Food additive emulsifiers: a review of their role in foods, legislation and classifications, presence in food supply, dietary exposure, and safety assessment

Common dietary emulsifiers promote metabolic disorders and intestinal microbiota dysbiosis in mice

Dietary emulsifiers are linked to various diseases. The recent discovery of the role of gut microbiota-host interactions on health and disease warrants the safety reassessment of dietary emulsifiers through the lens of gut microbiota. Lecithin, sucrose fatty acid esters, carboxymethylcellulose (CMC), and mono- and diglycerides (MDG) emulsifiers are common dietary emulsifiers with high exposure levels in the population. This study demonstrates that sucrose fatty acid esters and carboxymethylcellulose induce hyperglycemia and hyperinsulinemia in a mouse model. Lecithin, sucrose fatty acid esters, and CMC disrupt glucose homeostasis in the in vitro insulin-resistance model. MDG impairs circulating lipid and glucose metabolism. All emulsifiers change the intestinal microbiota diversity and induce gut microbiota dysbiosis. Lecithin, sucrose fatty acid esters, and CMC do not impact mucus-bacterial interactions, whereas MDG tends to cause bacterial encroachment into the inner mucus layer and enhance inflammation potential by raising circulating lipopolysaccharide. Our findings demonstrate the safety concerns associated with using dietary emulsifiers, suggesting that they could lead to metabolic syndromes.

Development of Novel High and Low Emulsifier Diets Based upon Emulsifier Distribution in the Australian Food Supply for Intervention Studies in Crohn's Disease

BACKGROUND

The aims of this study were to develop and evaluate a high/low-emulsifier diet and compare emulsifier content with preclinical studies that have associated Crohn's disease with emulsifiers.

METHODS

Supermarkets were audited with a seven-day high- (HED) and low-emulsifier diet (LED) meal plan developed. The emulsifier content of food was sought from food manufacturers, compared to acceptable daily intake (ADI), and doses were provided in trials. Nutritional composition analysis was completed. Healthy adults ate these diets for seven days in a randomized single-blinded cross-over feeding study to assess palatability, tolerability, satiety, food variety, dietary adherence, blinding and the ease of following the meal plan via visual analogue scale.

RESULTS

A database of 1680 foods was created. There was no difference in nutritional content between the HED and LED, except HED had a higher ultra-processed food content (p < 0.001). The HED contained 41 emulsifiers, with 53% of the products able to be quantified for emulsifiers (2.8 g/d), which did not exceed the ADI, was similar to that in observational studies, and was exceeded by doses used in experimental studies. In ten participants, diets were rated similarly in palatability-HED mean 62 (5% CI 37-86) mm vs. LED 68 (54-82) mm-in tolerability-HED 41 (20-61) mm vs. LED 55 (37-73) mm-and in satiety HED 57 (32-81) mm vs. LED 49 (24-73) mm. The combined diets were easy to follow (82 (67-97) mm) with good variety (65 (47-81)) and excellent adherence.

CONCLUSION

Nutritionally well-matched HED and LED were successfully developed, palatable and well tolerated.

Ultra-processed foods and food additives in gut health and disease

Ultra-processed foods (UPFs) and food additives have become ubiquitous components of the modern human diet. There is increasing evidence of an association between diets rich in UPFs and gut disease, including inflammatory bowel disease, colorectal cancer and irritable bowel syndrome. Food additives are added to many UPFs and have themselves been shown to affect gut health. For example, evidence shows that some emulsifiers, sweeteners, colours, and microparticles and nanoparticles have effects on a range of outcomes, including the gut microbiome, intestinal permeability and intestinal inflammation. Broadly speaking, evidence for the effect of UPFs on gut disease comes from observational epidemiological studies, whereas, by contrast, evidence for the effect of food additives comes largely from preclinical studies conducted in vitro or in animal models. Fewer studies have investigated the effect of UPFs or food additives on gut health and disease in human intervention studies. Hence, the aim of this article is to critically review the evidence for the effects of UPF and food additives on gut health and disease and to discuss the clinical application of these findings.

Food contamination and cardiovascular disease: a narrative review

Cardiovascular disease is a significant cause of morbidity and mortality among non-communicable diseases worldwide. Evidence shows that a healthy dietary pattern positively influences many risk factors of cardiometabolic health, stroke, and heart disease, supported by the effectiveness of healthy diet and lifestyles for the prevention of CVD. High quality and safety of foods are prerequisites to ensuring food security and beneficial effects. Contaminants can be present in foods mainly because of contamination from environmental sources (water, air, or soil pollution), or artificially introduced by the human. Moreover, the cross-contamination or formation during food processing, food packaging, presence or contamination by natural toxins, or use of unapproved food additives and adulterants. Numerous studies reported the association between food contaminants and cardiovascular risk by demonstrating that (1) the cross-contamination or artificial sweeteners, additives, and adulterants in food processing can be the cause of the risk for major adverse cardiovascular events and (2) environmental factors, such as heavy metals and chemical products can be also significant contributors to food contamination with a negative impact on cardiovascular systems. Furthermore, oxidative stress can be a common mechanism that mediates food contamination-associated CVDs as substantiated by studies showing impaired oxidative stress biomarkers after exposure to food contaminants.This narrative review summarizes the data suggesting how food contaminants may elicit artery injury and proposing oxidative stress as a mediator of cardiovascular damage.

Association Between Ultraprocessed Foods Consumption and Leucocyte Telomere Length: A Cross-Sectional Study of UK Biobank

BACKGROUND

□ OBJECTIVES: This study aimed to investigate the association between consumption of ultraprocessed foods and leucocyte telomere length (LTL).

METHODS

This cross-sectional study utilized data from the UK Biobank, including a total of 64,690 participants. LTL was measured using qPCR with natural logarithmic conversion and z-score normalization. Dietary data were collected through a 24-h recall questionnaire from 2009 to 2010. Ultraprocessed foods (UPFs) were identified using the NOVA food classification as either a continuous or a categorical variable. Multiple linear regression models were employed to analyze the association between UPF consumption and LTL.

