Verbal and visuospatial working memory as predictors of children's reading ability

OpenWMB: An open-source and automated working memory task battery for OpenSesame

Working memory capacity (WMC) has been measured with a plethora of cognitive tasks. Several preeminent automated batteries of working memory (WM) tasks have been developed recently. However, despite all their advantages, most batteries were programmed in paid platforms and/or only included a single WM paradigm. To address these issues, we developed the OpenWMB, an automated battery comprising seven tasks from three distinct paradigms (complex spans, updating tasks, and binding tasks) that tap into several functional aspects of WM (simultaneous storage and processing, updating, and binding). The battery runs on open-source software (OpenSesame) and is freely available online in a ready-to-download format. The OpenWMB possesses flexible features and includes a data processing script (that converts data into a format ready for statistical analysis). The instrument is available in Portuguese and English. However, we only assessed the psychometric properties of the former version. The Portuguese version presented good internal consistency and considerable internal and predictive validity: all tasks loaded into a single factor. Additionally, the WMC estimate was strongly correlated with a fluid intelligence factor. This study also tried to contribute to the ongoing debate regarding the best method to assess WMC. We computed a permutation analysis to compare the amount of variance shared between a fluid intelligence factor and (1) each WM task, (2) homogenous WMC factors (based on multiple tasks from the same paradigm), and (3) heterogeneous WMC factors (derived from triplets of tasks from different paradigms). Our results suggested that heterogeneous factors provided the best estimates of WMC.

Is Training Working Memory in Children with Learning Disabilities a Viable Solution? A Systematic Review

Background

Working memory (WM) is one of the most influential cognitive functions in encoding, registering, and retrieving information. It influences the learning process in children. Its role becomes essential, especially in a child with a learning disability (LD). Researchers worldwide are giving much prominence to WM, especially in devising cognitive retraining strategies for better cognitive functioning and academic attainment in these children. This current study aims to explore globally used instruments to measure this construct and review effective WM training models in the cognitive rehabilitation of children with LD. This study used a systematic review, availing the elaborate "Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-analysis (PRISMA)" guidelines.

Summary

The databases of Google Scholar, PubMed, and Web of Science were searched thoroughly, and those studies, which met the inclusion criteria, were considered for this review. Out of 770 studies found with keywords, only six met the inclusion criteria and were selected for a detailed analysis. The outcome of the current review provides trustworthy evidence of poor performance, especially in tasks involving verbal and executive WM in children with all types of learning disabilities (LD) and difficulties. The studies reviewed support the hypothesis that WM can improve with training and significantly improve children's academic attainment.

Key Message

Further this review recommends that research and efforts must go into devising these cognitive training techniques. Children have high cerebral plasticity; hence, using cognitive training (emphasizing WM training and other cognitive functions) with them would enhance their cognitive functioning and capacity, improving their academic performance.

Enhancing Syntactic Knowledge in School-Age Children With Developmental Language Disorder: The Promise of Syntactic Priming

PURPOSE

We propose that implicit learning, including syntactic priming, has therapeutic promise to enhance the syntactic knowledge of children with developmental language disorder (DLD).

METHOD

We review the chunk-based learning framework of syntactic learning, the developmental evidence in support of it, and the developmental literature on syntactic priming as an instance of chunk-based statistical learning. We use this framework to help understand the nature of the syntactic learning difficulties of children with DLD. We then briefly review the available explicit treatments for syntactic deficits and end by proposing an implicit training activity that integrates syntactic priming with the principles of statistical learning.

RESULTS

Statistically induced chunk-based learning is a powerful driver of syntactic learning, and syntactic priming is a form of this learning. Repeated priming episodes during everyday language interactions lead children to create abstract and global syntactic representations in long-term memory. We offer some thoughts on an implicit language intervention approach with syntactic priming at its center.

CONCLUSIONS

Children's learning of syntactic structures is influenced by repeated syntactic priming experiences. Including a syntactic priming activity in our language intervention toolbox has the promise to enhance children's syntactic knowledge and sentence comprehension and production abilities.

Executive functions underlie word reading and reading fluency in Chinese children with attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder, reading disabilities, and comorbid attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder and reading disabilities

The current study examined the executive function (EF) deficits and their roles in reading in one hundred and four Cantonese-speaking children with typical development, reading disabilities (RD), ADHD, and comorbid ADHD and RD (ADHD + RD). Children's EF and reading skills were measured. Analysis of variance results showed that all children with disorders manifested deficits in verbal and visuospatial short-term and working memory and behavioral inhibition. Moreover, children with ADHD and ADHD + RD also exhibited deficits in inhibition (IC and BI) and cognitive flexibility. These findings demonstrated that the EF deficits in Chinese children with RD, ADHD, and ADHD + RD are similar to those in their counterparts using alphabetic languages. However, children with ADHD + RD displayed more severe deficits in visuospatial working memory compared to children with RD and ADHD, which was inconsistent with that observed in children using alphabetic languages. Regression analysis results showed that verbal short-term memory was a significant predictor for both word reading and reading fluency in children with RD and ADHD + RD. Moreover, behavioral inhibition significantly predicted reading fluency in children with ADHD. These findings also agreed with previous studies. Collectively, the results of the current study showed that the EF deficits and their roles in reading found in Chinese children with RD, ADHD, and ADHD + RD are mainly consistent with children using alphabetic languages. However, more studies are still needed to confirm these findings, especially comparing the severity of working memory among these three disorders.

Enhancing Time Reading and Recording Skills in First-Grade Children with Learning Difficulties Using the "Clock Motor Game"

This study aimed to explore the effect of the motor game, "Clock Motor Games", on the improvement of "Reading and Recording of Time" (RRT) in children with Grade 1 mathematical learning difficulties (MLDs). A within-school cluster-randomized intervention study was conducted with 232 children (aged 6-7 years) with limited physical education experience (0.7 ± 0.3 years). The participants were divided into two groups: a control group, which received conventional teaching on time without any additional motor activities, and an experimental group, which incorporated the concept of time with the "Clock Motor Game", for 3 weeks. The Clock-Reading Test was administered before the intervention (T0), immediately after each session (T1), and five weeks after the intervention (T2) in both groups. The results demonstrated that the experimental group exhibited significantly greater improvements in RRT performance compared to the control group (U = 4416.5; p < 0.001; r = 0.3; medium effect). Additionally, the experimental group was more likely to show progress and less likely to experience regression or stagnation compared to the control group (25% vs. 38.4%). The findings suggest that practicing "Clock Motor Games" can positively contribute to the RRT ability in children with Grade 1 MLD.

