Pentraxins in nephrology: C-reactive protein, serum amyloid P and pentraxin-3

SAP deletion promotes malignant insulinoma progression by inducing CXCL12 secretion from CAFs via the CXCR4/p38/ERK signalling pathway

Malignant insulinoma is an extremely rare type of functioning pancreatic neuroendocrine tumour with a high degree of malignancy and a high incidence of metastasis. However, it is still unclear how malignant insulinomas develop and metastasize. Serum amyloid P component (SAP), a member of the pentraxin protein family, is an acute-phase protein secreted by liver cells. The role of SAP in insulinoma and the related mechanism are still unknown. To determine the effect of SAP on insulinoma, we crossed Rip1-Tag2 mice, which spontaneously develop insulinoma, and SAP knockout (KO) mice to generate Rip1-Tag2;SAP-/- mice. We found that SAP deletion significantly promoted the growth, invasion and metastasis of malignant insulinoma through C-X-C motif chemokine ligand 12 (CXCL12) secreted by cancer-associated fibroblasts (CAFs). Further study showed that SAP deletion promoted CXCL12 secretion by CAFs through the CXCR4/p38/ERK signalling pathway. These findings reveal a novel role and mechanism of SAP in malignant insulinoma and provide direct evidence that SAP may be a therapeutic agent for this disease.

Recombinant expression and immune function analysis of C-reactive protein (CRP) from Hexagrammos otakii

C-reactive protein (CRP) belongs to the short-chain pentraxin family and functions as a soluble pattern recognition molecule (PRM) aiding in host defense against pathogens. In the present study, a CRP gene, designated HoCRP, was cloned from Hexagrammos otakii for the first time. The full length of the HoCRP cDNA sequence is 821 bp, which contains an open reading frame (ORF) of 675 bp encoding a 224 amino acid protein. The deduced protein is predicted to have a theoretical isoelectric point (pI) of 5.30 and a molecular weight of 25.4 kDa. The recombinant HoCRP protein (rHoCRP) was expressed in E. coli to further characterize the functions of HoCRP. Saccharide binding experiments demonstrated that rHoCRP exhibited a high affinity for various pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs). Furthermore, bacterial binding and agglutination assays indicated that rHoCRP had the capability to recognize a wide spectrum of microorganisms. These findings suggest that HoCRP functions not only as a PRM for binding PAMPs but also as an immune effector molecule. Considering the role CRP plays in the classical complement pathway, the interaction between rHoCRP and rHoC1q was assessed and proven by a Pull-down and Elisa assay, which implied that rHoCRP may be able to activate complement. In addition, phagocytosis enhancement by rHoCRP in the presence or absence of complement components was analysed by flow cytometry. The results showed that rHoCRP could synergistically enhance the phagocytosis of RAW264.7 cells with complement, providing further evidence of complement activation by rHoCRP through the opsonization of specific complement components. In summary, our findings suggest that rHoCRP may play a crucial role in host antibacterial defense by recognizing pathogens, activating the complement system, and enhancing macrophage function.

Demystifying the connection between periodontal disease and chronic kidney disease - An umbrella review

Chronic kidney disease (CKD) and poor oral health are inter-related and their significant impact on each other is well established in the literature. Many systematic reviews and meta-analyses have demonstrated a strong relationship between CKD and periodontitis, where periodontal treatment has shown potential in improving CKD outcomes. However, the quality of the studies and heterogeneity of the results show variation. The aim of this umbrella review was to review the quality of the current systematic reviews on the relationship between CKD and oral health with an emphasis on periodontal disease and to generate clinically relevant guidelines to maintain periodontal health in patients with CKD. This umbrella review was conducted and reported in alignment with the Joanna Briggs Institute and the PRISMA 2020 guidelines. The review protocol was established prior to commencing the review and registered on JBI and PROSPERO (CRD42022335209). Search strings were established for PubMed, Embase, Web of Science, Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, and Dentistry & Oral Science Source up to April 2022. All systematic reviews and meta-analyses that considered the relationship between CKD and periodontitis or periodontal treatment were included. Of 371 studies identified through the systematic search, 18 systematic reviews met the inclusion criteria. Ten studies assessed the relationship between oral health status and CKD with a focus on periodontitis and CKD, five reviewed the impact of periodontal treatment on CKD outcomes, two included both relationship and effectiveness of periodontal treatment and one qualitatively reviewed oral health-related quality of life in patients with kidney failure. Findings indicate there is a bidirectional relationship between CKD and periodontal disease. In view of the heterogeneity of the existing literature on CKD and periodontal disease, specific recommendations for the management of periodontitis among patients with CKD are proposed for medical professionals, dental professionals, and aged care workers based on the evidence collated in this review.

C-Reactive Protein Levels Are Associated with Complement C4 Deposits and Interstitial Arteritis in ANCA-Associated Renal Vasculitis

Anti-neutrophil cytoplasmic antibody (ANCA)-associated vasculitis (AAV) is a potentially life-threatening systemic small-vessel vasculitis that is characterized by pauci-immune glomerulonephritis in case of kidney involvement, representing a major denominator of AAV mortality. Innate immunity with complement system activation is increasingly recognized in the pathogenesis of AAV and as an attractive therapeutic target. Although C-reactive protein (CRP) was thought to be a passive, nonspecific marker of inflammation, recent studies indicate that CRP plays a key role in the innate immune system by recognizing pathogens and altered self-determinants. Elevated baseline CRP at disease onset of AAV has already been described as a determinant of poor long-term outcomes. However, its clinical implications at disease onset of AAV, with respect to vasculitis manifestations and complement system activation that might also affect long-term outcomes, remain elusive. CRP levels were retrospectively analyzed in 53 kidney-biopsy-confirmed cases of ANCA-associated renal vasculitis; a total of 138 disease controls were also evaluated. Univariate and multivariate regression analysis was performed on clinicopathological parameters associated with CRP levels in ANCA-associated renal vasculitis. Results: Compared to disease controls, CRP elevation was common in ANCA-associated renal vasculitis and associated with de novo disease (p = 0.0169), critical illness (p = 0.0346), and severe deterioration of kidney function (p = 0.0167), independent of extrarenal disease manifestations. As confirmed by multiple regression analysis, CRP levels were correlated with active lesions predominated by interstitial arteritis in renal vasculitis, specifically with MPO-ANCA seropositivity (p = 0.0017). Based on analysis of systemic complement system activation and intrarenal complement deposits, CRP elevation was correlated specifically with complement C4 deposits in interstitial arteries in the subgroup with myeloperoxidase (MPO)-ANCA seropositivity (p = 0.039). Finally, this association was independent of systemic complement system activation, as reflected by the consumption of respective complement components. Here, we expand our current understanding of CRP in ANCA-associated renal vasculitis not only as an inflammatory marker, but potentially also as being involved in the pathogenesis of kidney injury by interaction with the complement system.

