Genetic ablation of phosphatidylinositol transfer protein function in murine embryonic stem cells

Non-vesicular phosphatidylinositol transfer plays critical roles in defining organelle lipid composition

Phosphatidylinositol (PI) is the precursor lipid for the minor phosphoinositides (PPIns), which are critical for multiple functions in all eukaryotic cells. It is poorly understood how phosphatidylinositol, which is synthesized in the ER, reaches those membranes where PPIns are formed. Here, we used VT01454, a recently identified inhibitor of class I PI transfer proteins (PITPs), to unravel their roles in lipid metabolism, and solved the structure of inhibitor-bound PITPNA to gain insight into the mode of inhibition. We found that class I PITPs not only distribute PI for PPIns production in various organelles such as the plasma membrane (PM) and late endosomes/lysosomes, but that their inhibition also significantly reduced the levels of phosphatidylserine, di- and triacylglycerols, and other lipids, and caused prominent increases in phosphatidic acid. While VT01454 did not inhibit Golgi PI4P formation nor reduce resting PM PI(4,5)P2 levels, the recovery of the PM pool of PI(4,5)P2 after receptor-mediated hydrolysis required both class I and class II PITPs. Overall, these studies show that class I PITPs differentially regulate phosphoinositide pools and affect the overall cellular lipid landscape.

Individual phosphatidylinositol transfer proteins have distinct functions that do not involve lipid transfer activity

Platelets use signal transduction pathways facilitated by class I phosphatidylinositol transfer proteins (PITPs). The 2 mammalian class I PITPs, PITPα and PITPβ, are single PITP domain soluble proteins that are encoded by different genes and share 77% sequence identity, although their individual roles in mammalian biology remain uncharacterized. These proteins are believed to shuttle phosphatidylinositol and phosphatidylcholine between separate intracellular membrane compartments, thereby regulating phosphoinositide synthesis and second messenger formation. Previously, we observed that platelet-specific deletion of PITPα, the predominantly expressed murine PITP isoform, had no effect on hemostasis but impaired tumor metastasis formation and disrupted phosphoinositide signaling. Here, we found that mice lacking the less expressed PITPβ in their platelets exhibited a similar phenotype. However, in contrast to PITPα-null platelet lysates, which have impaired lipid transfer activity, PITPβ-null platelet lysates have essentially normal lipid transfer activity, although both isoforms contribute to phosphoinositide synthesis in vitro. Moreover, we found that platelet-specific deletion of both PITPs led to ex vivo platelet aggregation/secretion and spreading defects, impaired tail bleeding, and profound tumor dissemination. Our study also demonstrated that PITP isoforms are required to maintain endogenous phosphoinositide PtdInsP2 levels and agonist-stimulated second messenger formation. The data shown here demonstrate that the 2 isoforms are functionally overlapping and that a single isoform is able to maintain the homeostasis of platelets. However, both class I PITP isoforms contribute to phosphoinositide signaling in platelets through distinct biochemical mechanisms or different subcellular domains.

Courier service for phosphatidylinositol: PITPs deliver on demand

Phosphatidylinositol is the parent lipid for the synthesis of seven phosphorylated inositol lipids and each of them play specific roles in numerous processes including receptor-mediated signalling, actin cytoskeleton dynamics and membrane trafficking. PI synthesis is localised to the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) whilst its phosphorylated derivatives are found in other organelles where the lipid kinases also reside. Phosphorylation of PI to phosphatidylinositol (4,5) bisphosphate (PI(4,5)P₂) at the plasma membrane and to phosphatidylinositol 4-phosphate (PI4P) at the Golgi are key events in lipid signalling and Golgi function respectively. Here we review a family of proteins, phosphatidylinositol transfer proteins (PITPs), that can mobilise PI from the ER to provide the substrate to the resident kinases for phosphorylation. Recent studies identify specific and overlapping functions for the three soluble PITPs (PITPα, PITPβ and PITPNC1) in phospholipase C signalling, neuronal function, membrane trafficking, viral replication and in cancer metastases.

Insights into the lipidome and primary metabolome of the uterus from day 14 cyclic and pregnant sheep†

In ruminants, conceptus elongation requires the endometrium and its secretions. The amino acid, carbohydrate, and protein composition of the uterine lumen during early pregnancy has been defined in sheep; however, a comprehensive understanding of metabolomic changes in the uterine lumen is lacking, particularly with respect to lipids. Here, the lipidome and primary metabolome of the uterine lumen, endometrium, and/or conceptus was determined on day 14 of the estrous cycle and pregnancy. Lipid droplets and select triglycerides were depleted in the endometrium of pregnant ewes. In contrast, select ceramides, diglycerides, and non-esterified fatty acids as well as several phospholipid classes (phosphatidylcholine, phosphatidylinositol, phosphatidylglycerols, and diacylglycerols) were elevated in the uterine lumen of pregnant ewes. Lipidomic analysis of the conceptus revealed that triglycerides are particularly abundant within the conceptus. Primary metabolite analyses found elevated amino acids, carbohydrates, and energy substrates, among others, in the uterine lumen of pregnant ewes. Collectively, this study supports the hypothesis that lipids are important components of the uterine lumen that govern conceptus elongation and growth during early pregnancy.

Lipid transfer proteins and instructive regulation of lipid kinase activities: Implications for inositol lipid signaling and disease

Cellular membranes are critical platforms for intracellular signaling that involve complex interfaces between lipids and proteins, and a web of interactions between a multitude of lipid metabolic pathways. Membrane lipids impart structural and functional information in this regulatory circuit that encompass biophysical parameters such as membrane thickness and fluidity, as well as chaperoning the interactions of protein binding partners. Phosphatidylinositol and its phosphorylated derivatives, the phosphoinositides, play key roles in intracellular membrane signaling, and these involvements are translated into an impressively diverse set of biological outcomes. The phosphatidylinositol transfer proteins (PITPs) are key regulators of phosphoinositide signaling. Found in a diverse array of organisms from plants, yeast and apicomplexan parasites to mammals, PITPs were initially proposed to be simple transporters of lipids between intracellular membranes. It now appears increasingly unlikely that the soluble versions of these proteins perform such functions within the cell. Rather, these serve to facilitate the activity of intrinsically biologically insufficient inositol lipid kinases and, in so doing, promote diversification of the biological outcomes of phosphoinositide signaling. The central engine for execution of such functions is the lipid exchange cycle that is a fundamental property of PITPs. How PITPs execute lipid exchange remains very poorly understood. Molecular dynamics simulation approaches are now providing the first atomistic insights into how PITPs, and potentially other lipid-exchange/transfer proteins, operate.