Visuospatial working memory abilities in children analyzed by the bricks game task (BGT)

The study of the development of visuospatial memory processes is useful for devising personalized educational interventions as well as for understanding the changes in cognitive functioning in an era characterized by technological progress. The present research is aimed at investigating spatial working memory ability in children that attended the first three years of primary school by means of the Brick Game Task (BGT), a novel visuospatial working memory test. BGT is a small-scale ecological test inspired by behavioral walking tasks with nine white bricks in different spatial configurations as well as to Corsi Block-Tapping test.228 Italian children (121 F; mean age: 7.22 ± 1.18) were assigned to three groups based on the primary school class attended: Group 1 (N = 85; 40 F; mean age 6.18 ± .5), Group 2 (N = 61; 36 F; mean age 7.2 ± .83), and Group 3 (N = 82; 44 F; mean age 8.32 ± .94). All participants were asked to complete the Digit Span test, the Corsi Block-Tapping test, and to explore the three spatial configurations of the BGT with the form of Matrix, M-BGT, Cluster, CL-BGT, Cross, CR-BGT.MANOVA revealed a main significant effect for Group (F12,434 = 15.06; p < .0001) indicating that the group of older obtained a better global executive performance than 1 and 2 groups. Multiple linear regression indicated that Corsi Block-Tapping test performance and Age significantly predicted the M-BGT score. Moreover, Corsi Block-Tapping test and Digit Span significantly predicted the CL-BGT performance, showing how a higher score results in a better CL- BGT performance. Finally, Corsi Block-Tapping test, Digit Span, and Age were positively associated with the CR- BGT performance. The present findings evidenced that novel BGT is a sensible visuospatial working memory task suggesting thus its use to assess the children's executive performance in ecological way. These results open to the development of personalized educational interventions.

Neural Correlates of Visual Attention and Short-Term Memory in Children with Reading Difficulty

Visual attention and memory of 20 children with reading difficulty (M_age = 134 months), 24 chronological (M_age = 138 months) and 19 reading-age controls (M_age = 92 months) were examined using object substitution masking; mask offset delay increases visual attention and visual short-term memory demands. ERP amplitude differences in the N1 (alerting), N2pc (N2-posterior-contralateral; selective attention), and SPCN (sustained posterior contralateral negativity; memory load) were expected between groups. Chronological controls performed best, but ERP results were mixed. No group differences were found for N1 or N2pc. SPCN showed enhanced negativity in reading difficulty, indicating greater memory load and anomalous inhibition.

Exploring the relationships between visuospatial working memory, math, letter-sound knowledge, motor competence, and gender in first grade children: A correlational study

Introduction

Development of crucial skills accelerates at the start of formal schooling, although, more knowledge is needed about the relationships between such skills. The current study explored the relationships between visuospatial working memory, letter-sound knowledge, math competence and motor competence, as well as potential effects of gender.

Materials and methods

The sample consisted of 85 (42 girls) 6 to 7 years old first grade children, and was measured with a test battery consisting of tests designed for each skill domain.

Results

Results demonstrated weak to moderate statistically significant correlations between visuospatial working memory, letter-sound knowledge, math competence, with no statistically significant gender differences. Two motor tasks measuring manual dexterity, placing bricks and building bricks, showed a weak statistically significant correlation.

Discussion

We argue that the findings demonstrate the relationships between these skills are low to moderate in first grade. Furthermore, we argue that these skills ought to be trained deliberately. The potential role of visuospatial working memory in procurement of novel skills in early childhood ought to be explored further in future studies.

Effects of physical activity on visuospatial working memory in healthy individuals: A systematic review and meta-analysis

Introduction

Physical activity interventions improve cognitive performance, especially visuospatial working memory (VSWM). However, evidence on the effects of these interventions in children, adolescents, and older adults remains scant. This meta-analysis aimed to identify the effects of physical activity on VSWM improvement in healthy individuals and the best exercise intervention program to improve VSWM capacity.

Methods

We searched for randomized controlled trials (RCTs) of exercise interventions targeting VSWM in healthy individuals from Web of Science, MEDLINE, BIOSIS Previews, PubMed, China National Knowledge Infrastructure, and Wanfang Data (Chinese) databases, from inception to August 20, 2022.

Results

Among 21 articles (1,595 healthy participants), the heterogeneity test statistic was I2 = 32.3%, p = 0.053. The mean quality scores of the included articles were 6.9 points (reaction time [RT] studies) and 7.5 points (Score studies). Moreover, 28 RCTs were included (10 RT studies and 18 Score studies), and the subgroup analysis found significant effects for elderly participants, children, interventions involving a higher level of cognitive engagement, low and moderate exercise intensity, chronic exercise, exercise duration ≥60 min, and exercise period ≥90 days. Physical activity had a small but significant positive impact on VSWM in healthy individuals. Current evidence confirms the effects of physical activity on VSWM capacity only in children and seniors but not in young adults. Other age groups, including adolescents and middle-aged adults, have not been studied. Prescription of interventions involving high-level cognitive engagement, low and moderate exercise intensity, chronic exercise, exercise for >30 min per session, and exercise for more than 3 months is recommended for children and seniors.

Discussion

Future RCTs would be to fill the gap in studies on adolescents and middle-aged adults, and report detailed exercise intervention programs about different age groups.Systematic Review Registration: PROSPERO (https://www.crd.york.ac.uk/prospero/display_record.php?ID=CRD42022354737). INPLASY (https://doi.org/10.37766/inplasy2022.8.0053).

The Gifted Rating Scales-Preschool/Kindergarten Form (GRS-P): A Preliminary Examination of Their Psychometric Properties in Two Greek Samples

The present paper is based on data of two samples concerning the Gifted Rating Scales-Preschool/Kindergarten Form (GRS-P) that aimed to gain insight into the psychometric properties (internal consistency reliability, structural and convergent validity) of the Greek version of the GRS-P. In both studies, teachers estimated their students' giftedness with the GRS-P and executive functions with the Childhood Executive Functioning Inventory (Study 1). In Study 2, kindergarteners were examined in cognitive measurements which included the colored progressive matrices, the children category test, the Athena test, and the mini-mental state examination. Statistical analyses (EFA, CFA, Cronbach's α, and Pearson's r coefficients) revealed the excellent internal consistency of the scales as well as their good factorial and convergent/discriminant validity. In relation to the children's cognitive ability measures, it emphasized the fact that the GRS-P is a reliable and valid tool for teachers to assess their gifted students in a Greek cultural context.