SAP deficiency aggravates periodontitis possibly via C5a-C5aR signaling-mediated defective macrophage phagocytosis of Porphyromonas gingivalis

INTRODUCTION

Serum amyloid P component (SAP) regulates the innate immune system and microbial diseases. Periodontitis is an inflammatory oral disease developed by the host immune system's interaction with the dysbiotic oral microbiome, thereby SAP could play a role in periodontitis pathogenicity.

OBJECTIVES

To investigate the role of SAP in oral microbiome modulation and peridontitis pathogenicity.

METHODS

In this study, wildtype and SAP-knockout (KO) mice were used. Ligature-based periodontitis was developed in mice. Oral microbiome diversity was analyzed by 16 s rRNA sequencing. Macrophages and Porphyromonas gingivalis (P. gingivalis) co-culture system analyzed the effect of SAP in macrophage phagocytosis of P. gingivalis.

RESULTS

The level of SAP was upregulated in the periodontitis-affected periodontium of humans and mice but not in the liver and blood circulation. Periodontal macrophages were the key source of upregulated SAP in periodontitis. SAP-KO aggravated periodontal inflammation, periodontitis, and a higher number of M1-type inflammatory macrophage infiltration in the periodontium. The oral microbiome of SAP-KO periodontitis mice was altered with a higher abundance of Porphyromonas at the genus level. SAP-KO macrophages showed compromised phagocytosis of P. gingivalis in the co-culture system. Co-culture of SAP-KO macrophages and P. gingivalis induced the C5a expression and exogenous SAP treatment nullified this effect. Exogenous recombinant SAP treatment did not affect P. gingivalis growth and opsonization. PMX205, an antagonist of C5a, treatment robustly enhanced P. gingivalis phagocytosis by SAP-KO macrophages, indicating the involvement of the C5a-C5aR signaling in the compromised P. gingivalis phagocytosis by SAP-KO macrophages.

CONCLUSION

SAP deficiency aggravates periodontitis possibly via C5a-C5aR signaling-mediated defective macrophage phagocytosis of P. gingivalis. A higher abundance of P. gingivalis during SAP deficiency could promote M1 macrophage polarization and periodontitis. This finding suggests the possible protecting role of elevated levels of periodontal SAP against periodontitis progression.

Functional Characterization of Serum Amyloid P Component (SAP) in Host Defense against Bacterial Infection in a Primary Vertebrate

Serum amyloid P component (SAP), an ancient short pentraxin of the pentraxin family, plays an essential role in resistance to bacterial infection. In this study, the expression and functional characterization of SAP (OnSAP) in Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus), a primary vertebrate, are investigated. The open reading frame of OnSAP is 645 bp of a nucleotide sequence encoding a polypeptide of 214 amino acids. As a calcium-binding protein, the structure and relative motif of OnSAP is highly similar to those of humans, containing amino acid residues Asn, Glu, Gln and Asp. In healthy fish, OnSAP mRNA is extensively distributed in all eleven tissues examined, with the highest level in spleen. The mRNA expression of OnSAP was significantly up-regulated after being challenged with gram-positive bacterium Streptococcus agalactiae and gram-negative bacterium Aeromonas hydrophila in vivo. In addition, recombinant OnSAP ((r)OnSAP) protein had capacities of binding S. agalactiae or A. hydrophila in the presence of Ca²⁺. Further, (r)OnSAP helped monocytes/macrophages to efficiently phagocytize bacteria. Moreover, the (r)OnSAP was able to enhance the complement-mediated lysis of the chicken red blood cells. Collectively, the evidence of SAP in tilapia, based on the results including its evolutionary conserved protein structure, bacterial binding and agglutination, opsonophagocytosis of macrophage and hemolysis enhancement, enriches a better understanding of the biological functions of the pentraxin family.

Neutrophil-lymphocyte ratio acts as a novel diagnostic biomarker for kidney stone prevalence and number of stones passed

Background

This study evaluated the relationship between inflammatory biomarkers and the prevalence of kidney stones and number of stones passed.

Methods

We conducted a cross-sectional study of adult participants (≥20 years) in the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) from 2007 to 2014. We calculated key inflammatory biomarkers, such as the systemic immune-inflammation index (SII), neutrophil-lymphocyte ratio (NLR), platelet-lymphocyte ratio (PLR) and monocyte-lymphocyte ratio (MLR). Multivariate logistic regression analysis was used to determine the effect of inflammatory biomarkers on the prevalence of kidney stones and number of stones passed.

Results

A total of 21,106 participants were included in the final study, and 1,864 patients reported a history of kidney stones (including 292 who had passed no stones, 1,462 who had passed stones 1-5 times, and 110 who had passed stones >5 times). The chi-square test showed that the NLR, MLR and SII were closely related to the occurrence of kidney stones and the number of stones passed. Multivariate logistic regression analysis showed that a high NLR (>1.72) was associated with an increased prevalence of kidney stones and number of stones passed (OR =1.18, 95% CI: 1.03-1.36, P=0.019).

Conclusions

A convenient biomarker, the NLR can be used as a good predictor for the diagnosis of kidney stones and number of stones passed; these findings are worthy of further research and application in clinical practice.

Serum amyloid P-component/C-reactive proteins in fugu (Takifugu rubripes) egg with binding ability to disease-causing bacteria by carbohydrate-recognition

Two galactose-binding proteins were purified from the eggs of Takifugu rubripes by affinity chromatography. These proteins were detected at 26 and 23 kDa under reducing and at 40 and 45 kDa under non-reducing conditions at SDS-PAGE. The peptide sequences from both proteins matched to short-type pentraxin. The 26-kDa lectin was glycosylated, while the other one was not, indicating that these could be glycoforms of pentraxin. Messenger RNA of pentraxin was detected in eggs and embryos at 1-cell stage, was undetectable till blastula, and finally detected again after gastrula, suggesting that the mRNAs in eggs and 1-cell embryos were maternal in origin, and autologous transcription of the gene occurred after blastula. Since they bind to pathogenic bacteria, egg pentraxins may have immunological functions during embryogenesis. This is the first study to show the presence of short-type pentraxin in fish eggs and the diversity of fish egg lectins.