Phosphatidylserine biosynthesis pathways in lipid homeostasis: Toward resolution of the pending central issue for decades

Enzymatic control of lipid homeostasis in the cell is a vital element in the complex organization of life. Phosphatidylserine (PS) is an essential anionic phospholipid of cell membranes, and conducts numerous roles for their structural and functional integrity. In mammalian cells, two distinct enzymes phosphatidylserine synthases-1 (PSS1) and -2 (PSS2) in the mitochondria-associated membrane (MAM) in the ER perform de novo synthesis of PS. It is based on base-exchange reactions of the preexisting dominant phospholipids phosphatidylcholine (PC) and phosphatidylethanolamine (PE). While PSS2 specifically catalyzes the reaction "PE → PS," whether or not PSS1 is responsible for the same reaction along with the reaction "PC → PS" remains unsettled despite its fundamental impact on the major stoichiometry. We propose here that a key but the only report that appeared to have put scientists on hold for decades in answering to this issue may be viewed consistently with other available research reports; PSS1 utilizes the two dominant phospholipid classes at a similar intrinsic rate. In this review, we discuss the issue in view of the current information for the enzyme machineries, membrane structure and dynamics, intracellular network of lipid transport, and PS synthesis in health and disease. Resolution of the pending issue is thus critical in advancing our understanding of roles of the essential anionic lipid in biology, health, and disease.

Lipid Exchangers: Cellular Functions and Mechanistic Links With Phosphoinositide Metabolism

Lipids are amphiphilic molecules that self-assemble to form biological membranes. Thousands of lipid species coexist in the cell and, once combined, define organelle identity. Due to recent progress in lipidomic analysis, we now know how lipid composition is finely tuned in different subcellular regions. Along with lipid synthesis, remodeling and flip-flop, lipid transfer is one of the active processes that regulates this intracellular lipid distribution. It is mediated by Lipid Transfer Proteins (LTPs) that precisely move certain lipid species across the cytosol and between the organelles. A particular subset of LTPs from three families (Sec14, PITP, OSBP/ORP/Osh) act as lipid exchangers. A striking feature of these exchangers is that they use phosphatidylinositol or phosphoinositides (PIPs) as a lipid ligand and thereby have specific links with PIP metabolism and are thus able to both control the lipid composition of cellular membranes and their signaling capacity. As a result, they play pivotal roles in cellular processes such as vesicular trafficking and signal transduction at the plasma membrane. Recent data have shown that some PIPs are used as energy by lipid exchangers to generate lipid gradients between organelles. Here we describe the importance of lipid counter-exchange in the cell, its structural basis, and presumed links with pathologies.

The interface between phosphatidylinositol transfer protein function and phosphoinositide signaling in higher eukaryotes

Phosphoinositides are key regulators of a large number of diverse cellular processes that include membrane trafficking, plasma membrane receptor signaling, cell proliferation, and transcription. How a small number of chemically distinct phosphoinositide signals are functionally amplified to exert specific control over such a diverse set of biological outcomes remains incompletely understood. To this end, a novel mechanism is now taking shape, and it involves phosphatidylinositol (PtdIns) transfer proteins (PITPs). The concept that PITPs exert instructive regulation of PtdIns 4-OH kinase activities and thereby channel phosphoinositide production to specific biological outcomes, identifies PITPs as central factors in the diversification of phosphoinositide signaling. There are two evolutionarily distinct families of PITPs: the Sec14-like and the StAR-related lipid transfer domain (START)-like families. Of these two families, the START-like PITPs are the least understood. Herein, we review recent insights into the biochemical, cellular, and physiological function of both PITP families with greater emphasis on the START-like PITPs, and we discuss the underlying mechanisms through which these proteins regulate phosphoinositide signaling and how these actions translate to human health and disease.

A Golgi Lipid Signaling Pathway Controls Apical Golgi Distribution and Cell Polarity during Neurogenesis

Phosphatidylinositol (PtdIns) transfer proteins (PITPs) stimulate PtdIns-4-P synthesis and signaling in eukaryotic cells, but to what biological outcomes such signaling circuits are coupled remains unclear. Herein, we show that two highly related StART-like PITPs, PITPNA and PITPNB, act in a redundant fashion to support development of the embryonic mammalian neocortex. PITPNA/PITPNB do so by driving PtdIns-4-P-dependent recruitment of GOLPH3, and likely ceramide transfer protein (CERT), to Golgi membranes with GOLPH3 recruitment serving to promote MYO18A- and F-actin-directed loading of the Golgi network to apical processes of neural stem cells (NSCs). We propose the primary role for PITP/PtdIns-4-P/GOLPH3/CERT signaling in NSC Golgi is not in regulating bulk membrane trafficking but in optimizing apically directed membrane trafficking and/or apical membrane signaling during neurogenesis.

Phosphatidylinositol transfer protein-α in platelets is inconsequential for thrombosis yet is utilized for tumor metastasis

Platelets are increasingly recognized for their contributions to tumor metastasis. Here, we show that the phosphoinositide signaling modulated by phosphatidylinositol transfer protein type α (PITPα), a protein which shuttles phosphatidylinositol between organelles, is essential for platelet-mediated tumor metastasis. PITPα-deficient platelets have reduced intracellular pools of phosphoinositides and an 80% reduction in IP₃ generation upon platelet activation. Unexpectedly, mice lacking platelet PITPα form thrombi normally at sites of intravascular injuries. However, following intravenous injection of tumor cells, mice lacking PITPα develop fewer lung metastases due to a reduction of fibrin formation surrounding the tumor cells, rendering the metastases susceptible to mucosal immunity. These findings demonstrate that platelet PITPα-mediated phosphoinositide signaling is inconsequential for in vivo hemostasis, yet is critical for in vivo dissemination. Moreover, this demonstrates that signaling pathways within platelets may be segregated into pathways that are essential for thrombosis formation and pathways that are important for non-hemostatic functions.