Arabic phoneme-grapheme correspondence by non-native, deaf children with cochlear implants and normal hearing children

OBJECTIVE

This study aimed to compare the error patterns of Arabic phoneme-grapheme correspondence by a group of Malay children with cochlear implants (CIs) and normal hearing (NH) and the effects of the visual graphical features of Arabic graphemes (no-dot, single-dot, and multiple-dots) on the phoneme-grapheme correspondence.

METHODS

Participants were matched for hearing age (Mean, M = 7 ± 1.03 years) and duration of exposure to Arabic sounds (M = 2.7 ± 1.2 years). All 28 Arabic phonemes were presented through a loudspeaker and participants pointed to the graphemes associated with the presented phonemes.

RESULTS

A total of 336 and 616 tokens were collected for six children with CI and 11 NH children for each task, i.e., phonemes repetition and phoneme-grapheme correspondence. Both groups found it easier to repeat phonemes than the phoneme-grapheme correspondence. The children with CIs showed more confusion ([ظ, ز, ذ, ض, خ, ب, ه, س, ع, & ث] >10% correct scores) in phoneme-grapheme correspondence than the NH children ([ظ:14%] and [ث: 27%]). There was a significant interaction (p = 0.001) among the three visual graphical features and hearing status (CI and NH).

CONCLUSION

Our results infer that non-native Malay children with CIs and NH use different strategies to process the Arabic graphemes' visual features for phoneme-grapheme correspondence.

Psychological Research in an Australian Remote Indigenous Context: Towards a Culturally Safe Cognitive Research Approach

Cognitive psychological research provides an evidence-based understanding of human cognition. For example, it can inform an understanding of how phonological awareness, visuospatial processing and working memory facilitate reading. However, the evidence base around reading acquisition is constructed from a Western, Educated, Industrialised, Rich and Democratic (WEIRD) perspective, with little consideration for whether such evidence extends to Australian Indigenous populations. Given the recognised need to improve literacy outcomes for Indigenous children, there is an applied benefit in conducting cognitive research to better understand how language, culture or context might influence the development of neurocognitive processes underlying reading in remote Indigenous communities. However, it is essential that cultural cognitive research be conducted in a culturally fair and culturally safe manner. This requires critiquing and challenging standard cognitive research approaches and methodologies. Here I reflect on research that investigated neurocognitive factors associated with reading in an Indigenous context. I highlight the disjuncture between cognitive psychological research and Indigenous custom and practice and suggest that culturally safe cognitive research must embed Indigenous ways of knowing, being and doing. I assert that to work alongside Indigenous researchers as allies, non-Indigenous researchers must develop intercultural research skills. This includes building cultural competence and engaging in critical self-reflexivity.

Executive functions in Chinese kindergarten children with early reading problems

Learning to read Chinese is a complex task that draws on a range of executive function (EF) skills since early development. However, no studies have examined EF as a potential contributing factor to early reading problems among Chinese children. The present longitudinal study identified 48 poor readers and 48 normal readers among a sample of 190 Chinese children at the end of kindergarten. Measures of EF skills (working memory, inhibition control, and cognitive flexibility) and reading outcomes (word reading, sentence reading fluency, and sentence reading comprehension) were administered to the children. The two groups were retrospectively compared on the EF measures after age and nonverbal IQ were considered. Poor readers were found to perform significantly worse than normal readers in all the examined EF skills. Correlation and regression results revealed a relatively different nature of the relationship between EF and reading in poor readers as compared with normal readers. Inhibition control predicted reading outcomes in poor readers only, while cognitive flexibility predicted reading outcomes in normal readers only. Working memory was significantly correlated to word reading in poor readers and to reading comprehension in normal readers. The results are discussed in terms of the special characteristics of the Chinese language.

Text Reading Fluency and Text Reading Comprehension Do Not Rely on the Same Abilities in University Students With and Without Dyslexia

Developmental dyslexia is a specific learning condition characterized by severe and persistent difficulties in written word recognition, decoding and spelling that may impair both text reading fluency and text reading comprehension. Despite this, some adults with dyslexia successfully complete their university studies even though graduating from university involves intensive exposure to long and complex texts. This study examined the cognitive skills underlying both text reading comprehension and text reading fluency (TRF) in a sample of 54 university students with dyslexia and 63 university students without dyslexia, based on a set of tests adapted for an adult population, including listening comprehension, word reading, pseudoword reading (i.e., decoding), phonemic awareness, spelling, visual span, reading span, vocabulary, non-verbal reasoning, and general knowledge. The contribution of these skills to text reading fluency and text reading comprehension was examined using stepwise multiplicative linear regression analyses. As far as TRF is concerned, a regression model including word reading, pseudoword reading and spelling best fits the data, while a regression model including listening comprehension, general knowledge and vocabulary best fits the data obtained for text reading comprehension. Overall, these results are discussed in the light of the current literature on adults with dyslexia and both text reading fluency and text reading comprehension.

Fish oil supplementation may improve attention, working memory and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder symptoms in adults with autism spectrum disorder: a randomised crossover trial

Marine n-3 fatty acids (n-3LCPUFA) have shown neurocognitive benefits in children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), but few trials have examined effects in adults with autism spectrum disorder (ASD). We explored, if n-3LCPUFA affect cognitive functions in adults with ASD, and if effects are modified by comorbid ADHD. In a 2 × 4 week crossover study, twenty-six participants were randomised to sequence of supplementation with fish oil (FO, 5·2 g/d n-3PUFA) and safflower oil (SO). At baseline and after each period, we measured primary outcomes: attention (d2-test) and spatial working memory (Corsi test) and secondary outcomes: flexibility (Stroop word-colour test), ADHD symptoms (Conners scales), executive functions (Behavioural Inventory of Executive Function) and social behaviour (Social Responsiveness Scale). The dropout rate was 15 %. Compliance was 94 % and correlated with whole-blood n-3LCPUFA. Corsi scores improved by ∼0·3 × sd (P = 0·032) after FO v. SO, and the odds for d2 errors were 30 % lower (P = 0·016), which was supported by improved Conners scores of attention (P = 0·023). Improvement in Conners ADHD symptom score was limited to participants with ADHD (-3·5(-6·0; -1·0), n 10 v. -0·2(-2·5;2·2), n 11 without ADHD, Pinteraction = 0·096), who also improved their behavioural regulation index by 0·3 × sd after FO (Pinteraction = 0·016). Participants without ADHD gained most in d2 test performance (OR = 0·4(0·2;0·7) v. 0·9(0·6;1·3) in those with ADHD, Pinteraction = 0·002), but their executive function score was exacerbated after FO (5·9(0·0,11·8), Pinteraction = 0·039). Our results did not show any effects on ASD symptoms, but suggest that FO may improve attention and working memory in adults with ASD and ameliorate ADHD symptoms in those with comorbid ADHD.