C-reactive protein/serum amyloid P promotes pro-inflammatory function and induces M1-type polarization of monocytes/macrophages in mudskipper, Boleophthalmus pectinirostris

C-reactive protein (CRP) and serum amyloid P (SAP) play essential roles in the phagocytic cell-mediated innate immune response of mammals. In-depth studies into CRP and SAP have been completed in mammals; however, such studies, particularly those relating to the functions of CRP and SAP, are rare in fish species. In this study, a homolog of CRP/SAP (BpCRP/SAP) was identified in mudskipper (Boleophthalmus pectinirostris), which had the typical characteristics of a fish short pentraxin protein. Phylogenetic tree analysis revealed that BpCRP/SAP was most closely related to mudskipper CRP/SAP-l3. BpCRP/SAP transcripts were detected in all tested tissues, with the highest level observed in the liver; transcripts in the immune tissues and protein expression in the serum were induced in response to Edwardsiella tarda infection. The active recombinant BpCRP/SAP (rBpCRP/SAP) was able to augment the mRNA expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines and attenuate the mRNA expression of anti-inflammatory cytokines in monocytes/macrophages (MO/MΦ). In addition, phagocytosis and bacterial killing of E. tarda by mudskipper MO/MΦ were boosted by rBpCRP/SAP stimulation. rBpCRP/SAP also promoted M1-type MO/MΦ polarization, but inhibited M2-type polarization. In conclusion, the present research describes the pro-inflammatory function of BpCRP/SAP in mudskipper against E. tarda infection.

Elevated Systemic Pentraxin-3 Is Associated With Complement Consumption in the Acute Phase of Thrombotic Microangiopathies

Pentraxin-3 (PTX3) and C-reactive protein (CRP) have been shown to regulate complement activation in vitro, but their role has not been investigated in complement consumption in vivo. Thrombotic microangiopathies (TMA) are often accompanied by complement overactivation and consumption, therefore we analyzed the relation of the systemic pentraxin levels to the complement profile, laboratory parameters and clinical outcome of TMA patients. We determined the PTX3 and CRP levels, complement factor and activation product concentrations in blood samples of 171 subjects with the diagnosis of typical hemolytic uremic syndrome (STEC-HUS) (N = 34), atypical HUS (aHUS) (N = 44), secondary TMA (N = 63), thrombotic thrombocytopenic purpura (TTP) (N = 30) and 69 age-matched healthy individuals. Clinical data, blood count and chemistry were collected from medical records. To determine the in vitro effect of PTX3 on alternative pathway (AP) activation, sheep red blood cell-based hemolytic assay and AP activity ELISA were used. We found that PTX3 levels were elevated in the acute phase of STEC-HUS, aHUS and secondary TMA, whereas PTX3 elevation was exceptional is TTP. Conversely, a significantly higher median CRP was present in all patient groups compared to controls. PTX3, but not CRP was associated with signs of complement consumption in vivo, and PTX3 significantly decreased the AP hemolytic activity in vitro. Our results provide a detailed description of acute phase-TMA patients' complement profile linked to changes in the systemic pentraxin levels that may support further molecular studies on the function of PTX3 in disease pathogenesis and add to the laboratory assessment of complement consumption in TMA.

Immune mechanisms in the different phases of acute tubular necrosis

Acute kidney injury is a clinical syndrome that can be caused by numerous diseases including acute tubular necrosis (ATN). ATN evolves in several phases, all of which are accompanied by different immune mechanisms as an integral component of the disease process. In the early injury phase, regulated necrosis, damage-associated molecular patterns, danger sensing, and neutrophil-driven sterile inflammation enhance each other and contribute to the crescendo of necroinflammation and tissue injury. In the late injury phase, renal dysfunction becomes clinically apparent, and M1 macrophage-driven sterile inflammation contributes to ongoing necroinflammation and renal dysfunction. In the recovery phase, M2-macrophages and anti-inflammatory mediators counteract the inflammatory process, and compensatory remnant nephron and cell hypertrophy promote an early functional recovery of renal function, while some tubules are still badly injured and necrotic material is removed by phagocytes. The resolution of inflammation is required to promote the intrinsic regenerative capacity of tubules to replace at least some of the necrotic cells. Several immune mechanisms support this wound-healing-like re-epithelialization process. Similar to wound healing, this response is associated with mesenchymal healing, with a profound immune cell contribution in terms of collagen production and secretion of profibrotic mediators. These and numerous other factors determine whether, in the chronic phase, persistent loss of nephrons and hyperfunction of remnant nephrons will result in stable renal function or progress to decline of renal function such as progressive chronic kidney disease.

Ayu C-reactive protein/serum amyloid P agglutinates bacteria and inhibits complement-mediated opsonophagocytosis by monocytes/macrophages

The short-chain pentraxins (PTXs), including C-reactive protein (CRP) and serum amyloid P (SAP), are soluble pattern recognition molecules (PRMs) that exhibit calcium-dependent binding to bacterial surface molecules. They opsonize pathogens or other particles by phagocytic clearance. However, the detailed functions of short-chain PTXs in teleosts remained unclear. In this study, we identified a short-chain PTX gene from ayu, Plecoglossus altivelis, and tentatively named as PaCRP/SAP. Sequence analysis revealed that PaCRP/SAP has typical characteristics of fish CRP/SAP and is mostly closely related to rainbow smelt (Osmerus mordax) SAP. PaCRP/SAP transcripts were detected in all tested tissues, with the highest level in the liver, and its expression significantly upregulated following Vibrio anguillarum infection. The active recombinant mature PaCRP/SAP (rPaCRP/SAPm) agglutinated Gram-negative bacteria (Escherichia coli, V. anguillarum, Aeromonas hydrophila, and Vibrio parahaemolyticus) and Gram-positive bacteria (Staphylococcus aureus and Listeria monocytogenes) in a calcium-dependent manner in vitro, and it correspondingly bound peptidoglycan and lipopolysaccharide in a dose-dependent manner. The binding of rPaCRP/SAPm to E. coli and S. aureus resulted in a clear inhibition of the deposition of ayu complement 3 (PaC3) on the bacteria. Furthermore, rPaCRP/SAPm decreased phagocytosis of rPaCRP/SAPm-bound E. coli and S. aureus cells by ayu monocytes/macrophages (MO/MΦ) in a complement-dependent way. However, rPaCRP/SAPm alone had no significant influence on phagocytosis. These results provided the first evidence that PaCRP/SAP might function in ayu immune responses via agglutinating bacteria and inhibiting complement-mediated opsonophagocytosis by MO/MΦ.