Repression of phosphatidylinositol transfer protein α ameliorates the pathology of Duchenne muscular dystrophy

Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD) is a progressive muscle wasting disease caused by X-linked inherited mutations in the DYSTROPHIN (DMD) gene. Absence of dystrophin protein from the sarcolemma causes severe muscle degeneration, fibrosis, and inflammation, ultimately leading to cardiorespiratory failure and premature death. Although there are several promising strategies under investigation to restore dystrophin protein expression, there is currently no cure for DMD, and identification of genetic modifiers as potential targets represents an alternative therapeutic strategy. In a Brazilian golden retriever muscular dystrophy (GRMD) dog colony, two related dogs demonstrated strikingly mild dystrophic phenotypes compared with those typically observed in severely affected GRMD dogs despite lacking dystrophin. Microarray analysis of these "escaper" dogs revealed reduced expression of phosphatidylinositol transfer protein-α (PITPNA) in escaper versus severely affected GRMD dogs. Based on these findings, we decided to pursue investigation of modulation of PITPNA expression on dystrophic pathology in GRMD dogs, dystrophin-deficient sapje zebrafish, and human DMD myogenic cells. In GRMD dogs, decreased expression of Pitpna was associated with increased phosphorylated Akt (pAkt) expression and decreased PTEN levels. PITPNA knockdown by injection of morpholino oligonucleotides in sapje zebrafish also increased pAkt, rescued the abnormal muscle phenotype, and improved long-term sapje mutant survival. In DMD myotubes, PITPNA knockdown by lentiviral shRNA increased pAkt and increased myoblast fusion index. Overall, our findings suggest PIPTNA as a disease modifier that accords benefits to the abnormal signaling, morphology, and function of dystrophic skeletal muscle, and may be a target for DMD and related neuromuscular diseases.

Phosphoinositide signaling in sperm development

Phosphatidylinositol phosphates (PIPs)¹ are membrane lipids with crucial roles during cell morphogenesis, including the establishment of cytoskeletal organization, membrane trafficking, cell polarity, cell-cycle control and signaling. Recent studies in mice (Mus musculus), fruit flies (Drosophila melanogaster) and other organisms have defined germ cell intrinsic requirements for these lipids and their regulatory enzymes in multiple aspects of sperm development. In particular, PIP levels are crucial in germline stem cell maintenance, spermatogonial proliferation and survival, spermatocyte cytokinesis, spermatid polarization, sperm tail formation, nuclear shaping, and production of mature, motile sperm. Here, we briefly review the stages of spermatogenesis and discuss the roles of PIPs and their regulatory enzymes in male germ cell development.

Homeostatic regulation of the PI(4,5)P2-Ca(2+) signaling system at ER-PM junctions

The phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate (PI(4,5)P2)-Ca(2+) signaling system is important for cell activation in response to various extracellular stimuli. This signaling system is initiated by receptor-induced hydrolysis of PI(4,5)P2 in the plasma membrane (PM) to generate the soluble second messenger inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate (IP3). IP3 subsequently triggers the release of Ca(2+) from the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) store to the cytosol to activate Ca(2+)-mediated responses, such as secretion and proliferation. The consumed PM PI(4,5)P2 and ER Ca(2+) must be quickly restored to sustain signaling responses, and to maintain the homeostasis of PI(4,5)P2 and Ca(2+). Since phosphatidylinositol (PI), the precursor lipid for PM PI(4,5)P2, is synthesized in the ER membrane, and a Ca(2+) influx across the PM is required to refill the ER Ca(2+) store, efficient communications between the ER and the PM are critical for the homeostatic regulation of the PI(4,5)P2-Ca(2+) signaling system. This review describes the major findings that established the framework of the PI(4,5)P2-Ca(2+) signaling system, and recent discoveries on feedback control mechanisms at ER-PM junctions that sustain the PI(4,5)P2-Ca(2+) signaling system. Particular emphasis is placed on the characterization of ER-PM junctions where efficient communications between the ER and the PM occur, and the activation mechanisms of proteins that dynamically localize to ER-PM junctions to provide the feedback control during PI(4,5)P2-Ca(2+) signaling, including the ER Ca(2+) sensor STIM1, the extended synaptotagmin E-Syt1, and the PI transfer protein Nir2. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled: The cellular lipid landscape edited by Tim P. Levine and Anant K. Menon.

Phosphatidylinositol transfer proteins and instructive regulation of lipid kinase biology

Phosphatidylinositol is a metabolic precursor of phosphoinositides and soluble inositol phosphates. Both sets of molecules represent versatile intracellular chemical signals in eukaryotes. While much effort has been invested in understanding the enzymes that produce and consume these molecules, central aspects for how phosphoinositide production is controlled and functionally partitioned remain unresolved and largely unappreciated. It is in this regard that phosphatidylinositol (PtdIns) transfer proteins (PITPs) are emerging as central regulators of the functional channeling of phosphoinositide pools produced on demand for specific signaling purposes. The physiological significance of these proteins is amply demonstrated by the consequences that accompany deficits in individual PITPs. Although the biological problem is fascinating, and of direct relevance to disease, PITPs remain largely uncharacterized. Herein, we discuss our perspectives regarding what is known about how PITPs work as molecules, and highlight progress in our understanding of how PITPs are integrated into cellular physiology. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled Phosphoinositides.

Phosphoinositides: tiny lipids with giant impact on cell regulation

Phosphoinositides (PIs) make up only a small fraction of cellular phospholipids, yet they control almost all aspects of a cell's life and death. These lipids gained tremendous research interest as plasma membrane signaling molecules when discovered in the 1970s and 1980s. Research in the last 15 years has added a wide range of biological processes regulated by PIs, turning these lipids into one of the most universal signaling entities in eukaryotic cells. PIs control organelle biology by regulating vesicular trafficking, but they also modulate lipid distribution and metabolism via their close relationship with lipid transfer proteins. PIs regulate ion channels, pumps, and transporters and control both endocytic and exocytic processes. The nuclear phosphoinositides have grown from being an epiphenomenon to a research area of its own. As expected from such pleiotropic regulators, derangements of phosphoinositide metabolism are responsible for a number of human diseases ranging from rare genetic disorders to the most common ones such as cancer, obesity, and diabetes. Moreover, it is increasingly evident that a number of infectious agents hijack the PI regulatory systems of host cells for their intracellular movements, replication, and assembly. As a result, PI converting enzymes began to be noticed by pharmaceutical companies as potential therapeutic targets. This review is an attempt to give an overview of this enormous research field focusing on major developments in diverse areas of basic science linked to cellular physiology and disease.