The Jack and Jill Adaptive Working Memory Task: Construction, Calibration and Validation

Visuospatial working memory (VSWM) is essential to human cognitive abilities and is associated with important life outcomes such as academic performance. Recently, a number of reliable measures of VSWM have been developed to help understand psychological processes and for practical use in education. We sought to extend this work using Item Response Theory (IRT) and Computerised Adaptive Testing (CAT) frameworks to construct, calibrate and validate a new adaptive, computerised, and open-source VSWM test. We aimed to overcome the limitations of previous instruments and provide researchers with a valid and freely available VSWM measurement tool. The Jack and Jill (JaJ) VSWM task was constructed using explanatory item response modelling of data from a sample of the general adult population (Study 1, N = 244) in the UK and US. Subsequently, a static version of the task was tested for validity and reliability using a sample of adults from the UK and Australia (Study 2, N = 148) and a sample of Russian adolescents (Study 3, N = 263). Finally, the adaptive version of the JaJ task was implemented on the basis of the underlying IRT model and evaluated with another sample of Russian adolescents (Study 4, N = 239). JaJ showed sufficient internal consistency and concurrent validity as indicated by significant and substantial correlations with established measures of working memory, spatial ability, non-verbal intelligence, and academic achievement. The findings suggest that JaJ is an efficient and reliable measure of VSWM from adolescent to adult age.

Children's Verbal, Visual and Spatial Processing and Storage Abilities: An Analysis of Verbal Comprehension, Reading, Counting and Mathematics

The importance of working memory (WM) in reading and mathematics performance has been widely studied, with recent research examining the components of WM (i.e., storage and processing) and their roles in these educational outcomes. However, the differing relationships between these abilities and the foundational skills involved in the development of reading and mathematics have received less attention. Additionally, the separation of verbal, visual and spatial storage and processing and subsequent links with foundational skills and downstream reading and mathematics has not been widely examined. The current study investigated the separate contributions of processing and storage from verbal, visual and spatial tasks to reading and mathematics, whilst considering influences on the underlying skills of verbal comprehension and counting, respectively. Ninety-two children aged 7- to 8-years were assessed. It was found that verbal comprehension (with some caveats) was predicted by verbal storage and reading was predicted by verbal and spatial storage. Counting was predicted by visual processing and storage, whilst mathematics was related to verbal and spatial storage. We argue that resources for tasks relying on external representations of stimuli related mainly to storage, and were largely verbal and spatial in nature. When a task required internal representation, there was a draw on visual processing and storage abilities. Findings suggest a possible meaningful separability of types of processing. Further investigation of this could lead to the development of an enhanced WM model, which might better inform interventions and reasonable adjustments for children who struggle with reading and mathematics due to WM deficits.

Examining Distinctive Working Memory Profiles in Chinese Children With Predominantly Inattentive Subtype of Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder and/or Reading Difficulties

Although evidence has shown that both RD and ADHD-I children suffer from working memory problems, inconsistencies in impaired modalities have been reported. This study aimed to (1) compare the three WM domains (i.e., verbal WM, visual-spatial WM, and behavioral WM) among pure ADHD-I, pure RD, comorbid ADHD-I+RD, and typical control groups and (2) examine the impact of comorbidity on the three WM domains. A Chinese sample of participants from Hong Kong included 29 children in the ADHD-I group, 78 children in the RD group, 31 children in the comorbid group (ADHD-I+RD), and 64 children in the TD control group. All participants completed the assessments individually. The findings showed that the children with ADHD-I and/or RD exhibited diverse cognitive profiles. In particular, RD was associated with verbal and visual-spatial working memory deficits, while ADHD-I was associated with behavioral working memory deficits. Interestingly, the comorbid condition demonstrated additive deficits of the two disorders but with greater deficits in behavioral working memory. These findings support the cognitive subtype hypothesis and provide a clearer picture of the distinctive working memory profiles of different groups, allowing for the development of intervention programs in the future.

Ready-to-eat cereal and milk for breakfast compared with no breakfast has a positive acute effect on cognitive function and subjective state in 11-13-year-olds: a school-based, randomised, controlled, parallel groups trial

PURPOSE

We tested the acute effect of breakfast (ready-to-eat-cereal [RTEC] and milk) versus (vs.) no breakfast on cognitive function and subjective state in adolescents.

METHODS

Healthy adolescents (n = 234) aged 11-13 years were recruited to take part in this school-based, acute, randomised, controlled, parallel groups trial with two interventions; Breakfast or No Breakfast. The breakfast intervention consisted of ad libitum intake of RTEC (up to 70 g) with milk (up to 300 ml) administered in a naturalistic school breakfast programme environment. Cognitive function was assessed at baseline and + 70 and + 215 min post-intervention in a group-testing situation, similar to a school classroom context. The CANTAB test battery included: Simple Reaction Time (SRT), 5-Choice Reaction Time (5-CRT), Rapid Visual Information Processing (RVIP), and Paired Associates Learning (PAL; primary outcome). Data collection commenced January 2011 and ended May 2011. This trial was retrospectively registered at www.clinicaltrials.gov as NCT03979027 on 07/06/2019.

RESULTS

A significant effect of the intervention (CMH[1] = 7.29, p < 0.01) was found for the number of levels achieved on the PAL task. A significant difference between interventions was found when baseline performance reached level 2 (JT, z = 2.58, p < 0.01), such that 100% of participants in the breakfast intervention reached the maximum level 4 but only 41.7% of those in the no breakfast intervention reached level 4. A significant baseline*intervention interaction (F[1,202] = 6.95, p < 0.01) was found for total errors made on the PAL task, indicating that participants who made above-average errors at baseline reduced the total number of errors made at subsequent test sessions following breakfast consumption whilst those in the no breakfast intervention did not. There was a positive effect of breakfast on reaction time and visual-sustained attention. The results also demonstrated interactions of intervention with baseline cognitive performance, such that breakfast conferred a greater advantage for performance when baseline performance was poorer.