An exploratory factor analysis of inflammatory and coagulation markers associated with femoral artery atherosclerosis in the San Diego Population Study

BACKGROUND AND AIMS

Several biomarkers of inflammation and coagulation have been implicated in lower extremity atherosclerosis. We utilized an exploratory factor analysis (EFA) to identify distinct factors derived from circulating inflammatory and coagulation biomarkers then examined the associations of these factors with measures of lower extremity subclinical atherosclerosis, including the ankle-brachial index (ABI), common and superficial femoral intima-media thickness (IMT), and atherosclerotic plaque presence, burden, and characteristics.

METHODS

The San Diego Population Study (SDPS) is a prospective, community-living, multi-ethnic cohort of 1103 men and women averaged age 70. Regression analysis was used to assess cross-sectional associations between the identified groupings of biomarkers (factors) and the ABI and femoral artery atherosclerosis measurements.

RESULTS

Two biomarker factors emerged from the factor analysis. Factor 1 consisting of C-reactive protein (CRP), interleukin (IL)-6, and fibrinogen was significantly associated with higher odds (OR = 1.99, p < 0.01) of a borderline ABI value (0.91-0.99), while Factor 2 containing D-dimer and pentraxin (PTX)-3 was significantly associated with higher common femoral artery (CFA) IMT (β = 0.23, p < 0.01) and lower ABI (β = -0.03, p < 0.01).

CONCLUSIONS

Two groupings of biomarkers were identified via EFA of seven circulating biomarkers of inflammation and coagulation. These distinct groups are differentially associated with markers of lower extremity subclinical atherosclerosis. Our findings suggest that high inflammatory and coagulation burden were better markers of more severe lower-extremity disease as indicated by low ABI rather than early atherosclerotic lesion development in the femoral artery.

PTX3 in serum induces renal mesangial cell proliferation but has no effect on apoptosis

The present study aimed to investigate the effect of pentraxin 3 (PTX3) on the regulation of proliferation and apoptosis in human glomerular mesangial cells (HMCs). Small interfering (si)RNA was designed and synthesized to inhibit the expression of endogenous PTX3, and the effects on the proliferation and apoptosis of HMCs were detected by flow cytometry and an MTT assay. Western blot analysis was used to detect the activation of mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) proteins in HMCs with PTX3 knockdown. Three siRNAs targeting PTX3 were individually transfected into HMCs for 48 h, and reverse-transcription quantitative PCR demonstrated that the relative mRNA expression of PTX3 was significantly decreased in all groups by up to 79.62% of that in the control group (P<0.05). Following transfection with PTX3-siRNA, the viability of an HMC line was significantly decreased in comparison with that of a control group transfected with scrambled siRNA. However, PTX3-siRNA did not significantly effect early and late apoptotic cell populations in HMCs compared with those in the control. Endogenous PTX3 interference was found to significantly decrease p38 MAPK, extracellular signal-regulated kinase 1/2 and c-Jun N-terminal kinase phosphorylation. In conclusion, silencing of PTX3, inhibited the proliferation of HMCs via MAPK pathways, but exerted no effect on the apoptosis of HMCs.

Biochemical and Clinical Impact of Organic Uremic Retention Solutes: A Comprehensive Update

In this narrative review, the biological/biochemical impact (toxicity) of a large array of known individual uremic retention solutes and groups of solutes is summarized. We classified these compounds along their physico-chemical characteristics as small water-soluble compounds or groups, protein bound compounds and middle molecules. All but one solute (glomerulopressin) affected at least one mechanism with the potential to contribute to the uremic syndrome. In general, several mechanisms were influenced for each individual solute or group of solutes, with some impacting up to 7 different biological systems of the 11 considered. The inflammatory, cardio-vascular and fibrogenic systems were those most frequently affected and they are one by one major actors in the high morbidity and mortality of CKD but also the mechanisms that have most frequently been studied. A scoring system was built with the intention to classify the reviewed compounds according to the experimental evidence of their toxicity (number of systems affected) and overall experimental and clinical evidence. Among the highest globally scoring solutes were 3 small water-soluble compounds [asymmetric dimethylarginine (ADMA); trimethylamine-N-oxide (TMAO); uric acid], 6 protein bound compounds or groups of protein bound compounds [advanced glycation end products (AGEs); p-cresyl sulfate; indoxyl sulfate; indole acetic acid; the kynurenines; phenyl acetic acid;] and 3 middle molecules [β₂-microglobulin; ghrelin; parathyroid hormone). In general, more experimental data were provided for the protein bound molecules but for almost half of them clinical evidence was missing in spite of robust experimental data. The picture emanating is one of a complex disorder, where multiple factors contribute to a multisystem complication profile, so that it seems of not much use to pursue a decrease of concentration of a single compound.

Study on Association of Pentraxin 3 and Diabetic Nephropathy in a Rat Model

Diabetic nephropathy (DN) is a serious microvascular complication of diabetes. Compared with other therapies for diabetic patients, islet transplantation can effectively prevent and reverse diabetes-induced microvascular disease, such as diabetic retinopathy and nephropathy. PTX3 is the only long pentraxin that can be detected in renal tissue. In this study, we investigated the expression of PTX3 when early DN was reversed after islet transplantation. Methods. Diabetes was induced in rats by injecting streptozotocin (STZ). Twelve weeks later, the diabetic rats were divided into 2 groups: the islet transplantation group (IT) and the diabetic nephropathy group (DN). Renal injury, renal function, and the expression of PTX3 in the plasma and the kidneys were assessed with urinalysis, immunohistochemical staining, and Western blot, respectively. Results. The expression of PTX3 in the kidney was significantly decreased in the DN group but increased in the IT group because of the reversal of DN. Conclusions. Our data showed that the level of PTX3 in renal tissue is closely related to renal injury in DN. This may be used to quantify the extent of renal injury in DN, provide a potential early indicator of renal tubular injury in early DN patients, and assess DN clinical progression.