Phosphatidylinositol transfer protein, cytoplasmic 1 (PITPNC1) binds and transfers phosphatidic acid

Phosphatidylinositol transfer proteins (PITPs) are versatile proteins required for signal transduction and membrane traffic. The best characterized mammalian PITPs are the Class I PITPs, PITPα (PITPNA) and PITPβ (PITPNB), which are single domain proteins with a hydrophobic cavity that binds a phosphatidylinositol (PI) or phosphatidylcholine molecule. In this study, we report the lipid binding properties of an uncharacterized soluble PITP, phosphatidylinositol transfer protein, cytoplasmic 1 (PITPNC1) (alternative name, RdgBβ), of the Class II family. We show that the lipid binding properties of this protein are distinct to Class I PITPs because, besides PI, RdgBβ binds and transfers phosphatidic acid (PA) but hardly binds phosphatidylcholine. RdgBβ when purified from Escherichia coli is preloaded with PA and phosphatidylglycerol. When RdgBβ was incubated with permeabilized HL60 cells, phosphatidylglycerol was released, and PA and PI were now incorporated into RdgBβ. After an increase in PA levels following activation of endogenous phospholipase D or after addition of bacterial phospholipase D, binding of PA to RdgBβ was greater at the expense of PI binding. We propose that RdgBβ, when containing PA, regulates an effector protein or can facilitate lipid transfer between membrane compartments.

The phosphatidylinositol transfer protein RdgBβ binds 14-3-3 via its unstructured C-terminus, whereas its lipid-binding domain interacts with the integral membrane protein ATRAP (angiotensin II type I receptor-associated protein)

PITPs [PI (phosphatidylinositol) transfer proteins] bind and transfer PI between intracellular membranes and participate in many cellular processes including signalling, lipid metabolism and membrane traffic. The largely uncharacterized PITP RdgBβ (PITPNC1; retinal degeneration type B β), contains a long C-terminal disordered region following its defining N-terminal PITP domain. In the present study we report that the C-terminus contains two tandem phosphorylated binding sites (Ser274 and Ser299) for 14-3-3. The C-terminus also contains PEST sequences which are shielded by 14-3-3 binding. Like many proteins containing PEST sequences, the levels of RdgBβ are regulated by proteolysis. RdgBβ is degraded with a half-life of 4 h following ubiquitination via the proteasome. A mutant RdgBβ which is unable to bind 14-3-3 is degraded even faster with a half-life of 2 h. In vitro, RdgBβ is 100-fold less active than PITPα for PI transfer, and RdgBβ proteins (wild-type and a mutant that cannot bind 14-3-3) expressed in COS-7 cells or endogenous proteins from heart cytosol do not exhibit transfer activity. When cells are treated with PMA, the PITP domain of RdgBβ interacts with the integral membrane protein ATRAP (angiotensin II type I receptor-associated protein; also known as AGTRAP) causing membrane recruitment. We suggest that RdgBβ executes its function following recruitment to membranes via its PITP domain and the C-terminal end of the protein could regulate entry to the hydrophobic cavity.

Mammalian diseases of phosphatidylinositol transfer proteins and their homologs

Inositol and phosphoinositide signaling pathways represent major regulatory systems in eukaryotes. The physiological importance of these pathways is amply demonstrated by the variety of diseases that involve derangements in individual steps in inositide and phosphoinositide production and degradation. These diseases include numerous cancers, lipodystrophies and neurological syndromes. Phosphatidylinositol transfer proteins (PITPs) are emerging as fascinating regulators of phosphoinositide metabolism. Recent advances identify PITPs (and PITP-like proteins) to be coincidence detectors, which spatially and temporally coordinate the activities of diverse aspects of the cellular lipid metabolome with phosphoinositide signaling. These insights are providing new ideas regarding mechanisms of inherited mammalian diseases associated with derangements in the activities of PITPs and PITP-like proteins.

Phosphatidylinositol- and phosphatidylcholine-transfer activity of PITPbeta is essential for COPI-mediated retrograde transport from the Golgi to the endoplasmic reticulum

Vesicles formed by the COPI complex function in retrograde transport from the Golgi to the endoplasmic reticulum (ER). Phosphatidylinositol transfer protein beta (PITPbeta), an essential protein that possesses phosphatidylinositol (PtdIns) and phosphatidylcholine (PtdCho) lipid transfer activity is known to localise to the Golgi and ER but its role in these membrane systems is not clear. To examine the function of PITPbeta at the Golgi-ER interface, RNA interference (RNAi) was used to knockdown PITPbeta protein expression in HeLa cells. Depletion of PITPbeta leads to a decrease in PtdIns(4)P levels, compaction of the Golgi complex and protection from brefeldin-A-mediated dispersal to the ER. Using specific transport assays, we show that anterograde traffic is unaffected but that KDEL-receptor-dependent retrograde traffic is inhibited. This phenotype can be rescued by expression of wild-type PITPbeta but not by mutants defective in docking, PtdIns transfer and PtdCho transfer. These data demonstrate that the PtdIns and PtdCho exchange activity of PITPbeta is essential for COPI-mediated retrograde transport from the Golgi to the ER.

Phosphatidylinositol transfer proteins: sequence motifs in structural and evolutionary analyses

Phosphatidylinositol transfer proteins (PITP) are a family of monomeric proteins that bind and transfer phosphatidylinositol and phosphatidylcholine between membrane compartments. They are required for production of inositol and diacylglycerol second messengers, and are found in most metazoan organisms. While PITPs are known to carry out crucial cell-signaling roles in many organisms, the structure, function and evolution of the majority of family members remains unexplored; primarily because the ubiquity and diversity of the family thwarts traditional methods of global alignment. To surmount this obstacle, we instead took a novel approach, using MEME and a parsimony-based analysis to create a cladogram of conserved sequence motifs in 56 PITP family proteins from 26 species. In keeping with previous functional annotations, three clades were supported within our evolutionary analysis; two classes of soluble proteins and a class of membrane-associated proteins. By, focusing on conserved regions, the analysis allowed for in depth queries regarding possible functional roles of PITP proteins in both intra- and extra- cellular signaling.

The Diverse Biological Functions of Phosphatidylinositol Transfer Proteins in Eukaryotes

Phosphatidylinositol/phosphatidylcholine transfer proteins (PITPs) remain largely functionally uncharacterized, despite the fact that they are highly conserved and are found in all eukaryotic cells thus far examined by biochemical or sequence analysis approaches. The available data indicate a role for PITPs in regulating specific interfaces between lipid-signaling and cellular function. In this regard, a role for PITPs in controlling specific membrane trafficking events is emerging as a common functional theme. However, the mechanisms by which PITPs regulate lipid-signaling and membrane-trafficking functions remain unresolved. Specific PITP dysfunctions are now linked to neurodegenerative and intestinal malabsorption diseases in mammals, to stress response and developmental regulation in higher plants, and to previously uncharacterized pathways for regulating membrane trafficking in yeast and higher eukaryotes, making it clear that PITPs are integral parts of a highly conserved signal transduction strategy in eukaryotes. Herein, we review recent progress in deciphering the biological functions of PITPs, and discuss some of the open questions that remain.