CONCLUSION

Consuming breakfast has a positive acute effect on cognition in adolescents.

Pilot Study of an Attention and Executive Function Cognitive Intervention in Children with Autism Spectrum Disorders

This pilot study investigated the efficacy of a game-based cognitive training program (Caribbean Quest; CQ) for improving attention and executive function (EF) in school-aged children with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD). CQ is a 'serious game' that uses a hybrid process-specific/compensatory approach to remediate attention and EF abilities through repetitive, hierarchically graded exercises delivered in an adaptive format. Game-play is accompanied by instruction in metacognitive strategies delivered by an adult trainer. Twenty children diagnosed with ASD (ages 6-12 years) completed 12 h of intervention in schools over 8-10 weeks that was facilitated by a trained Research Assistant. Pre-post testing indicated near transfer gains for visual working memory and selective attention and far transfer effects for math fluency. Exit interviews with parents and school staff indicated anecdotal gains in attention, EF, emotion-regulation, flexibility, communication, and social skills. Overall, this study provides preliminary support for the feasibility and potential efficacy of the CQ when delivered in schools to children with ASD.

Proactive Interference in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder

Deficits in working memory (WM) have a role in maintaining posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptoms, including intrusions, which are a hallmark of PTSD symptomatology. As intrusions are distressing and uncontrollable, it is important to investigate whether PTSD is associated with altered control of proactive interference in WM. Moreover, it is important to consider both verbal and visual WM, as previous research has demonstrated a visual versus verbal dissociation in PTSD. Although previous studies have explored proactive interference in visual and verbal stimuli using a recent probe task, the stimuli used thus far have been non-trauma-related. Therefore, we aimed to investigate proactive interference in PTSD using trauma-related verbal and visual stimuli. Road traffic accident (RTA) survivors with (n = 60) and without PTSD (n = 30) completed a recent probe task to assess proactive interference of visual and verbal trauma-related material. Participants with PTSD displayed significantly more proactive interference than trauma-exposed controls for visual, η_p ² = .40, and verbal material, η_p ² = .10, indicating that proactive interference is significantly impaired in PTSD. This demonstrates that further research is warranted and highlights the possibility of considering proactive interference of trauma-related stimuli in therapeutic approaches.

Profiling the Word Reading Abilities of School-Age Children with Neurofibromatosis Type 1

OBJECTIVE

Reading difficulties are one of the most significant challenges for children with neurofibromatosis type 1 (NF1). The aims of this study were to identify and categorize the types of reading impairments experienced by children with NF1 and to establish predictors of poor reading in this population.

METHOD

Children aged 7-12 years with NF1 (n = 60) were compared with typically developing children (n = 36). Poor word readers with NF1 were classified according to impairment type (i.e., phonological, surface, mixed), and their reading subskills were compared. A hierarchical multiple regression was conducted to identify predictors of word reading.

RESULTS

Compared to controls, children with NF1 demonstrated significantly poorer literacy abilities. Of the 49 children with NF1 classified as poor readers, 20 (41%) were classified with phonological dyslexia, 24 (49%) with mixed dyslexia, and 5 (10%) fell outside classification categories. Children with mixed dyslexia displayed the most severe reading impairments. Stronger working memory, better receptive language, and fewer inattentive behaviors predicted better word reading skills.

CONCLUSIONS

The majority of children with NF1 experience deficits in key reading skills which are essential for them to become successful readers. Weaknesses in working memory, receptive language, and attention are associated with reading difficulties in children with NF1.

Role of testosterone: cortisol ratio in age- and sex-specific cortico-hippocampal development and cognitive performance

Testosterone (T) and cortisol (C) are steroid hormones that have been argued to play opposing roles in shaping physical and behavioral development in humans. While there is evidence linking T and C to different memory processes during adulthood, it remains unclear how the relative levels of T and C (TC ratio) may influence brain and behavioral development, whether they are influenced by sex of the child, and whether or not they occur as a result of stable changes in brain structure (organizational changes), as opposed to transient changes in brain function (activational changes). As such, we tested for associations among TC ratio, cortico-hippocampal structure, and standardized tests of executive, verbal, and visuo-spatial function in a longitudinal sample of typically developing 4-22-year-old children and adolescents. We found greater TC ratios to be associated with greater coordinated growth (i.e. covariance) between the hippocampus and cortical thickness in several areas primarily devoted to visual function. In addition, there was an age-related association between TC ratio and parieto-hippocampal covariance, as well as a sex-specific association between TC ratio and prefrontal-hippocampal covariance. Differences in brain structure related to TC ratio were in turn associated with lower verbal/executive function, as well as greater attention in tests of visuo-spatial abilities. These results support the notion that TC ratio may shift the balance between top-down (cortex to hippocampus) and bottom-up (hippocampus to cortex) processes, impairing more complex, cortical-based tasks and optimizing visuospatial tasks relying primarily on the hippocampus.

[Executive functions disorders in children with dyslexia]

OBJECTIVE

To study the severity of disorders of executive functions in children with dyslexia and to assess the effectiveness of treatment of this pathology with cortexin.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

The main study group included 60 children, aged 8-11 years, with a specific reading disorder (F.81.0). Reading skills were assessed using methods of T.A. Fotekova, T.V. Akhutina. Diagnostic examination included neurological examination with dyspraxia test, electroencephalography with visual and quantitative analysis. To objectify the severity of memory impairments, the «Working memory» technique was used. Attention and impulsivity disorders were quantified using SNAP-IY and the Test of Variables of Attention (TOVA). The control group consisted of 60 children of the same age without symptoms of dyslexia. Cortexin was used to treat 30 patients from the study group, 30 patients received encephabol. A control study to analyze the effectiveness of the therapy was carried out one month after the end of therapy.

RESULTS AND CONCLUSION

Children with dyslexia are characterized by a higher level of inattention and impulsivity, as well as significantly lower indicators of working memory compared to children from the control group. The decrease in attention and working memory as well as an increased level of impulsivity are manifestations of impaired executive functions in children with dyslexia. The results of the control study after treatment showed a significant increase in reading skills in both groups. In addition, there was an improvement in indicators of attention and working memory. However, the effectiveness of treatment with cortexin was slightly higher compared to encephabol (improvement was noted in 73.3% and 60.0%of patients, respectively). According to a comparative analysis of EEG results, after a course of treatment with cortexin, children with dyslexia have significant neurophysiological changes that indicate the activation of the brain regulatory systems.