The effect of candesartan on pentraxin-3 plasma levels as marker of endothelial dysfunction in patients with essential arterial hypertension

BACKGROUND

In the last decades, the studies performed on the field of endothelial dysfunction confirmed the fact that the starting point of this pathology is the inflammation. Several inflammatory biomarkers had been discovered and studied, ones showing systemic inflammation, and others being more specific biomarkers and showing the local inflammation. Pentraxin-3 (PTX3) is a new inflammatory biomarker, from the same family as high-selectivity C-reactive protein (hs-CRP), but it is a more specific biomarker, due to its local production: the endothelial cells and not the liver like in the case of hs-CRP.

AIMS

Several antihypertensive classes of drugs seem to have a positive impact on reducing the local endothelial inflammation, beyond their effect of lowering the blood pressure, so this study aims to analyze the effect of candesartan on the two inflammatory biomarkers: PTX3 and CRP, compared with other antihypertensive drugs, in hypertensive patients with endothelial dysfunction.

METHODS

A total of 365 patients were included in the study: 127 hypertensive patients were under treatment with candesartan, 134 patients were under treatment with other hypotensive medication (beta blockers, calcium channel blockers, and diuretics), both groups with controlled values of blood pressure, and 104 were normotensive persons. Classical methods of assessing the endothelial function were correlated with these biochemical markers.

RESULTS

The patients treated with candesartan had a significant lower value of PTX3 and hs-CRP, compared with those under treatment with other antihypertensive medication as follows: PTX3: 0.61 ± 0.49 vs 0.95 ± 1.04 ng/ml, P = 0.006 and hs-CRP: 0.19 ± 0.20 vs 0.20 ± 0.22 mg/dl, P = 0.54.

CONCLUSIONS

Candesartan decreases PTX3 and hs-CRP plasma levels more powerful than other classes of antihypertensive drugs (beta blockers, calcium channel blockers, and diuretics), so we may assume that candesartan has a more potent action in reversing endothelial dysfunction and that it offers a higher vascular protection than other classes of antihypertensive drugs. We are suggesting that this new biochemical marker, PTX3, might be better and more specific marker for endothelial dysfunction, than hs-CRP.

Association of genetic variants of pentraxin 3 rs3816527 with hypertension in Chronic kidney disease patients

Hypertension is a nearly constant feature and both a cause and a consequence of chronic kidney disease (CKD). Atherosclerotic lesions showed a marked expression of pentraxin 3 on the surface of lumen and in the plaque. The aim was to assess the correlation of exon 2 of pentraxin 3 gene SNP rs3816527 with hypertension with CKD. The study was conducted on 110 CKD patients (60 patients with and 50 patients without hypertension) and 40 healthy subjects as control. Laboratory investigations including the measurement of fasting blood glucose, lipid profile, and indices of oxidative stress, liver function tests, and renal function tests were done. Genotyping of pentraxin 3 gene SNP rs3816527 was done by real-time PCR. There was a significant difference between CKD patients with hypertension and the subjects in the control group regarding systolic and diastolic BP, urea, creatinine, GFR, TG, cholesterol, LDL, HDL, and total antioxidant levels (p < 0.001). There is a statistically significant difference between CKD patients with hypertension and the other studied groups regarding the frequencies of AA genotype and A allele of exon 2 SNP of pentraxin 3 gene compared to CC genotype and C allele (wild type) (p < 0.001), while there was significant difference between CKD patients without hypertension and control (p > 0.05). Pentraxin 3 AA genotype SNP rs3816527 can be considered as a potential biomarker and a risk factor for CKD patients, especially hypertensive patients, and specifically as an independent predictor of hypertension in CKD.

Changes in the inflammatory markers with advancing stages of diabetic nephropathy and the role of pentraxin-3

BACKGROUND

Immunological and inflammatory mechanisms have been shown to have role in both the development and progression of diabetic nephropathy (DNP). There is need for more specific markers for inflammation as the ones commonly used are influenced by many factors. Pentraxin-3 (PTX-3) seems to be a potential candidate. We aimed in our study to evaluate the changes of PTX-3 levels in different stages of DNP and its relationship with other inflammatory markers.

METHODS

This is a cross sectional study in which patients with DNP at different stages were involved. Patient were divided into three groups according to estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR), microalbuminuria and proteinuria levels: Group-1: eGFR >60 mL/min and microalbuminuria, Group-2: eGFR >60 mL/min and macroalbuminuria, Group-3: eGFR <60 mL/min and macroalbuminuria. Besides the routine biochemical parameters, levels of PTX-3, high sensitivity C-reactive protein (hsCRP), interleukin (IL)-1 and tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α was measured. Groups were compared with each other regarding the study parameters and correlation of PTX-3 with other markers was evaluated.

RESULTS

The mean PTX-3 level in Group-2 (0.94 ± 0.26 ng/mL) and -3 (1.35 ± 1.55 ng/mL) were higher than in Group-1 (0.81 ± 0.25 ng/mL) (p = 0.009 and p = 0.012). There was a significant correlation of PTX-3 with proteinuria (r = 0.266, p = 0.016), microalbuminuria (r = 0.304, p = 0.014) and hypoalbuminemia (r = 0.197, p = 0.043). PTX-3 was not correlated with other markers of inflammation (IL-1, TNF-α and hsCRP) and diabetic metabolic parameters (hbA1c, C-peptide, insulin and HOMA-IR). PTX-3, IL-1 and TNF-α levels increased with the advancing stage of DNP while hsCRP level did not change.

CONCLUSION

PTX-3 that increases similar to other markers of inflammation (IL-1, TNF-α) is a better inflammatory marker than hsCRP. Furthermore, there is a relationship between PTX-3 and proteinuria independent from eGFR.

Transcriptomics: A Step behind the Comprehension of the Polygenic Influence on Oxidative Stress, Immune Deregulation, and Mitochondrial Dysfunction in Chronic Kidney Disease

Chronic kidney disease (CKD) is an increasing and global health problem with a great economic burden for healthcare system. Therefore to slow down the progression of this condition is a main objective in nephrology. It has been extensively reported that microinflammation, immune system deregulation, and oxidative stress contribute to CKD progression. Additionally, dialysis worsens this clinical condition because of the contact of blood with bioincompatible dialytic devices. Numerous studies have shown the close link between immune system impairment and CKD but most have been performed using classical biomolecular strategies. These methodologies are limited in their ability to discover new elements and enable measuring the simultaneous influence of multiple factors. The “omics” techniques could overcome these gaps. For example, transcriptomics has revealed that mitochondria and inflammasome have a role in pathogenesis of CKD and are pivotal elements in the cellular alterations leading to systemic complications. We believe that a larger employment of this technique, together with other “omics” methodologies, could help clinicians to obtain new pathogenetic insights, novel diagnostic biomarkers, and therapeutic targets. Finally, transcriptomics could allow clinicians to personalize therapeutic strategies according to individual genetic background (nutrigenomic and pharmacogenomic). In this review, we analyzed the available transcriptomic studies involving CKD patients.