RESULTS

The included participants had an average age of 56.26 y, of whom 55.2% were female. After adjusting for demographic and health-related variables, LTL exhibited a decrease of 0.005 (95% CI: -0.007, -0.002) with 1 UPF serving increase. Compared with participants consuming ≤3.5 servings/d, those consuming 3.5 to <6 servings showed a shortening of LTL by 0.025 (95% CI: -0.046, -0.003). Participants consuming 6 to ≤8 servings/d and >8 servings/d had LTL shortening of 0.032 (95% CI: -0.054, -0.011) and 0.037 (95% CI: -0.060, -0.014), respectively (P for trend = 0.002). Subgroup analyses by UPF subclasses revealed that the consumption of ready-to-eat/heated food (β: -0.010; 95% CI: -0.016, -0.004), beans and potatoes (β: -0.027; 95% CI: -0.043, -0.012), animal-based products (β: -0.012; 95% CI: -0.020, -0.005), artificial sugar (β: -0.014; 95% CI:-0.025,-0.003), and beverages (β: -0.005; 95% CI: -0.009, -0.001) showed negative associations with LTL. Conversely, breakfast cereals (β: 0.022; 95% CI: 0.006, 0.038) and vegetarian alternatives (β: 0.056; 95% CI:0.026,0.085) showed positive correlations with LTL.

CONCLUSIONS

Our study found that a higher consumption of total UPF was associated with a shorter LTL. However, some UPFs may be associated with longer LTL, depending on their nutritional composition.

Food additive emulsifiers and the risk of type 2 diabetes: analysis of data from the NutriNet-Santé prospective cohort study

BACKGROUND

Experimental studies have suggested potential detrimental effects of emulsifiers on gut microbiota, inflammation, and metabolic perturbations. We aimed to investigate the associations between exposures to food additive emulsifiers and the risk of type 2 diabetes in a large prospective cohort of French adults.

METHODS

We analysed data from 104 139 adults enrolled in the French NutriNet-Santé prospective cohort study from May 1, 2009, to April 26, 2023; 82 456 (79·2%) were female and the mean age was 42·7 years (SD 14·5). Dietary intakes were assessed with three 24 h dietary records collected over three non-consecutive days, every 6 months. Exposure to additive emulsifiers was evaluated through multiple food composition databases and ad-hoc laboratory assays. Associations between cumulative time-dependent exposures to food additive emulsifiers and the risk of type 2 diabetes were characterised with multivariable proportional hazards Cox models adjusted for known risk factors. The NutriNet-Santé study is registered at ClinicalTrials.gov (NCT03335644).

FINDINGS

Of 104 139 participants, 1056 were diagnosed with type 2 diabetes during follow-up (mean follow-up duration 6·8 years [SD 3·7]). Intakes of the following emulsifiers were associated with an increased risk of type 2 diabetes: total carrageenans (hazard ratio [HR] 1·03 [95% CI 1·01-1·05] per increment of 100 mg per day, p<0·0001), carrageenans gum (E407; HR 1·03 [1·01-1·05] per increment of 100 mg per day, p<0·0001), tripotassium phosphate (E340; HR 1·15 [1·02-1·31] per increment of 500 mg per day, p=0·023), acetyl tartaric acid esters of monoglycerides and diglycerides of fatty acids (E472e; HR 1·04 [1·00-1·08] per increment of 100 mg per day, p=0·042), sodium citrate (E331; HR 1·04 [1·01-1·07] per increment of 500 mg per day, p=0·0080), guar gum (E412; HR 1·11 [1·06-1·17] per increment of 500 mg per day, p<0·0001), gum arabic (E414; HR 1·03 [1·01-1·05] per increment of 1000 mg per day, p=0·013), and xanthan gum (E415, HR 1·08 [1·02-1·14] per increment of 500 mg per day, p=0·013).

INTERPRETATION

We found direct associations between the risk of type 2 diabetes and exposures to various food additive emulsifiers widely used in industrial foods, in a large prospective cohort of French adults. Further research is needed to prompt re-evaluation of regulations governing the use of additive emulsifiers in the food industry for better consumer protection.

FUNDING

European Research Council, French National Cancer Institute, French Ministry of Health, IdEx Université de Paris, and Bettencourt-Schueller Foundation.

How Promising Are "Ultraprocessed" Front-of-Package Labels? A Formative Study with US Adults

High levels of food processing can have detrimental health effects independent of nutrient content. Experts and advocates have proposed adding information about food processing status to front-of-package labeling schemes, which currently exclusively focus on nutrient content. How consumers would perceive "ultraprocessed" labels has not yet been examined. To address this gap, we conducted a within-subjects online experiment with a convenience sample of 600 US adults. Participants viewed a product under three labeling conditions (control, "ultraprocessed" label, and "ultraprocessed" plus "high in sugar" label) in random order for a single product. The "ultraprocessed" label led participants to report thinking more about the risks of eating the product and discouraging them from wanting to buy the product more than the control, despite not grabbing more attention than the control. The "ultraprocessed" plus "high in sugar" labels grabbed more attention, led participants to think more about the risks of eating the product, and discouraged them from wanting to buy the product more than the "ultraprocessed" label alone. "Ultraprocessed" labels may constitute promising messages that could work in tandem with nutrient labels, and further research should examine how they would influence consumers' actual intentions and behaviors.

An analytical overview of the composition and characteristics of China's food safety standards

This paper discusses the framework of China's food safety standards and provides a brief overview of the problems and developmental characteristics of food safety in China. The composition and characteristics of China's food safety standards are revealed by an analysis of the changes in China's general food standards, an overview of the characteristics of the hygiene requirements in the production and operation process, and an introduction to food product and test method standards. In conclusion, Chinese food safety standards are still being improved, but they must also be effectively implemented and followed up in real time in order to continuously improve the quality of food and reduce food safety incidents. © 2024 Society of Chemical Industry.

The distribution, fate, and environmental impacts of food additive nanomaterials in soil and aquatic ecosystems

Nanomaterials in the food industry are used as food additives, and the main function of these food additives is to improve food qualities including texture, flavor, color, consistency, preservation, and nutrient bioavailability. This review aims to provide an overview of the distribution, fate, and environmental and health impacts of food additive nanomaterials in soil and aquatic ecosystems. Some of the major nanomaterials in food additives include titanium dioxide, silver, gold, silicon dioxide, iron oxide, and zinc oxide. Ingestion of food products containing food additive nanomaterials via dietary intake is considered to be one of the major pathways of human exposure to nanomaterials. Food additive nanomaterials reach the terrestrial and aquatic environments directly through the disposal of food wastes in landfills and the application of food waste-derived soil amendments. A significant amount of ingested food additive nanomaterials (> 90 %) is excreted, and these nanomaterials are not efficiently removed in the wastewater system, thereby reaching the environment indirectly through the disposal of recycled water and sewage sludge in agricultural land. Food additive nanomaterials undergo various transformation and reaction processes, such as adsorption, aggregation-sedimentation, desorption, degradation, dissolution, and bio-mediated reactions in the environment. These processes significantly impact the transport and bioavailability of nanomaterials as well as their behaviour and fate in the environment. These nanomaterials are toxic to soil and aquatic organisms, and reach the food chain through plant uptake and animal transfer. The environmental and health risks of food additive nanomaterials can be overcome by eliminating their emission through recycled water and sewage sludge.