Dynamics of lipid transfer by phosphatidylinositol transfer proteins in cells

Of many lipid transfer proteins identified, all have been implicated in essential cellular processes, but the activity of none has been demonstrated in intact cells. Among these, phosphatidylinositol transfer proteins (PITP) are of particular interest as they can bind to and transfer phosphatidylinositol (PtdIns) – the precursor of important signalling molecules, phosphoinositides – and because they have essential functions in neuronal development (PITPα) and cytokinesis (PITPβ). Structural analysis indicates that, in the cytosol, PITPs are in a ‘closed’ conformation completely shielding the lipid within them. But during lipid exchange at the membrane, they must transiently ‘open’. To study PITP dynamics in intact cells, we chemically targeted their C95 residue that, although non-essential for lipid transfer, is buried within the phospholipid-binding cavity, and so, its chemical modification prevents PtdIns binding because of steric hindrance. This treatment resulted in entrapment of open conformation PITPs at the membrane and inactivation of the cytosolic pool of PITPs within few minutes. PITP isoforms were differentially inactivated with the dynamics of PITPβ faster than PITPα. We identify two tryptophan residues essential for membrane docking of PITPs.

The Sac1 phosphoinositide phosphatase regulates Golgi membrane morphology and mitotic spindle organization in mammals

Phosphoinositides (PIPs) are ubiquitous regulators of signal transduction events in eukaryotic cells. PIPs are degraded by various enzymes, including PIP phosphatases. The integral membrane Sac1 phosphatases represent a major class of such enzymes. The central role of lipid phosphatases in regulating PIP homeostasis notwithstanding, the biological functions of Sac1-phosphatases remain poorly characterized. Herein, we demonstrate that functional ablation of the single murine Sac1 results in preimplantation lethality in the mouse and that Sac1 insufficiencies result in disorganization of mammalian Golgi membranes and mitotic defects characterized by multiple mechanically active spindles. Complementation experiments demonstrate mutant mammalian Sac1 proteins individually defective in either phosphoinositide phosphatase activity, or in recycling of the enzyme from the Golgi system back to the endoplasmic reticulum, are nonfunctional proteins in vivo. The data indicate Sac1 executes an essential household function in mammals that involves organization of both Golgi membranes and mitotic spindles and that both enzymatic activity and endoplasmic reticulum localization are important Sac1 functional properties.

The anti-apoptotic MAP kinase pathway is inhibited in NIH3T3 fibroblasts with increased expression of phosphatidylinositol transfer protein β

Mouse NIH3T3 fibroblast cells overexpressing phosphatidylinositol transfer protein beta (PI-TPbeta, SPIbeta cells) demonstrate a low rate of proliferation and a high sensitivity towards UV-induced apoptosis when compared with wtNIH3T3 cells. In contrast, SPIbetaS262A cells overexpressing a mutant PI-TPbeta that lacks the protein kinase C-dependent phosphorylation site Ser-262, demonstrate a phenotype comparable with wtNIH3T3 cells. This suggests that the phosphorylation of Ser-262 in PI-TPbeta is involved in the regulation of apoptosis. Conditioned medium (CM) from wtNIH3T3 cells contains bioactive factors, presumably arachidonic acid metabolites [H. Bunte, et al., 2006; M. Schenning, et al., 2004] that are able to protect SPIbeta cells against UV-induced apoptosis. CM from SPIbeta cells lacks this protective activity. However, after heat denaturation CM from SPIbeta cells regains a protective activity comparable with that of wtNIH3T3 cells. This indicates that CM from SPIbeta cells contains an antagonistic factor interfering with the anti-apoptotic activity present. SPIbetaS262A cells do not produce the antagonist suggesting that phosphorylation of Ser-262 is required. Moreover, in line with the apparent lack of anti-apoptotic activity, CM from SPIbeta cells does not induce the expression of COX-2 or the activation of p42/p44 MAP kinase in SPIbeta cells. In contrast, CM from wtNIH3T3 and SPIbetaS262A cells or heat-treated CM from SPIbeta cells does induce these anti-apoptotic markers. Since we have previously shown that some of the arachidonic acid metabolites present in CM from wtNIH3T3 cells are prostaglandin (PG) E(2) and PGF(2alpha), we investigated the effect of these PGs on cell survival. Although PGE(2) and PGF(2alpha) were found to protect wtNIH3T3 and SPIbetaS262A cells against UV-induced apoptosis, these PGs failed to rescue SPIbeta cells. The fact that the concentrations of PGE(2) and PGF(2alpha) in the CM from SPIbeta cells and wtNIH3T3 cells were found to be comparable suggests that the failure of these PGs to protect SPIbeta cells could render these cells more apoptosis sensitive. Concomitantly, upon incubation with PGE(2) and PGF(2alpha), an increased expression of COX-2 and activation of p42/p44 MAP kinase were observed in wtNIH3T3 and SPIbetaS262A cells but not in SPIbeta cells. Hence, it appears that specific mechanisms of cell survival are impaired in SPIbeta cells.

The pathologies associated with functional titration of phosphatidylinositol transfer protein α activity in mice

Phosphatidylinositol transfer proteins (PITPs) bind phosphatidylinositol (PtdIns) and phosphatidylcholine and play diverse roles in coordinating lipid metabolism/signaling with intracellular functions. The underlying mechanisms remain unclear. Genetic ablation of PITPalpha in mice results in neonatal lethality characterized by intestinal and hepatic steatosis, spinocerebellar neurodegeneration, and glucose homeostatic defects. We report that mice expressing a PITPalpha selectively ablated for PtdIns binding activity (Pitpalpha(T59D)), as the sole source of PITPalpha, exhibit phenotypes that recapitulate those of authentic PITPalpha nullizygotes. Analyses of mice with graded reductions in PITPalpha activity reveal proportionately graded reductions in lifespan, demonstrate that intestinal steatosis and hypoglycemia are apparent only when PITPalpha protein levels are strongly reduced (>or=90%), and correlate steatotic and glucose homeostatic defects with cerebellar inflammatory disease. Finally, reconstitution of PITPalpha expression in the small intestine substantially corrects the chylomicron retention disease and cerebellar inflammation of Pitpalpha(0/0) neonates, but does not rescue neonatal lethality in these animals. These data demonstrate that PtdIns binding is an essential functional property of PITPalpha in vivo, and suggest a causal linkage between defects in lipid transport and glucose homeostasis and cerebellar inflammatory disease. Finally, the data also demonstrate intrinsic neuronal deficits in PITPalpha-deficient mice that are independent of intestinal lipid transport defects and hypoglycemia.