The Critical Role of Innate Immunity in Kidney Transplantation

For a long time now, kidney transplant rejection has been considered the consequence of either cellular or antibody-mediated reaction as a part of adaptive immunity response. The role of innate immunity, on the other hand, had been unclear for many years and was thought to be only ancillary. There is now consistent evidence that innate immune response is a condition necessary to activate the machinery of rejection. In this setting, the communication between antigen-presenting cells and T lymphocytes is of major importance. Indeed, T cells are unable to cause rejection if innate immunity is not activated. This field is currently being explored and several experiments in animal models have proved that blocking innate immunity activation can promote tolerance of the graft instead of rejection. The aim of this review is to systematically describe all the steps of innate immunity response in kidney transplant rejection, from antigen recognition to T-cells activation, with a focus on clinical consequences and possible future perspectives.

Emerging roles of the acute phase protein pentraxin-3 during central nervous system disorders

Pentraxin-3 (PTX3) is an acute phase protein (APP) and a member of the long pentraxin family that is recognised for its role in peripheral immunity and vascular inflammation in response to injury, infection and diseases such as atherosclerosis, cancer and respiratory disease. Systemic levels of PTX3 are highly elevated in these conditions, and PTX3 is now recognised as a new biomarker of disease risk and progression. There is extensive evidence demonstrating that central nervous system (CNS) disorders are primarily characterised by central activation of innate immunity, as well as activation of a potent peripheral acute phase response (APR) that influences central inflammation and contributes to poor outcome. PTX3 has been recently recognised to play important roles in CNS disorders, having both detrimental and neuroprotective effects. The present review aims to give an up-to-date account of the emerging roles of PTX3 in CNS disorders, and to provide a critical comparison between peripheral and central actions of PTX3 in inflammatory diseases.

Gene expression and functional characterization of serum amyloid P component 2 in rock bream, Oplegnathus fasciatus

Mammalian serum amyloid P component (SAP) recognizes a wide range of exogenous pathogenic substances and activates a complementary pathway leading to pathogen clearance. To determine the potential roles of SAP in the fish immune system, SAP (RbSAP2) gene was cloned from ESTs analysis of rock bream (Oplegnathus fasciatus), which consisted of a signal peptide and pentraxin domain. Phylogenetic analysis revealed that the RbSAP2 gene was classified with other known fish SAPs. RbSAP2 was highly expressed in the liver of healthy rock bream. Overall, pathogen exposure led to an induction of RbSAP2 in the liver and spleen, although this effect was not observed in the spleen following infection with Edwardsiella tarda. A high concentration of recombinant RbSAP2 (rRbSAP2) showed lower growth Streptococcus iniae than control in the absence of Ca(2+), whereas E. tarda growth was decreased by high concentration of rRbSAP in the presence of the Ca(2+). These results suggest that RbSAP plays an important role in the immune response against invading pathogens.

Functional characterisation and expression analysis of recombinant serum amyloid P isoform 1 (RbSAP1) from rock bream (Oplegnathus fasciatus)

Lectins are carbohydrate-binding proteins that play important roles in the recognition and elimination of pathogens via the innate immune system. Pentraxins (PTX) are humoral lectins, which are multifunctional proteins in vertebrates. Pentraxins can be divided into two groups based on their primary structure: short (C-reactive protein and serum amyloid P [SAP]) and long pentraxins (PTX3 and neuronal pentraxins). Previously, SAP was shown to have Ca(2+)-dependent binding specificity for various ligands and to be a major acute phase protein. In this study, we identified and characterised the gene encoding SAP isoform 1 in rock bream (Oplegnathus fasciatus) (RbSAP1) and analysed its expression in various tissues after a pathogen challenge. An alignment analysis conducted based on the deduced amino acid sequence of RbSAP1 (1918 bp full-length cDNA with a 699 bp open reading frame encoding 232 amino acids) and SAPs and PTXs isolated from other organisms, revealed that the pentraxin domain and cysteine residues of the deduced protein are conserved. RbSAP1, which was ubiquitously expressed in all tissues examined, was predominantly detected in head kidney, trunk kidney, peripheral blood leukocytes, and gills. RbSAP1 expression was dramatically up-regulated in the kidney and liver after infection with Edwardsiella tarda, Streptococcus iniae, or red seabream iridovirus. Purified rRbSAP1 was able to bind Gram-negative bacteria, Gram-positive bacteria, and pathogen-associated molecular patterns. Interestingly, rRbSAP1 aggregated Gram-negative bacteria in the presence of Ca(2+). The anti-pathogen activity of rRbSAP1 suggests that SAP functions in innate immunity in the rock bream.

An intradialytic increase in serum interleukin-6 levels is associated with an increased mortality in hemodialysis patients

BACKGROUND

The inflammatory marker interleukin-6 (IL-6) increases early in the inflammatory cascade. The aim of this study was to evaluate whether an increase in serum IL-6 levels during a hemodialysis (HD) session is associated with mortality.

METHODS

57 adult patients treated with HD for more than 1 month were prospectively studied over a 3-year follow-up period. Demographic and clinical data were collected and blood samples were drawn before and after a midweek HD session. Events of death and censoring were recorded.

RESULTS

During the 3-year follow-up, 50.8% of the patients died. In univariate Cox regression analysis, an increase in IL-6 levels during HD was associated with an increased mortality (HR 1.41 per pg/ml; 95% CI 1.06 to 1.88; P = .017). In multivariate Cox models, the only independent predictors of all-cause mortality were: an increase in IL-6 levels during dialysis (HR 1.46 per pg/ml; 95% CI 1.08 to 1.98; P = .014), higher baseline C-reactive protein (CRP) levels and older age. When predictors of an increase in serum IL-6 levels during HD were introduced into the model, mortality was still significantly associated with IL-6 elevation during dialysis (HR 1.47 per pg/ml, 95% CI 1.01 to 2.14; P = .045).

CONCLUSIONS

A rise in serum IL-6 levels during a single HD session is associated with a higher mortality among HD patients, independent of predialysis CRP or IL-6 levels. The results may imply the presence of an intradialytic inflammatory response that affects survival in HD patients.