Treatment-induced and Pre-existing Anti-peg Antibodies: Prevalence, Clinical Implications, and Future Perspectives

Polyethylene glycol (PEG) is a versatile polymer that is used in numerous pharmaceutical applications like the food industry, a wide range of disinfectants, cosmetics, and many commonly used household products. PEGylation is the term used to describe the covalent attachment of PEG molecules to nanocarriers, proteins and peptides, and it is used to prolong the circulation half-life of the PEGylated products. Consequently, PEGylation improves the efficacy of PEGylated therapeutics. However, after four decades of research and more than two decades of clinical applications, an unappealing side of PEGylation has emerged. PEG immunogenicity and antigenicity are remarkable challenges that confound the widespread clinical application of PEGylated therapeutics - even those under clinical trials - as anti-PEG antibodies (Abs) are commonly reported following the systemic administration of PEGylated therapeutics. Furthermore, pre-existing anti-PEG Abs have also been reported in healthy individuals who have never been treated with PEGylated therapeutics. The circulating anti-PEG Abs, both treatment-induced and pre-existing, selectively bind to PEG molecules of the administered PEGylated therapeutics inducing activation of the complement system, which results in remarkable clinical implications with varying severity. These include increased blood clearance of the administered PEGylated therapeutics through what is known as the accelerated blood clearance (ABC) phenomenon and initiation of serious adverse effects through complement activation-related pseudoallergic reactions (CARPA). Therefore, the US FDA industry guidelines have recommended the screening of anti-PEG Abs, in addition to Abs against PEGylated proteins, in the clinical trials of PEGylated protein therapeutics. In addition, strategies revoking the immunogenic response against PEGylated therapeutics without compromising their therapeutic efficacy are important for the further development of advanced PEGylated therapeutics and drug-delivery systems.

Food additive emulsifiers and cancer risk: Results from the French prospective NutriNet-Santé cohort

BACKGROUND

Emulsifiers are widely used food additives in industrially processed foods to improve texture and enhance shelf-life. Experimental research suggests deleterious effects of emulsifiers on the intestinal microbiota and the metabolome, leading to chronic inflammation and increasing susceptibility to carcinogenesis. However, human epidemiological evidence investigating their association with cancer is nonexistent. This study aimed to assess associations between food additive emulsifiers and cancer risk in a large population-based prospective cohort.

METHODS AND FINDINGS

This study included 92,000 adults of the French NutriNet-Santé cohort without prevalent cancer at enrolment (44.5 y [SD: 14.5], 78.8% female, 2009 to 2021). They were followed for an average of 6.7 years [SD: 2.2]. Food additive emulsifier intakes were estimated for participants who provided at least 3 repeated 24-h dietary records linked to comprehensive, brand-specific food composition databases on food additives. Multivariable Cox regressions were conducted to estimate associations between emulsifiers and cancer incidence. Overall, 2,604 incident cancer cases were diagnosed during follow-up (including 750 breast, 322 prostate, and 207 colorectal cancers). Higher intakes of mono- and diglycerides of fatty acids (FAs) (E471) were associated with higher risks of overall cancer (HR high vs. low category = 1.15; 95% CI [1.04, 1.27], p-trend = 0.01), breast cancer (HR = 1.24; 95% CI [1.03, 1.51], p-trend = 0.04), and prostate cancer (HR = 1.46; 95% CI [1.09, 1.97], p-trend = 0.02). In addition, associations with breast cancer risk were observed for higher intakes of total carrageenans (E407 and E407a) (HR = 1.32; 95% CI [1.09, 1.60], p-trend = 0.009) and carrageenan (E407) (HR = 1.28; 95% CI [1.06, 1.56], p-trend = 0.01). No association was detected between any of the emulsifiers and colorectal cancer risk. Several associations with other emulsifiers were observed but were not robust throughout sensitivity analyses. Main limitations include possible exposure measurement errors in emulsifiers intake and potential residual confounding linked to the observational design.

CONCLUSIONS

In this large prospective cohort, we observed associations between higher intakes of carrageenans and mono- and diglycerides of fatty acids with overall, breast and prostate cancer risk. These results need replication in other populations. They provide new epidemiological evidence on the role of emulsifiers in cancer risk.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

ClinicalTrials.gov NCT03335644.

Molecular docking study of frequently used food additives for selected targets depending on the chromosomal abnormalities they cause

Food additives (FAs) (flavor enhancers, sweeteners, etc.) protect foods during storage and transportation, making them attractive to consumers. Today, while the desire to access natural foods is increasing, the chemicals added to foods have started to be questioned. In this respect, genotoxicity tests have gained importance. Studies show that some food additives may have genotoxic risks. Previous studies carried out in our laboratory also revealed genotoxic effects of Monopotassium glutamate (MPG), Monosodium glutamate (MSG), Magnesium diglutamate (MDG) as flavor enhancers; Potassium benzoate (PB), Potassium sorbate (PS), Sodium benzoate (SB), Sodium sorbate (SS) as preservatives; Acesulfame potassium (ACE-K), Xylitol (XYL) as sweeteners. In this study, we determined the interactions of these food additives with ATM and p53 proteins, which are activated in the cell due to genotoxic effects, and with DNA by employing the molecular docking method for the first time. Among the food additives, SB (-4.307) for ATM, XYL (-4.629) for p53, and XYL (-4.927) for DNA showed the highest affinity. Therefore, flexible docking (IFD) scores were determined for SB, XYL, and MDG from flavor enhancers. The potential binding modes of the food additives to target molecules' possible inhibition mechanisms were determined by molecular docking. Thus, new information was obtained to show how these additives cause chromosomal abnormalities.