Classroom versus individual working memory assessment: predicting academic achievement and the role of attention and response inhibition

Working memory (WM) is an important predictor for academic learning and achievement. Typically, children's WM is assessed in controlled testing situations, which might not reflect functioning in typical classroom learning situations with natural distractions. In this study, we compared WM performance in controlled and classroom situations and their predictive value for academic achievement. Also, we examined whether performance differences between situations were moderated by attention or response inhibition. In a within-subjects design, primary school children completed visuospatial and verbal WM tasks in two settings (classroom versus controlled individual setting). First, WM functioning was lower in the classroom setting. Second, attention moderated individual differences in this discrepancy between settings, but response inhibition did not. Third, classroom obtained verbal WM scores were the strongest predictors of academic achievement. Our results indicate that classroom assessment of verbal WM provides a more ecologically valid measurement of WM abilities in a real-life learning situation.

Considering the Role of Executive Function in Reading Comprehension: A Structural Equation Modeling Approach

In the present study, we used latent variable structural equation modeling to investigate relations between oral language, decoding, and two components of executive function (cognitive flexibility and working memory) and reading comprehension in a sample of 271 native English-speaking 9.00- to 14.83-year-olds. Results of the mediation analyses indicated that both oral language and decoding fully mediated the relations between working memory and cognitive flexibility and reading comprehension. These findings suggest that executive function is likely associated with reading comprehension through its relation with decoding and oral language and provide additional support for the role of executive function in reading comprehension as a potentially crucial precursor to skilled reading.

Working Memory Profiles of Children With Dyslexia, Developmental Language Disorder, or Both

Purpose Compared to children with typical development, children with dyslexia, developmental language disorder (DLD), or both often demonstrate working memory deficits. It is unclear how pervasive the deficits are or whether the deficits align with diagnostic category. The purpose of this study was to determine whether different working memory profiles would emerge on a comprehensive battery of central executive, phonological, visuospatial, and binding working memory tasks and whether these profiles were associated with group membership. Method Three hundred two 2nd graders with typical development, dyslexia, DLD, or dyslexia/DLD completed 13 tasks from the Comprehensive Assessment Battery for Children-Working Memory ( Gray, Alt, Hogan, Green, & Cowan, n.d. ) that assessed central executive, phonological, and visuospatial/attention components of working memory. Results Latent class analyses yielded 4 distinct latent classes: low overall (21%), average with high number updating (30%), average with low number updating (12%), and high overall (37%). Children from each disability group and children from the typically developing group were present in each class. Discussion Findings highlight the importance of knowing an individual child's working memory profile because working memory profiles are not synonymous with learning disabilities diagnosis. Thus, working memory assessments could contribute important information about children's cognitive function over and above typical psychoeducational measures.

Neuropsychological and environmental predictors of reading performance in Brazilian children

Word-level reading is strongly associated with phonological processing. The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of cognitive and environmental variables on word reading performance. Our sample consisted of 185 fourth-grade students. Linear regression analyses were used to investigate the role of the following variables as potential predictors of word reading accuracy and fluency: phonological processing (phonological awareness, rapid automatized naming, and phonological memory); verbal fluency; working memory; socioeconomic status and an indicator of school quality (IDEB) in Brazil. Phonological awareness and rapid automatic naming were the best predictors of reading, supporting the role of phonological processing as a key contributor to the lexical aspects of reading, beyond the early years of literacy acquisition. Environmental variables were significant predictors of irregular word reading (socioeconomic status) and fluency (IDEB), corroborating multicomponent models of reading performance. The present findings demonstrate the complex interplay of factors underlying reading performance and highlight the importance of a multidimensional approach to the study of reading.

A comparison of sighted and visually impaired children's text comprehension

AIM

Do children with visual impairments outperform their sighted cohorts in reading and auditory comprehension tasks?

METHODS

We address this question by applying panel regression techniques on a comprehensive sample of 16 children with visual impairments from a Greek special school for students with visual impairments.

RESULTS

By comparing the reader comprehender profile for both children types, we find that the children with visual impairments perform better than their sighted counterparts. The better performance is supported both unconditionally and conditionally on idiosyncratic characteristics, such as age, text complexity, modality, sex and reading ability.

CONCLUSION

Decomposing the reader comprehender profile into a literal, global and local type of questions we find that the results are mainly driven by the superior performance of the children with VI in the literal questions.

EEG alpha power change during working memory encoding in adults with different memory performance levels

Working memory (WM) capacity affects our daily life in many ways, and its decrease often associates with neural disorders (e.g. Alzheimer's disease). Several studies have confirmed that alpha rhythms play an active role in memory mechanism. In the present study, we designed a digit verbal span experiment to find out that how the alpha power change during working memory encoding, and the relationship between alpha power and individual WM performance. Consistent with previous studies, our results confirm that alpha power is positively related to WM performance. Participants who had higher alpha power during WM encoding achieved better memory performance. We can conclude that the reason is alpha rhythms reflect inhibition of task-irrelevant information. Howbeit, a linear relationship between WM load and alpha power amplitude during memory encoding cannot be deduced in our experiment.

[Verbal and visual-spatial memory in Chinese children with developmental dyslexia]

OBJECTIVE

To explore the abilities of verbal and visual-spatial memory in Chinese children with developmental dyslexia.

METHODS

Thirty-two children with developmental dyslexia (aged 8-12 years) and thirty-nine age- and gender-matched normal children were involved in the study. Their verbal short-term and verbal working memories were measured using the digit ordering and the digit span tests, respectively. Their visual-spatial short-term and visual-spatial working memories were examined using the forward and backward block-tapping tests, respectively.

RESULTS

The DD children scored lower in the digit ordering and the digit span tests than the control children (P&lt;0.05). The scores for the forward and backward block-tapping tests did not vary between the two groups (P&gt;0.05).

CONCLUSIONS

The children with DD have the deficits in both verbal short-term memory and verbal working memory.