Elevated Serum Leptin Level Is Associated with Body Mass Index But Not with Serum C-reactive Protein and Erythrocyte Sedimentation Rate Values in Hemodialysis Patients

Objectives:

Aim of the present study was to investigate serum concentration of leptin and its association with values of body mass index (BMI), C-reactive protein (CRP), and erythrocyte sedimentation rate (ESR) in hemodialysis (HD) patients.

Methods:

This cross-sectional study included 60 HD patients (34 male, 26 female) and 30 age- and sex-matched (4 males, 26 females) apparently healthy subjects. Serum leptin concentration was determined by an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). Serum CRP concentration was measured by means of particle-enhanced immunonephelometry. ESR value was determined by Western Green method. BMI was calculated as weight (kg) divided by height squared (m²).

Results:

Results have shown that median serum leptin concentration (30.65 ng/mL; 12.48-86.40 ng/mL) was statistically significantly higher in HD patients compared to median serum leptin concentration (15.75 ng/mL; 9.15-30.65 ng/mL) in the control group of healthy subjects (p<0.05). Likewise, median serum CRP concentration (5.5 mg/L; 1.93-8.9 mg/L) and median ESR value (57.5 mm/h; 40.5-77.0 mm/h) were significantly higher in HD patients compared to median serum CRP concentration (0.8 mg/L; 0.38-1.43 mg/L) (p<0.001) and median ESR value (10.0 mm/h; 6.5-14.0 mm/h) (p<0.001) determined in the control group. Statistically significant positive correlation was found between BMI values and serum leptin concentration in HD patients (rho=0.434; p<0.001). Positive, although not significant, correlation was observed between serum CRP and leptin levels in HD patients (rho=0.171; p>0.05). Negative correlation between ESR values and serum leptin concentrations in HD patients was determined but it was not statistically significant (rho= -0.029; p>0.05).

Conclusions:

Increased serum concentration of leptin as pro-inflammatory cytokine as well as elevated serum values of CRP and ESR indicate presence of systemic micro inflammation in HD patients. Results of the present study point to possible use of serum leptin concentration as an indicator of nutritional status in HD patients based on observed significant positive correlation between serum leptin concentrations and BMI values. However, absence of significant association between serum leptin and CRP levels as well as between serum leptin concentrations and ESR values in HD patients requires further investigation and clarification.

Plasma pentraxin-3 and coagulation and fibrinolysis variables during acute Puumala hantavirus infection and associated thrombocytopenia

Thrombocytopenia and altered coagulation characterize all hantavirus infections. To further assess the newly discovered predictive biomarkers of disease severity during acute Puumala virus (PUUV) infection, we studied the associations between them and the variables reflecting coagulation, fibrinolysis and endothelial activation. Nineteen hospital-treated patients with serologically confirmed acute PUUV infection were included. Acutely, plasma levels of pentraxin-3 (PTX3), cell-free DNA (cf-DNA), complement components SC5b-9 and C3 and interleukin-6 (IL-6) were recorded as well as platelet ligands and markers of coagulation and fibrinolysis. High values of plasma PTX3 associated with thrombin formation (prothrombin fragments F1+2; r = 0.46, P = 0.05), consumption of platelet ligand fibrinogen (r = -0.70, P < 0.001) and natural anticoagulants antithrombin (AT) (r = -0.74, P < 0.001), protein C (r = -0.77, P < 0.001) and protein S free antigen (r = -0.81, P < 0.001) and a decreased endothelial marker ADAMTS13 (a disintegrin and metalloproteinase with a thrombospondin type 1 domain 13) (r = -0.48, P = 0.04). Plasma level of AT associated with C3 (r = 0.76, P < 0.001), IL-6 (r = -0.56, P = 0.01) and cf-DNA (r = -0.47, P = 0.04). High cf-DNA coincided with increased prothrombin fragments F1+2 (r = 0.47, P = 0.04). Low C3 levels reflecting the activation of complement system through the alternative route predicted loss of all natural anticoagulants (for protein C r = 0.53, P = 0.03 and for protein S free antigen r = 0.64, P = 0.004). Variables depicting altered coagulation follow the new predictive biomarkers of disease severity, especially PTX3, in acute PUUV infection. The findings are consistent with the previous observations of these biomarkers also being predictive for low platelet count and underline the cross-talk of inflammation and coagulation systems in acute PUUV infection.

In Silico Post Genome-Wide Association Studies Analysis of C-Reactive Protein Loci Suggests an Important Role for Interferons

BACKGROUND

Genome-wide association studies (GWASs) have successfully identified several single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) associated with serum levels of C-reactive protein (CRP). An important limitation of GWASs is that the identified variants merely flag the nearby genomic region and do not necessarily provide a direct link to the biological mechanisms underlying their corresponding phenotype. Here we apply a bioinformatics-based approach to uncover the functional characteristics of the 18 SNPs that had previously been associated with CRP at a genome-wide significant level.

METHODS AND RESULTS

In the first phase of in silico sequencing, we explore the vicinity of GWAS SNPs to identify all linked variants. In the second phase of expression quantitative trait loci analysis, we attempt to identify all nearby genes whose expression levels are associated with the corresponding GWAS SNPs. These 2 phases generate several relevant genes that serve as input to the next phase of functional network analysis. Our in silico sequencing analysis using 1000 Genomes Project data identified 7 nonsynonymous SNPs, which are in moderate to high linkage disequilibrium (r(2)>0.5) with the GWAS SNPs. Our expression quantitative trait loci analysis, which was based on one of the largest single data sets of genome-wide expression probes (n>5000) identified 23 significantly associated expression probes belonging to 15 genes (false discovery rate <0.01). The final phase of functional network analysis revealed 93 significantly enriched biological processes (false discovery rate <0.01).

CONCLUSIONS

Our post-GWAS analysis of CRP GWAS SNPs confirmed the previously known overlap between CRP and lipids biology. Additionally, it suggested an important role for interferons in the metabolism of CRP.

Pro-inflammatory cytokines and leukocyte oxidative burst in chronic kidney disease: culprits or innocent bystanders?

BACKGROUND

Pro-inflammatory cytokines are elevated in chronic kidney disease (CKD), a condition characterized by microinflammation with oxidative stress as key feature. However, their role in the inflammatory response at uraemic concentrations has not yet been defined. In this study, the contribution of cytokines on induction of leukocyte oxidative stress was investigated.