Biochemical and biological functions of class I phosphatidylinositol transfer proteins

Phosphoinositides function in a diverse array of cellular activities. They include a role as substrate for lipid kinases and phospholipases to generate second messengers, regulators of the cytoskeleton, of enzymes and of ion channels, and docking sites for reversible recruitment of proteins to membranes. Mammalian phosphatidylinositol transfer proteins, PITPalpha and PITPbeta are paralogs that share 77% sequence identity and contain a hydrophobic cavity that can sequester either phosphatidylinositol or phosphatidylcholine. A string of 11 amino acid residues at the C-terminal acts as a "lid" which shields the lipid from the aqueous environment. PITPs in vitro can facilitate inter-membrane lipid transfer and this requires the movement of the "lid" to allow the lipid cargo to be released. Thus PITPs are structurally designed for delivering lipid cargo and could thus participate in cellular events that are dependent on phosphatidylinositol or derivatives of phosphatidylinositol. Phosphatidylinositol, the precursor for all phosphoinositides is synthesised at the endoplasmic reticulum and its distribution to other organelles could be facilitated by PITPs. Here we highlight recent studies that report on the three-dimensional structures of the different PITP forms and suggest how PITPs are likely to dock at the membrane surface for lipid delivery and extraction. Additionally we discuss whether PITPs are important regulators of sphingomyelin metabolism, and finally describe recent studies that link the association of PITPs with diverse functions including membrane traffic at the Golgi, neurite outgrowth, cytokinesis and stem cell growth.

Differential expression of a C-terminal splice variant of phosphatidylinositol transfer protein beta lacking the constitutive-phosphorylated Ser262 that localizes to the Golgi compartment

Mammalian PITPbeta (phosphatidylinositol transfer protein beta) is a 272-amino-acid polypeptide capable of transferring PtdIns, PtdCho and SM (sphingomyelin) between membrane bilayers. It has been reported that Ser262 present in the C-terminus of PITPbeta is constitutively phosphorylated and determines Golgi localization. We provide evidence for the expression of an sp (splice) variant of PITPbeta (PITPbeta-sp2) where the C-terminal 15 amino acids of PITPbeta-sp1 are replaced by an alternative C-terminus of 16 amino acids. PITPbeta-sp1 is the product of the first 11 exons, whereas PITPbeta-sp2 is a product of the first 10 exons followed by the twelfth exon--exon 11 being 'skipped'. Both splice variants are capable of PtdIns and PtdCho transfer, with PITPbeta-sp2 being unable to transport SM. PITPbeta is ubiquitously expressed, with the highest amounts of PITPbeta found in HL60 cells and in rat liver; HL60 cells express only PITPbeta-sp1, whereas rat liver expresses both sp variants in similar amounts. In both cell types, PITPbeta-sp1 is constitutively phosphorylated and both the PtdIns and PtdCho forms of PITPbeta-sp1 are present. In contrast, PITPbeta-sp2 lacks the constitutively phosphorylated Ser262 (replaced with glutamine). Nonetheless, both PITPbeta variants localize to the Golgi and, moreover, dephosphorylation of Ser262 of PITPbeta-sp1 does not affect its Golgi localization. The presence of PITPbeta sp variants adds an extra level of proteome complexity and, in rat liver, the single gene for PITPbeta gives rise to seven distinct protein species that can be resolved on the basis of their charge differences.

Subcellular localization of phosphatidylinositol synthesis

It is well-established that the endoplasmic reticulum is the major site of phosphatidylinositol (PtdIns) synthesis. The PtdIns synthetic ability of other organelles, such as plasma membrane and nucleus, remains controversial. In the present study, we re-examine this question by comparing PtdIns synthesis in isolated cytoplasts (enucleated cells) with that in corresponding karyoplasts (nuclei surrounded by plasma membrane but lacking most cytoplasmic components). We report that cytoplasts are competent to carry out both basal and stimulated PtdIns synthesis as well as polyphosphoinositide hydrolysis, while karyoplasts can neither synthesize PtdIns nor hydrolyze phosphoinositides in response to agonists. The karyoplasts are, however, capable of synthesizing phosphatidylcholine (PtdCho), as previously reported. From these data, we conclude that PtdIns synthesis is limited to cytoplasmic components, and cannot be sustained by either plasma membrane or nucleus under conditions that permit robust PtdCho synthesis.

Phospholipid transfer proteins in perspective

Since their discovery and subsequent purification from mammalian tissues more than 30 years ago an impressive number of studies have been carried out to characterize and elucidate the biological functions of phosphatidylcholine transfer protein (PC-TP), phosphatidylinositol transfer protein (PI-TP) and non-specific lipid transfer protein, more commonly known as sterol carrier protein 2 (SCP-2). Here I will present information to show that these soluble, low-molecular weight proteins constitute domain structures in StArR-related lipid transfer (START) proteins (i.e. PC-TP), in retinal degeneration protein, type B (RdgB)-related PI-TPs (e.g. Dm RdgB, Nir2, Nir3) and in peroxisomal beta-oxidation enzyme-related SCP-2 (i.e. 3-oxoacyl-CoA thiolase, also denoted as SCP-X and the 80-kDa D-bifunctional protein). Further I will summarize the most recent studies pertaining to the physiological function of these soluble phospholipid transfer proteins in metazoa.