A review of high internal phase Pickering emulsions: Stabilization, rheology, and 3D printing application

High internal phase Pickering emulsion (HIPPE) is renowned for its exceptionally high-volume fraction of internal phase, leading to flocculated yet deformed emulsion droplets and unique rheological behaviors such as shear-thinning property, viscoelasticity, and thixotropic recovery. Alongside the inherent features of regular emulsion systems, such as large interfacial area and well-mixture of two immiscible liquids, the HIPPEs have been emerging as building blocks to construct three-dimensional (3D) scaffolds with customized structures and programmable functions using an extrusion-based 3D printing technique, making 3D-printed HIPPE-based scaffolds attract widespread interest from various fields such as food science, biotechnology, environmental science, and energy transfer. Herein, the recent advances in preparing suitable HIPPEs as 3D printing inks for various applied fields are reviewed. This work begins with the stabilization mechanism of HIPPEs, followed by introducing the origin of their distinctive rheological behaviors and strategies to adjust the rheological behaviors to prepare more eligible HIPPEs as printing inks. Then, the compatibility between extrusion-based 3D printing and HIPPEs as building blocks was discussed, followed by a summary of the potential applications using 3D-printed HIPPE-based scaffolds. Finally, limitations and future perspectives on preparing HIPPE-based materials using extrusion-based 3D printing were presented.

Associations between food consumption/dietary habits and the risks of obesity, type 2 diabetes, and hypertension: a cross-sectional study in Jakarta, Indonesia

BACKGROUND/OBJECTIVES

This study aimed to assess the current mean daily intake of 10 food groups, analyze the sociodemographic factors associated with food consumption, and determine the associations between food consumption/dietary intake and the prevalence rates of obesity, type 2 diabetes (T2D), and hypertension (HTN) in Jakarta, Indonesia.

SUBJECTS/METHODS

A total of 600 participants aged 20-85 yrs were included in this cross-sectional study. Food consumption and dietary habits were assessed using a food frequency questionnaire. To determine the association between food consumption/dietary habits and the abovementioned diseases, logistic regression analysis was performed.

RESULTS

The average vegetable and fruit intake was lower, while sugar and salt consumption were higher than that recommended by Indonesia's national dietary guidelines. A high intake of ultra-processed foods (UPFs) was associated with young age, men, "single" status, a high education level, and employment with a high monthly income. Obesity and T2D were positively correlated with high intakes of cereals and tubers, UPFs, sugars, fats, and oils. Conversely, an inverse association was found between legume, vegetable, and fruit consumption and obesity risk. An inverse correlation was also observed between vegetable consumption and T2D risk. Moreover, a high salt intake was inversely correlated with fruit consumption in terms of HTN risk. Non-indulgence in habitual late-night snacking and refrainment from consuming more than one dish at each meal were also negatively related to the prevalence of obesity, T2D, and HTN. Inverse correlations were also observed between the prevalence rates of T2D and HTN and abstaining from adding sugar to beverages.

CONCLUSION

Foods high in fat, sugar, and sodium were strongly associated with the risks of obesity, T2D, and HTN. Additionally, poor eating habits were also associated with disease development.

Recent advances on erythorbyl fatty acid esters as multi-functional food emulsifiers

Over the past few decades, food scientists have investigated a wide range of emulsifiers to manufacture stable and safe emulsion-based food products. More recently, the development of emulsifiers with multi-functionality, which is the ability to have more than two functions, has been considered as a promising strategy for resolving rancidification and microbial contamination in emulsions. Erythorbyl fatty acid esters (EFEs) synthesized by enzymatic esterification of hydrophilic erythorbic acid and hydrophobic fatty acid have been proposed as multi-functional emulsifiers since they simultaneously exhibit amphiphilic, antioxidative, and antibacterial properties in both aqueous and emulsion systems. This review provides current knowledge about EFEs in terms of enzymatic synthesis and multi-functionality. All processes for synthesizing and identifying EFEs are discussed. Each functionality of EFEs and the proposed mechanism are described with analytical methodologies and experimental details. It would provide valuable insights into the development and application of a multi-functional emulsifier in food emulsion chemistry.

Dietary Emulsifier Exposure in People With Inflammatory Bowel Disease Compared With Healthy Controls: Is There a Cause for Concern?

BACKGROUND

Emulsifiers are implicated in the pathogenesis of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD). Few studies have examined emulsifier intake in people with existing IBD. We aimed to describe the frequency of exposure to 6 selected emulsifiers in a contemporary cohort of people with IBD and compare intake with healthy controls (HCs).

METHODS

Baseline food records from participants in an Australian prospective cohort study examining the microbiome of IBD patients and HCs were analyzed. Exposure to inflammatory emulsifiers polysorbate-80 (P80); carboxymethylcellulose (CMC); carrageenan; xanthan gum (XG); lecithin (soy and sunflower) and mono- and diglycerides of fatty acids (MDGs) were determined by examining ingredient lists. Frequency of emulsifier exposure between groups (IBD vs HC, Crohn's disease [CD] vs ulcerative colitis [UC], IBD children vs adults, active disease vs remission) was examined after controlling for confounders.

RESULTS

Records from 367 participants were analyzed (n = 176 IBD, of which there were 101 CD, 75 UC, and 191 HC patients). In total, 5022 unique food items were examined, with 18% containing 1 or more emulsifier of interest. Inflammatory bowel disease participants had significantly higher total daily emulsifier exposure compared with HCs (2.7 ± 1.8 vs 2.3 ± 1.6, P = .02). In IBD participants, emulsifiers with the highest daily exposure were MDGs (1.2 ± 0.93), lecithin (0.85 ± 0.93), and XG (0.38 ± 0.42). There were no recorded exposures to P80.

CONCLUSIONS

Inflammatory bowel disease participants were exposed to more emulsifiers than HCs. Intake of inflammatory emulsifiers were low or nonexistent, suggesting their presence in the food supply are not as common as frequently stated.

Applications of Plant Bioactive Compounds as Replacers of Synthetic Additives in the Food Industry

According to the Codex Alimentarius, a food additive is any substance that is incorporated into a food solely for technological or organoleptic purposes during the production of that food. Food additives can be of synthetic or natural origin. Several scientific evidence (in vitro studies and epidemiological studies like the controversial Southampton study published in 2007) have pointed out that several synthetic additives may lead to health issues for consumers. In that sense, the actual consumer searches for "Clean Label" foods with ingredient lists clean of coded additives, which are rejected by the actual consumer, highlighting the need to distinguish synthetic and natural codded additives from the ingredient lists. However, this natural approach must focus on an integrated vision of the replacement of chemical substances from the food ingredients, food contact materials (packaging), and their application on the final product. Hence, natural plant alternatives are hereby presented, analyzing their potential success in replacing common synthetic emulsifiers, colorants, flavorings, inhibitors of quality-degrading enzymes, antimicrobials, and antioxidants. In addition, the need for a complete absence of chemical additive migration to the food is approached through the use of plant-origin bioactive compounds (e.g., plant essential oils) incorporated in active packaging.

