sorbara
- Department of Biomedical and Dental Sciences and Morphological and Functional Imaging, University of Messina, 98125 Messina, Italy; (F.C.); (E.E.S.); (C.M.)
| | - Michele Navarra
- Department of Chemical, Biological, Pharmaceutical and Environmental Sciences, University of Messina, 98166 Messina, Italy;
| | - Sebastiano Gangemi
- School and Division of Allergy and Clinical Immunology, Department of Experimental Medicine, University of Messina, 98125 Messina, Italy;
| | - Gioacchino Calapai
- Department of Biomedical and Dental Sciences and Morphological and Functional Imaging, University of Messina, 98125 Messina, Italy; (F.C.); (E.E.S.); (C.M.)
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +39-0902213646
| | - Carmen Mannucci
- Department of Biomedical and Dental Sciences and Morphological and Functional Imaging, University of Messina, 98125 Messina, Italy; (F.C.); (E.E.S.); (C.M.)
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50
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Spindle TR, Cone EJ, Kuntz D, Mitchell JM, Bigelow GE, Flegel R, Vandrey R. Urinary Pharmacokinetic Profile of Cannabinoids Following Administration of Vaporized and Oral Cannabidiol and Vaporized CBD-Dominant Cannabis. J Anal Toxicol 2020; 44:109-125. [PMID: 31682266 PMCID: PMC7152694 DOI: 10.1093/jat/bkz080] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/17/2019] [Revised: 08/19/2019] [Accepted: 08/20/2019] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Cannabis products in which cannabidiol (CBD) is the primary chemical constituent (CBD-dominant) are increasingly popular and widely available. The impact of CBD exposure on urine drug testing has not been well studied. This study characterized the urinary pharmacokinetic profile of 100-mg oral and vaporized CBD, vaporized CBD-dominant cannabis (100-mg CBD; 3.7-mg ∆9-THC) and placebo in healthy adults (n = 6) using a within-subjects crossover design. Urine specimens were collected before and for 5 days after drug administration. Immunoassay (IA) screening (cutoffs of 20, 50 and 100 ng/mL) and LC-MS-MS confirmatory tests (cutoff of 15 ng/mL) for 11-nor-9-carboxy-∆9-tetrahydrocannabinol (∆9-THCCOOH) were performed; urine was also analyzed for CBD and other cannabinoids. Urinary concentrations of CBD were higher after oral (mean Cmax: 776 ng/mL) versus vaporized CBD (mean Cmax: 261 ng/mL). CBD concentrations peaked 5 h after oral CBD ingestion and within 1 h after inhalation of vaporized CBD. After pure CBD administration, only 1 out of 218 urine specimens screened positive for ∆9-THCCOOH (20-ng/mL IA cutoff) and no specimens exceeded the 15-ng/mL confirmatory cutoff. After inhalation of CBD-dominant cannabis vapor, nine samples screened positive at the 20-ng/mL IA cutoff, and two of those samples screened positive at the 50-ng/mL IA cutoff. Four samples that screened positive (two at 20 ng/mL and two at 50 ng/mL) confirmed positive with concentrations of ∆9-THCCOOH exceeding 15 ng/mL. These data indicate that acute dosing of pure CBD will not result in a positive urine drug test using current federal workplace drug testing guidelines (50-ng/mL IA cutoff with 15-ng/mL confirmatory cutoff). However, CBD products that also contain ∆9-THC may produce positive urine results for ∆9-THCCOOH. Accurate labeling and regulation of ∆9-THC content in CBD/hemp products are needed to prevent unexpected positive drug tests and unintended drug effects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tory R Spindle
- Behavioral Pharmacology Research Unit, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, 5510 Nathan Shock Dr., Baltimore, MD 21224, USA
| | - Edward J Cone
- Behavioral Pharmacology Research Unit, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, 5510 Nathan Shock Dr., Baltimore, MD 21224, USA
| | - David Kuntz
- Clinical Reference Laboratory, 8433 Quivira Rd, Lenexa, KS 66214, USA
| | - John M Mitchell
- RTI International, Research Triangle Park, 3040 East Cornwallis Rd., Durham, NC 27709, USA
| | - George E Bigelow
- Behavioral Pharmacology Research Unit, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, 5510 Nathan Shock Dr., Baltimore, MD 21224, USA
| | - Ronald Flegel
- Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA), Division of Workplace Programs (DWP), 5600 Fishers Lane, Rockville, MD 20857, USA
| | - Ryan Vandrey
- Behavioral Pharmacology Research Unit, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, 5510 Nathan Shock Dr., Baltimore, MD 21224, USA
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