Phosphatidylinositol Transfer Protein Expression Altered by Aging and Parkinson Disease

1. Phosphatidylinositol transfer proteins (PI-TP) are responsible for the transport of phosphatidylinositol (PI) and other phospholipids from endoplasmic reticulum to the other membranes and indirectly for lipid mediated signaling. Till now little is known about PI-TPs in brain aging and neurodegeneration. The aim of this study was to investigate expression of PI-TP in the brain during aging and in animal's model of Parkinson disease (PD) induced by 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine (MPTP). Moreover, in vitro, effect of 1-methyl-4-phenyl-pyridine cation (MPP(+)) on PI-TP, tyrosine hydroxylase (TH) protein level, and viability of cells was investigated. 2. Wistar rats 4, 24, and 36 months old and C57/BL mice and rat pheochromocytoma (PC12) cell line were used for the studies. Mice C57/BL received three injections of MPTP in saline at 2 h intervals in a total dose of 40 mg/kg and then after 3, 7, and 14 days they were used for the investigation. PC12 cells were treated with increasing concentration (50-300 microM) of MPP(+) for 24 h at 37 degrees C. The level of PI-TP(alpha and beta) and TH were determined using Western Blot analysis. 3. Our data indicated that PI-TP(alpha and beta) level decreased in brain of 36 months old rat by 20% comparing to the control value (4 months old). In animal's model of PD, PI-TP(alpha and beta) level was significantly lower by 85, 69, 64% in striatum at 3, 7, and 14 days after MPTP injection, respectively, compared to the control value. MPP(+) decreased PI-TP(alpha and beta), TH expression, and viability of PC12 cells in a dose-dependent manner. H(2)O(2), menadione, and NO donor significantly decreased the PI-TP level and viability of PC12 cells. 4. Our results indicate the lower protein expression of PI-TP(alpha and beta) in aged brain and in PD and suggest that oxidative stress may be responsible for the alteration of PI-TP.

Specific and nonspecific membrane-binding determinants cooperate in targeting phosphatidylinositol transfer protein beta-isoform to the mammalian trans-Golgi network

Phosphatidylinositol transfer proteins (PITPs) regulate the interface between lipid metabolism and specific steps in membrane trafficking through the secretory pathway in eukaryotes. Herein, we describe the cis-acting information that controls PITPbeta localization in mammalian cells. We demonstrate PITPbeta localizes predominantly to the trans-Golgi network (TGN) and that this localization is independent of the phospholipid-bound state of PITPbeta. Domain mapping analyses show the targeting information within PITPbeta consists of three short C-terminal specificity elements and a nonspecific membrane-binding element defined by a small motif consisting of adjacent tryptophan residues (the W(202)W(203) motif). Combination of the specificity elements with the W(202)W(203) motif is necessary and sufficient to generate an efficient TGN-targeting module. Finally, we demonstrate that PITPbeta association with the TGN is tolerant to a range of missense mutations at residue serine 262, we describe the TGN localization of a novel PITPbeta isoform with a naturally occurring S262Q polymorphism, and we find no other genetic or pharmacological evidence to support the concept that PITPbeta localization to the TGN is obligately regulated by conventional protein kinase C (PKC) or the Golgi-localized PKC isoforms delta or epsilon. These latter findings are at odds with a previous report that conventional PKC-mediated phosphorylation of residue Ser262 is required for PITPbeta targeting to Golgi membranes.

Phosphatidylinositol transfer protein function in the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae

PITPs regulate the interface between lipid metabolism and cellular functions, but the fundamental nature of this regulation is not understood. Yeast and mouse studies demonstrate strict coupling of individual PITPs to specific cellular activities, but the invisibility of these specificities in in vitro models for PITP activity is remarkable. In our opinion, delineation of PITP functions requires the continued application of genetic approaches such as those summarized here. Future studies dedicated to enhancing our understanding of the mechanisms of action of Sec14p-like and metazoan PITPs are worthy goals for three reasons. First, it is becoming abundantly clear that PITPs act at important biological interfaces that involve lipid and protein trafficking, phospholipid biosynthesis and polarized membrane growth. Because these interfaces are critical not only to cellular functions, but also to developmental processes, the function of PITPs in development of multicellular organisms is a particularly attractive area of research that remains essentially untapped. Second, the yeast studies indicate functional linkages between Sec14p-like PITPs and members of ubiquitous but entirely uncharacterized eukaryotic proteins such as OSBP family members. Finally, the link of PITPs to disease is already clear since PITP deficiencies lie at the foundation of novel mechanisms of neurodegenerative, glucose homeostatic and gastrointestinal disorders in mammals. Given that the contribution of Sec14p-like proteins to the PITP complement of mammalian cells is completely uninvestigated, and that the mammalian genome encodes many proteins of this class, we anticipate such advances will directly and positively impact our understanding of the molecular basis of such diseases.

A Sec14p-nodulin domain phosphatidylinositol transfer protein polarizes membrane growth of Arabidopsis thaliana root hairs

Phosphatidylinositol (PtdIns) transfer proteins (PITPs) regulate signaling interfaces between lipid metabolism and membrane trafficking. Herein, we demonstrate that AtSfh1p, a member of a large and uncharacterized Arabidopsis thaliana Sec14p-nodulin domain family, is a PITP that regulates a specific stage in root hair development. AtSfh1p localizes along the root hair plasma membrane and is enriched in discrete plasma membrane domains and in the root hair tip cytoplasm. This localization pattern recapitulates that visualized for PtdIns(4,5)P₂ in developing root hairs. Gene ablation experiments show AtSfh1p nullizygosity compromises polarized root hair expansion in a manner that coincides with loss of tip-directed PtdIns(4,5)P₂, dispersal of secretory vesicles from the tip cytoplasm, loss of the tip f-actin network, and manifest disorganization of the root hair microtubule cytoskeleton. Derangement of tip-directed Ca²⁺ gradients is also apparent and results from isotropic influx of Ca²⁺ from the extracellular milieu. We propose AtSfh1p regulates intracellular and plasma membrane phosphoinositide polarity landmarks that focus membrane trafficking, Ca²⁺ signaling, and cytoskeleton functions to the growing root hair apex. We further suggest that Sec14p-nodulin domain proteins represent a family of regulators of polarized membrane growth in plants.

Membrane lipids and vesicular traffic

Lipids were long considered to be passive passengers of carrier vesicles with the single role of sealing the transport container. We now know that specific phospholipids are required for efficient fusion, while others facilitate budding and fission. Moreover, the various polyphosphoinositides assist in the recruitment from the cytosol of proteins of the transport machinery. Finally, the segregation of membrane lipids into different fluid phases appears to serve as a 'lipid raft' mechanism for protein sorting at various stages of the secretory and endocytic pathways. The current challenge is to understand how proteins control the metabolism and subcellular localization, and thereby the activity, of the various lipids.