Working Memory From the Psychological and Neurosciences Perspectives: A Review

Since the concept of working memory was introduced over 50 years ago, different schools of thought have offered different definitions for working memory based on the various cognitive domains that it encompasses. The general consensus regarding working memory supports the idea that working memory is extensively involved in goal-directed behaviors in which information must be retained and manipulated to ensure successful task execution. Before the emergence of other competing models, the concept of working memory was described by the multicomponent working memory model proposed by Baddeley and Hitch. In the present article, the authors provide an overview of several working memory-relevant studies in order to harmonize the findings of working memory from the neurosciences and psychological standpoints, especially after citing evidence from past studies of healthy, aging, diseased, and/or lesioned brains. In particular, the theoretical framework behind working memory, in which the related domains that are considered to play a part in different frameworks (such as memory’s capacity limit and temporary storage) are presented and discussed. From the neuroscience perspective, it has been established that working memory activates the fronto-parietal brain regions, including the prefrontal, cingulate, and parietal cortices. Recent studies have subsequently implicated the roles of subcortical regions (such as the midbrain and cerebellum) in working memory. Aging also appears to have modulatory effects on working memory; age interactions with emotion, caffeine and hormones appear to affect working memory performances at the neurobiological level. Moreover, working memory deficits are apparent in older individuals, who are susceptible to cognitive deterioration. Another younger population with working memory impairment consists of those with mental, developmental, and/or neurological disorders such as major depressive disorder and others. A less coherent and organized neural pattern has been consistently reported in these disadvantaged groups. Working memory of patients with traumatic brain injury was similarly affected and shown to have unusual neural activity (hyper- or hypoactivation) as a general observation. Decoding the underlying neural mechanisms of working memory helps support the current theoretical understandings concerning working memory, and at the same time provides insights into rehabilitation programs that target working memory impairments from neurophysiological or psychological aspects.

Computer-Based Training in Math and Working Memory Improves Cognitive Skills and Academic Achievement in Primary School Children: Behavioral Results

Student academic achievement has been positively related to further development outcomes, such as the attainment of higher educational, employment, and socioeconomic aspirations. Among all the academic competences, mathematics has been identified as an essential skill in the field of international leadership as well as for those seeking positions in disciplines related to science, technology, and engineering. Given its positive consequences, studies have designed trainings to enhance children's mathematical skills. Additionally, the ability to regulate and control actions and cognitions, i.e., executive functions (EF), has been associated with school success, which has resulted in a strong effort to develop EF training programs to improve students' EF and academic achievement. The present study examined the efficacy of a school computer-based training composed of two components, namely, working memory and mathematics tasks. Among the advantages of using a computer-based training program is the ease with which it can be implemented in school settings and the ease by which the difficulty of the tasks can be adapted to fit the child's ability level. To test the effects of the training, children's cognitive skills (EF and IQ) and their school achievement (math and language grades and abilities) were evaluated. The results revealed a significant improvement in cognitive skills, such as non-verbal IQ and inhibition, and better school performance in math and reading among the children who participated in the training compared to those children who did not. Most of the improvements were related to training on WM tasks. These findings confirmed the efficacy of a computer-based training that combined WM and mathematics activities as part of the school routines based on the training's impact on children's academic competences and cognitive skills.

Early intervention for children at risk for reading disabilities: The impact of grade at intervention and individual differences on intervention outcomes

Across multiple schools in three sites, the impact of grade-at-intervention was evaluated for children at risk or meeting criteria for reading disabilities. A multiple-component reading intervention with demonstrated efficacy was offered to small groups of children in 1st, 2nd, or 3rd grade. In a quasi-experimental design, 172 children received the Triple-Focus Program (PHAST + RAVE-O), and 47 were control participants. Change during intervention and 1-3 years later (6-8 testing points), and the influence of individual differences in predicting outcomes, were assessed using reading and reading-related repeated measures. Intervention children out-performed control children at posttest on all 14 outcomes, with average effect sizes (Cohen's d) on standardized measures of .80 and on experimental measures of 1.69. On foundational word reading skills (standardized measures), children who received intervention earlier, in 1st and 2nd grade, made gains relative to controls almost twice that of children receiving intervention in 3rd grade. At follow-up, the advantage of 1st grade intervention was even clearer: First graders continued to grow at faster rates over the follow-up years than 2nd graders on six of eight key reading outcomes. For some outcomes with metalinguistic demands beyond the phonological, however, a posttest advantage was revealed for 2nd grade Triple participants and for 3rd grade Triple participants relative to controls. Estimated IQ predicted growth during intervention on seven of eight outcomes. Growth during follow-up was predicted by vocabulary and visual sequential memory. These findings provide evidence on the importance of early intensive evidence-based intervention for reading problems in the primary grades.

Reading Comprehension in Boys with ADHD: The Mediating Roles of Working Memory and Orthographic Conversion

Reading comprehension difficulties in children with ADHD are well established; however, limited information exists concerning the cognitive mechanisms that contribute to these difficulties and the extent to which they interact with one another. The current study examines two broad cognitive processes known to be involved in children's reading comprehension abilities-(a) working memory (i.e., central executive processes [CE], phonological short-term memory [PH STM], and visuospatial short-term memory [VS STM]) and (b) orthographic conversion (i.e., conversion of visually presented text to a phonological code)-to elucidate their unique and interactive contribution to ADHD-related reading comprehension differences. Thirty-one boys with ADHD-combined type and 30 typically developing (TD) boys aged 8 to 12 years (M = 9.64, SD = 1.22) were administered multiple counterbalanced tasks assessing WM and orthographic conversion processes. Relative to TD boys, boys with ADHD exhibited significant deficits in PH STM (d = -0.70), VS STM (d = -0.92), CE (d = -1.58), and orthographic conversion (d = -0.93). Bias-corrected, bootstrapped mediation analyses revealed that CE and orthographic conversion processes modeled separately mediated ADHD-related reading comprehension differences partially, whereas PH STM and VS STM did not. CE and orthographic conversion modeled jointly mediated ADHD-related reading comprehension differences fully wherein orthographic conversion's large magnitude influence on reading comprehension occurred indirectly through CE's impact on the orthographic system. The findings suggest that adaptive cognitive interventions designed to improve reading-related outcomes in children with ADHD may benefit by including modules that train CE and orthographic conversion processes independently and interactively.

Can you spell dyslexia without SLI? Comparing the cognitive profiles of dyslexia and specific language impairment and their roles in learning

The aim of the present study is to explore whether those with Specific Language Impairment (SLI) and dyslexia display distinct or overlapping cognitive profiles with respect to learning outcomes. In particular, we were interested in two key cognitive skills associated with academic performance - working memory and IQ. We recruited three groups of children - those with SLI, those with dyslexia, and a control group. All children were given standardized tests of working memory, IQ (vocabulary and matrix), spelling, and math. The pattern of results suggests that both children with dyslexia and SLI are characterized with poorer verbal working memory and IQ compared to controls, but preserved nonverbal cognitive skills. It appears that that these two disorder groups cannot be distinguished by the severity of their cognitive deficits. However, there was a differential pattern with respect to learning outcomes, where the children with dyslexia rely more on visual skills in spelling, while those with SLI use their relative strengths in vocabulary. These findings can have important implications for how intervention is tailored in the classroom, as disorder-specific support could yield important gains in learning.