Evidence and hypotheses on adverse effects of the food additives carrageenan (E 407)/processed Eucheuma seaweed (E 407a) and carboxymethylcellulose (E 466) on the intestines: a scoping review

This scoping review provides an overview of publications reporting adverse effects on the intestines of the food additives carrageenan (CGN) (E 407)/processed Eucheuma seaweed (PES) (E 407a) and carboxymethylcellulose (CMC) (E 466). It includes evidence from human, experimental mammal and in vitro research publications, and other evidence. The databases Medline, Embase, Scopus, Web of Science Core Collection, Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews and Epistemonikos were searched without time limits, in addition to grey literature. The publications retrieved were screened against predefined criteria. From two literature searches, 2572 records were screened, of which 224 records were included, as well as 38 records from grey literature, making a total of 262 included publications, 196 on CGN and 101 on CMC. These publications were coded and analyzed in Eppi-Reviewer and data gaps presented in interactive maps. For CGN, five, 69 and 33 research publications on humans, experimental mammals and in vitro experiments were found, further separated as degraded or native (non-degraded) CGN. For CMC, three human, 20 animal and 14 in vitro research publications were obtained. The most studied adverse effects on the intestines were for both additives inflammation, the gut microbiome, including fermentation, intestinal permeability, and cancer and metabolic effects, and immune effects for CGN. Further studies should focus on native CGN, in the form and molecular weight used as food additive. For both additives, randomized controlled trials of sufficient power and with realistic dietary exposure levels of single additives, performed in persons of all ages, including potentially vulnerable groups, are needed.

Emulsifiers in ultra-processed foods in the UK food supply

OBJECTIVE

Ultra-processed foods (UPF), including those containing food additive emulsifiers, have received research attention due to evidence implicating them in the pathogenesis of certain diseases. The aims of this research were to develop a large-scale, brand-level database of UPF in the UK food supply and to characterise the occurrence and co-occurrence of food additive emulsifiers.

DESIGN

A database was compiled sampling all products from the food categories contributing to energy intake from UPF in the UK from the National Diet and Nutrition Survey (2008-2014). Every food in these categories were identified from online supermarket provision from the 'big four' supermarkets that dominate the market share in the UK, comprising Tesco, Sainsbury's, Asda and Morrisons.

SETTING

Major supermarkets in the UK.

RESULTS

A total of 32 719 food products in the UK supermarket food supply were returned in searches. Of these, 12 844 products were eligible and manually reviewed for the presence of emulsifiers. Emulsifiers were present in 6642 (51·7 %) food products. Emulsifiers were contained in 95·0 % of 'Pastries, buns and cakes', 81·9 % of 'Milk-based drinks', 81·0 % of 'Industrial desserts' and 77·5 % of 'Confectionary'. Fifty-one per cent of all emulsifier-containing foods contained multiple emulsifiers. Across emulsifier-containing foods, there were a median of two emulsifiers (IQR 2) per product. The five most common emulsifiers were lecithin (23·4 % of all products), mono- and diglycerides of fatty acids (14·5 %), diphosphates (11·6 %), and xanthan gum and pectin (8·0 %).

CONCLUSIONS

Findings from this study are the first to demonstrate the widespread occurrence and co-occurrence of emulsifiers in UPF in the UK food supply.

Low Emulsifier Diet in Healthy Female Adults: A Feasibility Study of Nutrition Education and Counseling Intervention

Emulsifiers are food additives commonly found in processed foods to improve texture stabilization and food preservation. Dietary emulsifier intake can potentially damage the gut mucosal lining resulting in chronic inflammation such as Crohn's disease. This study investigates the feasibility of a low-emulsifier diet among healthy female adults, as no previous reports have studied the feasibility of such a diet on healthy participants. A quasi-experimental study for a nutrition education and counseling intervention was conducted over 14 days among healthy Saudi participants aged 18 years and over. Assessment of dietary intake using 3-day food records was conducted at the baseline and 2-week follow-up. Participants attended an online educational session using the Zoom application illustrating instructions for a low-emulsifier diet. Daily exposure to emulsifiers was evaluated and nutrient intake was measured. A total of 30 participants completed the study. At baseline, 38 emulsifiers were identified, with a mean ± SD exposure of 12.23 ± 10.07 emulsifiers consumed per day. A significant reduction in the mean frequency of dietary emulsifier intake was observed at the end of the intervention (12.23 ± 10.07 vs. 6.30 ± 7.59, p < 0.01). However, intake of macronutrients and micronutrients was significantly reduced (p < 0.05). Good adherence to the diet was achieved by 40% of the participants, and 16.66% attained a 50% reduction of emulsifier intake. The study demonstrates that a low-emulsifier diet provided via dietary advice is feasible to follow and tolerable by healthy participants. However, the diet still needs further investigation and assessment of it is nutritional intake and quality before implementing it in patients with inflammatory bowel disease who are at high risk of poor nutritional intake.

Food additive emulsifiers and risk of cardiovascular disease in the NutriNet-Santé cohort: prospective cohort study

OBJECTIVE

To assess the associations between exposure to food additive emulsifiers and risk of cardiovascular disease (CVD).

DESIGN

Prospective cohort study.

SETTING

French NutriNet-Santé study, 2009-21.

PARTICIPANTS

95 442 adults (>18 years) without prevalent CVD who completed at least three 24 hour dietary records during the first two years of follow-up.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES

Associations between intake of food additive emulsifiers (continuous (mg/day)) and risk of CVD, coronary heart disease, and cerebrovascular disease characterised using multivariable proportional hazard Cox models to compute hazard ratios for each additional standard deviation (SD) of emulsifier intake, along with 95% confidence intervals.