The Arabidopsis COW1 gene encodes a phosphatidylinositol transfer protein essential for root hair tip growth

Root hairs are a major site for the uptake of water and nutrients into plants, and they form an increasingly important model system for the study of development in higher plants. We now report on the molecular genetic analysis of the srh1 mutant in Arabidopsis thaliana impaired in root hair tip growth. We show that srh1 is a new allele of cow1 (can of worms1) and we identified the COW1 gene using a positional cloning strategy. The N-terminus of the COW1 protein is 32% identical to an essential phosphatidylinositol transfer protein (PITP), the yeast Sec14 protein (sec14p) while the C-terminus is 34.5% identical to a late nodulin of Lotus japonicus, Nlj16. We show that expression of the COW1 lipid-binding domain complements the growth defect associated with Sec14p dysfunction in yeast. In addition, we show that GFP fused to the COW1 protein specifically accumulates at the site of root hair outgrowth. We conclude that the COW1 protein is a PITP, essential for proper root hair growth.

Biological functions of phosphatidylinositol transfer proteins

Phosphatidylinositol/phosphatidylcholine transfer proteins (PITPs) are ubiquitous and highly conserved proteins that are believed to regulate lipid-mediated signaling events. Their ubiquity and conservation notwithstanding, PITPs remain remarkably uninvestigated. Little is known about the coupling of specific PITPs to explicit cellular functions or the mechanisms by which PITPs interface with appropriate cellular functions. The available information indicates a role for these proteins in regulating the interface between lipid metabolism and membrane trafficking in yeast, signaling in plant development, the trafficking of specialized luminal cargo in mammalian enterocytes, and neurological function in mammals. Herein, we review recent advances in PITP biology and discuss as yet unresolved issues in this field.

Phosphorylation of a distinct structural form of phosphatidylinositol transfer protein alpha at Ser166 by protein kinase C disrupts receptor-mediated phospholipase C signaling by inhibiting delivery of phosphatidylinositol to membranes

Phosphatidylinositol transfer protein alpha (PITPalpha) participates in the supply of phosphatidylinositol (PI) required for many cellular events including phospholipase C (PLC) beta and gamma signaling by G-protein-coupled receptors and receptor-tyrosine kinases, respectively. Protein kinase C has been known to modulate PLC signaling by G-protein-coupled receptors and receptor-tyrosine kinases, although the molecular target has not been identified in most instances. In each case phorbol myristate acetate pretreatment of HL60, HeLa, and COS-7 cells abrogated PLC stimulation by the agonists formyl-Met-Leu-Phe, ATP, and epidermal growth factor, respectively. Here we show that phosphorylation of PITPalpha at Ser166 resulted in inhibition of receptor-stimulated PLC activity. Ser166 is localized in a small pocket between the 165-172 loop and the rest of the protein and was not solvent-accessible in either the PI- or phosphatidylcholine-loaded structures of PITPalpha. To allow phosphorylation at Ser166, a distinct structural form is postulated, and mutation of Thr59 to alanine shifted the equilibrium to this form, which could be resolved on native PAGE. The elution profile observed by size exclusion chromatography of phosphorylated PITPalpha from rat brain or in vitro phosphorylated PITPalpha demonstrated that phosphorylated PITPalpha is structurally distinct from the non-phosphorylated form. Phosphorylated PITPalpha was unable to deliver its PI cargo, although it could deliver phosphatidylcholine. We conclude that the PITPalpha structure has to relax to allow access to the Ser166 site, and this may occur at the membrane surface where PI delivery is required for receptor-mediated PLC signaling.

The role of the Nir/rdgB protein family in membrane trafficking and cytoskeleton remodeling

The Nir/rdgB family of proteins has been identified in a variety of eukaryotic organisms, ranging from worms to mammals. The Drosophila retinal degeneration B (rdgB), a protein that is required for photoreceptor cell viability and light response, was the first to be identified. It consists an amino-terminal phosphatidylinositol (PI)-transfer domain and was proposed to play an essential role in photoreceptor membrane renewal and biogenesis. The other Nir/rdgB family members are functionally and structurally related to the Drosophila homolog and are implicated in regulation of lipid trafficking, metabolism, and signaling. Recent advances have revealed that Nir/rdgB proteins are also involved in regulation of cytoskeletal elements. Thus, these family members exert a broad spectrum of cellular functions and are involved in multiple cellular processes. The physiological functions of these closely related proteins are described in this review.

Phosphatidylinositol transfer protein α regulates growth and apoptosis of NIH3T3 cells

Mouse fibroblast cells overexpressing phosphatidylinositol transfer protein alpha [PI-TPalpha; sense PI-TPalpha (SPIalpha) cells] show a significantly increased rate of proliferation and an extreme resistance toward ultraviolet- or tumor necrosis factor-alpha-induced apoptosis. The conditioned medium (CM) from SPIalpha cells or the neutral lipid extract from CM stimulated the proliferation of quiescent wild-type NIH3T3 cells. CM was also highly effective in increasing resistance toward induced apoptosis in both wild-type cells and the highly apoptosis-sensitive SPIbeta cells (i.e., wild-type cells overexpressing PI-TPbeta). CM from SPIalpha cells grown in the presence of NS398, a specific cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) inhibitor, expressed a diminished mitogenic and antiapoptotic activity. This strongly suggests that at least one of the bioactive factor(s) is an eicosanoid. In accordance, SPIalpha cells express enhanced levels of COX-1 and COX-2. The antiapoptotic activity of CM from SPIalpha cells tested on SPIbeta cells was inhibited by approximately 50% by pertussis toxin and suramin as well as by SR141716A, a specific antagonist of the cannabinoid 1 receptor. These inhibitors had virtually no effect on the COX-2-independent antiapoptotic activity of CM from SPIalpha cells. The latter results imply that PI-TPalpha mediates the production of a COX-2-dependent eicosanoid that activates a G-protein-coupled receptor, most probably a cannabinoid 1-like receptor.

Lipid metabolism in phosphatidylinositol transfer protein α-deficient vibrator mice

Mice that are homozygous for the vibrator mutation express 65-85% less phosphatidylinositol transfer protein alpha (PITPalpha) than their wild type litter mates. By postnatal day 10-12 (P10-12) they exhibit signs of neurodegeneration and die prematurely by P40. In the present study, we examine the lipid content of brain, liver, and mammary glands from these animals. Lipid-mediated signal transduction is evaluated in primary fibroblast cultures. With respect to the lipid make-up of brain and liver, we report that there is a significant increase (2- to 4-fold) in the neutral lipids present in the livers of vb/vb animals when compared with wild type (+/+) litter mates. No significant changes are observed in the brains of these animals. The mammary glands of vb/vb mice are underdeveloped with respect to ductal and alveolar structures, and the fat pad is composed of predominantly brown adipose tissue rather than the white adipose tissue characteristic of age-matched wild type litter mates. No differences are observed in any aspect of lipid-mediated signal transduction.