Executive Function Variation in Children With Conduct Problems: Influences of Coexisting Reading Difficulties

It is unknown whether children with conduct problems (CP) and poor reading (PR) skills exhibit more profound executive function impairments than children with CP only and whether such impairments are explained by coexisting PR. Executive functions were compared in four groups of 7- to 8-year-old children: 26 CP only, 35 PR only, 27 CP-PR, and 31 comparison (COM) children with neither CP nor PR. The Conners' Teacher Rating Scale-28 and a sentence completion reading test were used to assess CP and PR skills. The Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-Third Edition Backward Digit Span, the Conners' Continuous Performance Test, and the Tower of London were used to assess three aspects of executive function: verbal working memory, response inhibition, and planning, respectively. The CP-PR group had lower verbal working memory than the CP-only and COM groups, but the difference was not significant after intellectual ability, inattention, and hyperactivity were controlled. The CP-PR group made more errors in the planning task (rule violations) than the COM and CP-only groups, but the difference was not significant after intellectual ability was controlled. No significant group differences were found in response inhibition. A specific PR group effect was found for verbal working memory. Children with CP-PR have more prominent executive function impairments that cannot be attributed to coexisting PR.

Poor stimulus discriminability as a common neuropsychological deficit between ADHD and reading ability in young children: a moderated mediation model

BACKGROUND

Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is frequently associated with poorer reading ability; however, the specific neuropsychological domains linking this co-occurrence remain unclear. This study evaluates information-processing characteristics as possible neuropsychological links between ADHD symptoms and RA in a community-based sample of children and early adolescents with normal IQ (⩾70).

METHOD

The participants (n = 1857, aged 6-15 years, 47% female) were evaluated for reading ability (reading single words aloud) and information processing [stimulus discriminability in the two-choice reaction-time task estimated using diffusion models]. ADHD symptoms were ascertained through informant (parent) report using the Development and Well-Being Assessment (DAWBA). Verbal working memory (VWM; digit span backwards), visuospatial working memory (VSWM, Corsi Blocks backwards), sex, socioeconomic status, and IQ were included as covariates.

RESULTS

In a moderated mediation model, stimulus discriminability mediated the effect of ADHD on reading ability. This indirect effect was moderated by age such that a larger effect was seen among younger children.

CONCLUSION

The findings support the hypothesis that ADHD and reading ability are linked among young children via a neuropsychological deficit related to stimulus discriminability. Early interventions targeting stimulus discriminability might improve symptoms of inattention/hyperactivity and reading ability.

What Does the WRAML2 Core Battery Measure? Utilizing Exploratory and Confirmatory Techniques to Disclose Higher Order Structure

The present study examined the factor structure of the Wide Range Assessment of Memory and Learning-Second Edition (WRAML2) core battery with participants from the normative sample aged 9 to 90 years ( n = 880) using higher order exploratory and confirmatory factor analytic techniques that were not reported in the in the WRAML2 Administration and Technical Manual. Exploratory factor analysis results suggested only one factor, whereas confirmatory factor analysis results favored the three factors posited by the test authors. Although model fit statistics were equivalent for the oblique, indirect hierarchical, and direct hierarchical measurement models, it was determined that the bifactor model best disclosed the influence of latent dimensions on WRAML2 manifest variables. In the three-factor bifactor model, the general factor accounted for 31% of the total variance and 69% of the common variance, whereas the three first-order factors combined accounted for 41% of the total variance and 31% of the common variance. Latent factor reliability coefficients (as estimated by ω_h) indicated that only the general factor was measured with enough precision to warrant confident clinical interpretation. Implications for clinical interpretation of WRAML2 scores and the procedures utilized in the development of related measures are discussed.

Patterns of Strengths and Weaknesses on the WISC-V, DAS-II, and KABC-II and Their Relationship to Students’ Errors in Oral Language, Reading, Writing, Spelling, and Math

This study investigated the relationship between specific cognitive patterns of strengths and weaknesses and the errors children make on oral language, reading, writing, spelling, and math subtests from the Kaufman Test of Educational Achievement–Third Edition (KTEA-3). Participants with scores from the KTEA-3 and either the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children–Fifth Edition (WISC-V), Differential Ability Scales–Second Edition (DAS-II), or Kaufman Assessment Battery for Children–Second Edition (KABC-II) were selected based on their profile of scores. Error factor scores for the oral and written language tests were compared for three groups: High Gc paired with low processing speed, long-term memory, and/or reasoning abilities; Low Gc paired with high speed, memory, and/or reasoning; and Low orthographic and/or phonological processing. Error factor scores for the math tests were compared for three groups: High Gc profile; High Gf paired with low processing speed and/or long-term memory; and Low Gf paired with high processing speed and/or long-term memory. Results indicated a difference in Oral Expression and Written Expression error factor scores between the group with High Gc paired with low processing speed, long-term memory, and/or reasoning abilities; and the group with Low Gc paired with high speed, memory, and/or reasoning.

Executive Functioning Deficits Increase Kindergarten Children's Risk for Reading and Mathematics Difficulties in First Grade

Whether executive functioning deficits result in children experiencing learning difficulties is presently unclear. Yet evidence for these hypothesized causal relations has many implications for early intervention design and delivery. We used a multi-year panel design, multiple criterion and predictor variable measures, extensive statistical control for potential confounds including autoregressive prior histories of both reading and mathematics difficulties, and additional epidemiological methods to preliminarily examine these hypothesized relations. Results from multivariate logistic regression analyses of a nationally representative and longitudinal sample of 18,080 children (i.e., the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study-Kindergarten Cohort of 2011, or ECLS-K: 2011) indicated that working memory and, separately, cognitive flexibility deficits uniquely increased kindergarten children's risk of experiencing reading as well as mathematics difficulties in first grade. The risks associated with working memory deficits were particularly strong. Experimentally-evaluated, multi-component interventions designed to help young children with reading or mathematics difficulties may also need to remediate early deficits in executive function, particularly in working memory.