RESULTS

Mean age was 43.1 (SD 14.5) years, and 79.0% (n=75 390) of participants were women. During follow-up (median 7.4 years), 1995 incident CVD, 1044 coronary heart disease, and 974 cerebrovascular disease events were diagnosed. Higher intake of celluloses (E460-E468) was found to be positively associated with higher risks of CVD (hazard ratio for an increase of 1 standard deviation 1.05, 95% confidence interval 1.02 to 1.09, P=0.003) and coronary heart disease (1.07, 1.02 to 1.12, P=0.004). Specifically, higher cellulose E460 intake was linked to higher risks of CVD (1.05, 1.01 to 1.09, P=0.007) and coronary heart disease (1.07, 1.02 to 1.12, P=0.005), and higher intake of carboxymethylcellulose (E466) was associated with higher risks of CVD (1.03, 1.01 to 1.05, P=0.004) and coronary heart disease (1.04, 1.02 to 1.06, P=0.001). Additionally, higher intakes of monoglycerides and diglycerides of fatty acids (E471 and E472) were associated with higher risks of all outcomes. Among these emulsifiers, lactic ester of monoglycerides and diglycerides of fatty acids (E472b) was associated with higher risks of CVD (1.06, 1.02 to 1.10, P=0.002) and cerebrovascular disease (1.11, 1.06 to 1.16, P<0.001), and citric acid ester of monoglycerides and diglycerides of fatty acids (E472c) was associated with higher risks of CVD (1.04, 1.02 to 1.07, P=0.004) and coronary heart disease (1.06, 1.03 to 1.09, P<0.001). High intake of trisodium phosphate (E339) was associated with an increased risk of coronary heart disease (1.06, 1.00 to 1.12, P=0.03). Sensitivity analyses showed consistent associations.

CONCLUSION

This study found positive associations between risk of CVD and intake of five individual and two groups of food additive emulsifiers widely used in industrial foods.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

ClinicalTrials.gov NCT03335644.

TFOS Lifestyle: Impact of nutrition on the ocular surface

Nutrients, required by human bodies to perform life-sustaining functions, are obtained from the diet. They are broadly classified into macronutrients (carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins), micronutrients (vitamins and minerals) and water. All nutrients serve as a source of energy, provide structural support to the body and/or regulate the chemical processes of the body. Food and drinks also consist of non-nutrients that may be beneficial (e.g., antioxidants) or harmful (e.g., dyes or preservatives added to processed foods) to the body and the ocular surface. There is also a complex interplay between systemic disorders and an individual's nutritional status. Changes in the gut microbiome may lead to alterations at the ocular surface. Poor nutrition may exacerbate select systemic conditions. Similarly, certain systemic conditions may affect the uptake, processing and distribution of nutrients by the body. These disorders may lead to deficiencies in micro- and macro-nutrients that are important in maintaining ocular surface health. Medications used to treat these conditions may also cause ocular surface changes. The prevalence of nutrition-related chronic diseases is climbing worldwide. This report sought to review the evidence supporting the impact of nutrition on the ocular surface, either directly or as a consequence of the chronic diseases that result. To address a key question, a systematic review investigated the effects of intentional food restriction on ocular surface health; of the 25 included studies, most investigated Ramadan fasting (56%), followed by bariatric surgery (16%), anorexia nervosa (16%), but none were judged to be of high quality, with no randomized-controlled trials.

Phase Diagram of Pickering Emulsions Stabilized by Cellulose Nanocrystals

Cellulose is a promising renewable and biocompatible biopolymer for stabilizing Pickering emulsions (PEs). In the present study, PEs were produced by low-frequency ultrasounds with cellulose nanocrystals (CNCs) and caprylic/capric triglycerides. Phase diagrams allowed to understand mechanisms of formation and long-term stabilization of PEs. Emulsion type, continuous phase viscosity, and yield of oil incorporation were studied after PEs formation. Droplet size, oil release, and stability were measured weekly up to 56 days of storage. Results showed that oil mass fraction above 70% w/w led to unstable W/O PEs. Lower oil mass fraction formed O/W PEs of stability depending on CNC content and oil mass fraction. Droplet size stability increased with CNCs/oil ratio. A very low CNCs/oil ratio led to phase separation and oil release. High CNC content stabilized oil droplets surface, increased aqueous phase viscosity, and prevented creaming. Highly stable PEs were produced for CNC content above 3% (w/w) and oil mass fraction below 50% (w/w). Mechanisms for PEs formation and stabilization were proposed for various CNC contents and oil mass fractions.

Carboxymethyl Cellulose as a Food Emulsifier: Are Its Days Numbered?

Carboxymethyl cellulose use in industry is ubiquitous. Though it is recognized as safe by the EFSA and FDA, newer works have raised concerns related to its safety, as in vivo studies showed evidence of gut dysbiosis associated with CMC's presence. Herein lies the question, is CMC a gut pro-inflammatory compound? As no work addressed this question, we sought to understand whether CMC was pro-inflammatory through the immunomodulation of GI tract epithelial cells. The results showed that while CMC was not cytotoxic up to 25 mg/mL towards Caco-2, HT29-MTX and Hep G2 cells, it had an overall pro-inflammatory behavior. In a Caco-2 monolayer, CMC by itself increased IL-6, IL-8 and TNF-α secretion, with the latter increasing by 1924%, and with these increases being 9.7 times superior to the one obtained for the IL-1β pro-inflammation control. In co-culture models, an increase in secretion in the apical side, particularly for IL-6 (692% increase), was observed, and when RAW 264.7 was added, data showed a more complex scenario as stimulation of pro-inflammatory (IL-6, MCP-1 and TNF-α) and anti-inflammatory (IL-10 and IFN-β) cytokines in the basal side was observed. Considering these results, CMC may exert a pro-inflammatory effect in the intestinal lumen, and despite more studies being required, the incorporation of CMC in foodstuffs must be carefully considered in the future to minimize potential GI tract dysbiosis.

Food, gut barrier dysfunction, and related diseases: A new target for future individualized disease prevention and management

Dysfunction of gut barrier is known as "leaky gut" or increased intestinal permeability. Numerous recent scientific evidences showed the association between gut dysfunction and multiple gastrointestinal tract (GI) and non-GI diseases. Research also demonstrated that food plays a crucial role to cause or remedy gut dysfunction related to diseases. We reviewed recent articles from electronic databases, mainly PubMed. The data were based on animal models, cell models, and human research in vivo and in vitro models. In this comprehensive review, our aim focused on the relationship between dietary factors, intestinal permeability dysfunction, and related diseases. This review synthesizes currently available literature and is discussed in three parts: (a) the mechanism of gut barrier and function, (b) food and dietary supplements that may promote gut health, and food or medication that may alter gut function, and (c) a table that organizes the synthesized information by general mechanisms for diseases related to leaky gut/intestinal permeability and associated dietary influences. With future research, dietary intervention could be a new target for individualized disease prevention and management.