METHODS

Whole blood from healthy donors was incubated with 20-1400 pg/mL TNFα, 5-102.8 pg/mL IL-6, 20-400 pg/mL IL-1β and 75-1200 pg/mL IL-18 separately or in combination. Oxidative burst was measured, at baseline and after stimulation with fMLP (Phagoburst™). The effect of the TNFα blocker, adalimumab (Ada), was evaluated on TNFα-induced ROS production. Finally, the association between TNFα and the composite end point all-cause mortality or first cardiovascular event was analysed in a CKD population stage 4-5 (n = 121).

RESULTS

While interleukin (IL)-6, IL-1β and IL-18 alone induced no ROS activation of normal leukocytes, irrespective of concentrations, TNFα induced ROS activation at baseline (P < 0.01) and after fMLP stimulation (P < 0.05), but only at uraemic concentrations in the high range (400 and 1400 pg/mL). A similar pattern was observed with all cytokines in combination, but already at intermediate uraemic concentrations (all P < 0.05, except for monocytes after fMLP stimulation: n.s.), suggesting synergism between cytokines. ROS production induced by TNFα (400 pg/mL) and the cytokine combination was blocked with Ada. Uraemia-related oxidative stress in leukocytes of haemodialysis patients was however not blocked by Ada. In patients, TNFα was not associated to adverse events (HR: 1.52, 95% CI 0.81-2.85, P = 0.13).

CONCLUSION

Among several pro-inflammatory cytokines, TNFα alone was pro-oxidative but only at high-range uraemic concentrations. Adding a TNFα blocker, Ada, blocked this ROS production, but not the oxidative stress in blood samples from haemodialysis patients, suggesting that other uraemic toxins than TNFα are more crucial in this process. However, the lack of association between TNFα and mortality suggests that the role of TNFα-linked oxidative stress is limited.

Antibody-dependent cellular cytotoxicity in patients on chronic hemodialysis

BACKGROUND

Antibody (Ab)-dependent cellular cytotoxicity (ADCC) is considered to be a relevant mechanism of action of Ab-based tumor therapies. However, knowledge about ADCC capacity of dialysis patients (DP) is limited. The aim of our study was to investigate if ADCC capacity of effector cells obtained from DP differed from those of healthy individuals (HI).

METHODS

First, we performed ADCC assays with isolated polymorphonuclear cells (PMN) and peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC), mediated by the epidermal growth factor receptor Ab cetuximab or panitumumab. As cetuximab is of human IgG1 and panitumumab of human IgG2 isotype, both Abs differ in their affinity to Fcγ receptors and effector cell recruitment.

RESULTS

Using PMN as effectors, ADCC levels via panitumumab proved to be higher than via cetuximab, but did not differ between DP and HI. In contrast, IgG2-mediated ADCC with PBMC from DP was significantly enhanced compared to HI. IgG2 Abs predominantly bind to FcγRIIa. Within the PBMC, monocytes are the only cytotoxic cells physiologically expressing this receptor. ADCC experiments with isolated monocytes confirmed them to be the pivotal cells for the observed effect. Analysis of monocytes' Fc receptor expression demonstrated no difference between DP and HI, but monocytes of DP proved to be numerically increased and appeared preactivated.

CONCLUSION

Our studies implicate that ADCC capacity is not impaired in DP and that it might particularly be reasonable to apply human IgG2 Abs as therapeutics for these patients.

Relationship between C-reactive protein and kidney stone prevalence

PURPOSE

We evaluated the relationship between serum C-reactive protein and the lifetime kidney stone prevalence.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

We performed a cross-sectional study of participants from the Continuous National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) from 2007 to 2008 and 2008 to 2009. Data were available on 11,033 participants.

RESULTS

On univariate analysis we noted a strong correlation between C-reactive protein quintile and kidney stone history. After adjusting for known confounders multivariate logistic regression revealed a significant relationship between C-reactive protein and the lifetime prevalence of kidney stones in younger individuals (age 20 to 39 years, p for trend = 0.002). In individuals 20 to 39 years old the lifetime prevalence of kidney stones increased with increasing C-reactive protein quintile (p = 0.002 for trend), specifically, those in the third quintile (OR 3.86, 95% CI 1.07-13.88, p = 0.04) and the fifth quintile (OR 3.85, 95% CI 1.46-10.17, p = 0.009). The fourth quintile of C-reactive protein approached statistical significance (OR 2.56, 95% CI 0.96-6.81, p = 0.059). The relationship between C-reactive protein and kidney stone history was not significant in the older age groups (40 to 59 and 60 years or greater).

CONCLUSIONS

There exists a significant relationship between serum C-reactive protein and self-reported kidney stones in younger individuals. This may shed light on potential mechanisms of stone formation in this age group and help gain a better understanding of stone risk mediators. Further studies are needed to understand the mechanisms underlying these epidemiological findings.

The immune system and kidney disease: basic concepts and clinical implications

The kidneys are frequently targeted by pathogenic immune responses against renal autoantigens or by local manifestations of systemic autoimmunity. Recent studies in rodent models and humans have uncovered several underlying mechanisms that can be used to explain the previously enigmatic immunopathology of many kidney diseases. These mechanisms include kidney-specific damage-associated molecular patterns that cause sterile inflammation, the crosstalk between renal dendritic cells and T cells, the development of kidney-targeting autoantibodies and molecular mimicry with microbial pathogens. Conversely, kidney failure affects general immunity, causing intestinal barrier dysfunction, systemic inflammation and immunodeficiency that contribute to the morbidity and mortality of patients with kidney disease. In this Review, we summarize the recent findings regarding the interactions between the kidneys and the immune system.

The role of cytokines in the pathogenesis of systemic lupus erythematosus - from bench to bedside

The pathogenesis of systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) entails a complex interaction between the different arms of the immune system. While autoantibodies production and immune complex deposition are cornered as hallmark features of SLE, there is growing evidence to propose the pathogenic role of cytokines in this disease. Examples of these cytokines include BLys, interleukin-6, interleukin-17, interleukin-18, type I interferons and tumour necrosis factor alpha. These cytokines all assume pivotal functions to orchestrate the differentiation, maturation and activation of various cell types, which would mediate local inflammatory process and tissue injury. The knowledge on these cytokines not only fosters our understanding of the disease, but also provides insights in devising biomarkers and targeted therapies. In this review, we focus on cytokines which have substantial pathogenic significance and also highlight the possible clinical applications of these cytokines.