Nanolignin-based high internal phase emulsions for efficient protection of curcumin against UV degradation

As an emulsifier, lignin exhibits excellent UV resistance on drug-loaded emulsion systems for drug delivery. However, due to the structural variation and complexity of lignins from various origins, their UV shielding performance varies with the techniques for lignin extraction, which impacts properties and the protection efficiency of lignin-based HIPEs (high internal phase emulsions). In this work, lignin nanoparticles, prepared from three lignin preparations of Eucalyptus, were used in HIPEs delivery systems to protect curcumin from degradation by UV radiation. Structures of the lignin preparations were characterized using 2D HSQC (heteronuclear single-quantum coherence) NMR (nuclear magnetic resonance), ³¹P NMR, and GPC (gel permeation chromatography). The residual curcumin level after 36 h UV exposure in the nanolignin-based HIPEs was over 72 %, much higher than that (< 10 % after 24 h UV exposure) in the oil phase without lignin, indicating that the nanolignin-based HIPEs with enhanced UV shielding ability protect curcumin better. Of the three lignin preparations, AL (alkali lignin), with the lowest molecular weight, highest contents of phenolic hydroxyl and carboxyl groups, and highest S/G ratio, displayed the best anti-UV radiation ability and the most uniform nanoparticle size.

Ultra-processed foods and human health: from epidemiological evidence to mechanistic insights

Epidemiological studies have suggested a role for ultra-processed foods in numerous chronic inflammatory diseases such as inflammatory bowel diseases and metabolic syndrome. Preclinical and clinical studies are accumulating to better decipher the effects of various aspects of food processing and formulation on the aetiology of chronic, debilitating inflammatory diseases. In this Review, we provide an overview of the current data that highlight an association between ultra-processed food consumption and various chronic diseases, with a focus on epidemiological evidence and mechanistic insights involving the intestinal microbiota.

Dietary Emulsifiers Exacerbate Food Allergy and Colonic Type 2 Immune Response through Microbiota Modulation

The significant increase in food allergy incidence is correlated with dietary changes in modernized countries. Here, we investigated the impact of dietary emulsifiers on food allergy by employing an experimental murine model. Mice were exposed to drinking water containing 1.0% carboxymethylcellulose (CMC) or Polysorbate-80 (P80) for 12 weeks, a treatment that was previously demonstrated to induce significant alterations in microbiota composition and function leading to chronic intestinal inflammation and metabolic abnormalities. Subsequently, the ovalbumin food allergy model was applied and characterized. As a result, we observed that dietary emulsifiers, especially P80, significantly exacerbated food allergy symptoms, with increased OVA-specific IgE induction and accelerated type 2 cytokine expressions, such as IL-4, IL-5, and IL-13, in the colon. Administration of an antibiotic regimen completely reversed the emulsifier-induced exacerbated susceptibility to food allergy, suggesting a critical role played by the intestinal microbiota in food allergy and type 2 immune responses.

Ultra-processed foods as a possible culprit for the rising prevalence of inflammatory bowel diseases

Inflammatory bowel diseases (IBD) are chronic inflammatory disorders of the gastrointestinal tract, and the exact pathogenesis is still unclear. It is believed that IBD develops in response to a complex interaction between the microbiota, environmental factors, and the immune system, in genetically predisposed individuals. Identifying these environmental factors will offer more insight in the development of the disease, and reveal new therapeutic targets for IBD patients. One of the environmental factors that has gained more interest over the last years is our diet. The prevalence of IBD has increased significantly and this increase is thought to be associated with a ‘Western diet', characterized by high intake of fats, added sugar, meat, and ultra-processed foods (UPFs). The UPFs now account for almost 50% of the energy intake in Westernized countries and are therefore an important characteristic of this Western diet. UPFs are characterized by higher amounts of salt, fat, sugar and the presence of different food additives. Epidemiological studies have found associations between UPF intake and a range of non-communicable diseases, including inflammatory bowel disease (IBD). Preclinical and clinical evidence suggest that non-nutritive ingredients and additives, present in UPFs, can negatively affect different components of the intestinal barrier, such as the microbiota, the mucus layer, the epithelium, and the immune cells in the lamina propria. Disruption of this barrier can cause the immune system to encounter an increased bacterial exposure, leading to an aberrant immune response. In this article, the available evidence on the possible role of UPFs and their components in the increasing incidence and prevalence of IBD is reviewed. These findings can be translated to the clinic and may be helpful to consider when giving dietary advice to IBD patients. A better understanding of the role of UPFs may lead to less restrictive diets for patients with IBD, hence increasing the dietary compliance and efficacy of exclusion diets.

Processed Food as a Risk Factor for the Development and Perpetuation of Crohn's Disease-The ENIGMA Study

(1) Background: Developing countries have experienced a rapid recent rise in Inflammatory Bowel Disease (IBD) incidence and emerging evidence suggests processed foods and food additives may predispose one to the development and perpetuation of Crohn’s disease (CD). The aim of this study was to evaluate processed food and food additive intake in CD patients and controls, in Australia (high CD incidence), Hong Kong (intermediate incidence) and mainland China (emerging incidence). (2) Methods: In 274 CD patients (CD), 82 first-degree relatives (FDR), 83 household members (HM) and 92 healthy unrelated controls (HC) from Australia (n = 180), Hong Kong (HK) (n = 160) and mainland China (n = 191) we estimated early life (0–18 years), recent (12 months), and current processed and food additive intake, using validated questionnaires and a 3-day-food diary. (3) Results: Early life processed food intake: Combining all regions, CD were more likely to have consumed soft drinks and fast foods than HM, more likely to have consumed processed fruit and snacks than their FDR, and more likely to have consumed a range of processed foods than HC. HK and China CD patients were more likely to have consumed a range of processed foods than HC. Recent food-additive intake (12-months): Combining all regions, CD patients had significantly higher intakes of aspartame and sucralose, and polysorbate-80, than HC, and more total emulsifiers, artificial sweeteners, and titanium dioxide than FDR and HC. HK and China CD patients had a higher intake of almost all food additives than all controls. Current additive intake (3-days): Australian and HK CD patients had higher total food-additive intake than FDR, and HK CD patients had a higher intake of total food-additives and emulsifiers than HM. (4) Conclusions: CD patients have been exposed to more processed food and food additives than control groups, which may predispose them to CD development and ongoing inflammation.

Olive Oil-Based Oleogel as Fat Replacer in a Sponge Cake: A Comparative Study and Optimization

Oleogels (defined as structured solid-like materials with a high amount of oil entrapped within a three-dimensional network of gelator molecules) represent a healthy alternative to fats that are rich in saturated and trans fatty acids. Given its fatty acids composition (oleic, linoleic, and linolenic acids), olive oil is an excellent candidate for the use of oleogels in the food industry. In this study, a D-optimal mixture design was employed to optimize the replacement of butter with olive oil-based oleogel in a type of sponge cake formulation: the plum cake. In addition, emulsifiers and whey proteins were used as recipe ingredients to extend the product’s shelf life by delaying staling phenomena and mold growth. In the experimental design, oleogel, emulsifier, and whey protein variables were set as the ingredients that change in specific ranges, while hardness, porosity, water activity, and moistness were used to characterize the obtained formulations. The experimental data of each response were fitted through polynomial regression models with the aim of identifying the best plum cake formulation. The results revealed that the best mixture was the formulation containing 76.98% olive oil-based oleogel, 7.28% emulsifier E471, and 15.73% whey protein. We stored the optimized plum cake for 3 months at room temperature and then checked for any hardness and moistness changes or mold spoilage.

Choice Experiment Assessment of Consumer Preferences for Yogurt Products Attributes: Evidence from Taiwan

Previous studies on consumer yogurt preferences have mainly focused on added sugar, nutrient content, and health claims, leaving several knowledge gaps that should be filled through in-depth research. In this study, a more complete multi-attribute preference model was developed using the number of probiotic types, type of milk source, presence of edible gels (GEL), and usage of health food labels as the main yogurt attributes. A choice experiment (CE) was then conducted to investigate the relationship between multiple attribute preferences and willingness-to-pay (WTP). A total of 435 valid questionnaires were collected by the convenience sampling method. The results show that (1) respondents highly value the health food label (HEA), followed by the number of probiotic types (PRO); (2) the highest WTP in the conditional logit (CL) model was New Taiwan Dollar (NTD) (USD 10.5 for HEA, and the lowest was NTD 1.0 for 100% milk powder (MLK2); (3) in the random-parameter logit (RPL) model, the highest WTP was NTD 14.6 for HEA, and the lowest was NTD 2.8 for GEL; (4) the most preferred attribute combination of yogurt was “8 or more probiotic types”, “a blend of raw milk and milk powder”, “the absence of edible gels”, “the presence of a health food label”, and “a price premium of NTD 6–10”; (5) married respondents with children were more willing to pay extra for yogurt products with a higher number of probiotic types and a health food label. The results may help the food industry understand and pay attention to consumer needs, which will, in turn, provide a reference for future product development and marketing strategies.

Improvement of methods for analysing sucrose acetate isobutyrate (SAIB) in soft drinks using GC-FID and evaluating antioxidant effects in the SAIB emulsion system

Sucrose acetate isobutyrate SAIB (E444) is a mixture produced by the esterification of sucrose with acetic anhydride and isobutyric anhydride. It is a food additive that is used as an emulsifier in soft drinks. It is difficult to analyse SAIB quantitatively because there are 256 synthesisable structures in the mixture. This study developed an analytical method for SAIB using gas chromatography-flame ionization detection (GC-FID). The pre-treatment of SAIB in soft drinks was performed using a liquid-liquid extraction method, which demonstrated a recovery rate of 107.8 ± 7.2%. In the GC-FID analysis of SAIB, numerous peaks were observed in the chromatogram, and the content of SAIB was calculated as the sum of these peak areas. A series of analytical methods were validated according to International Conference for Harmonization (ICH) guidelines. Accordingly, the applicability of the developed analytical method was confirmed for both domestic and imported soft drinks distributed in Korea. Additionally, in the linoleic acid emulsion, SAIB exhibited better lipid oxidation stability than the natural antioxidant α-tocopherol and had similar efficacy to the synthetic antioxidant butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT). Although SAIB has excellent lipid oxidation stability, it must be used within legal standards according to consumer demand to reduce the use of synthetic materials in processed foods. The validated GC-FID analytical method will enable subsequent monitoring of the distributed products.

Functionalized monolithic columns: Recent advancements and their applications for high-efficiency separation and enrichment in food and medicine

The chromatographic column is the core of a high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) system, and must have excellent separation efficiency and selectivity. Therefore, functional modification materials for monolithic columns have been rapidly developed. This study is a systematic review of the recently reported functionalized monolithic columns. In particular, the study reviews the types of functional monomers under different modification conditions, as well as the separation and detection techniques combined with chromatography, and their development prospects. In addition, the applications of functionalized monolithic columns in food analysis, biomedicine, and the analysis of active ingredient of Chinese herbal medicines in recent years are also discussed. Also reviewed are the functionalized monolithic columns for qualitative and quantitative analysis. It provided a reference for further development and application of organic polymer monolithic columns.

Food Emulsifiers and Metabolic Syndrome: The Role of the Gut Microbiota

The use of emulsifiers in processed foods and the rapid epidemic development of metabolic syndrome in Western countries over the past 20 years have generated growing interest. Evidence for the role of emulsifiers in metabolic syndrome through gut microbiota has not been clearly established, thus making it challenging for clinical nutritionists and dietitians to make evidence-based associations between the nature and the quantity of emulsifiers and metabolic disorders. This narrative review summarizes the highest quality clinical evidence currently available about the impact of food emulsifiers on gut microbiota composition and functions and the potential development of metabolic syndrome. The state-of-the-art of the different common emulsifiers is performed, highlighting where they are present in daily foods and their roles. Recent findings of in vitro, in vivo, and human studies assessing the effect of different emulsifiers on gut microbiota have been recently published. There is some progress in understanding how some food emulsifiers could contribute to developing metabolic diseases through gut microbiota alterations while others could have prebiotic effects. However, there are still many unanswered questions regarding daily consumption amounts and the synergic effects between emulsifiers’ intake and responses by the microbial signatures of each individual.

Food Additives Associated with Gut Microbiota Alterations in Inflammatory Bowel Disease: Friends or Enemies?

During the 21st century, the incidence and prevalence of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) is rising globally. Despite the pathogenesis of IBD remaining largely unclear, the interactions between environmental exposure, host genetics and immune response contribute to the occurrence and development of this disease. Growing evidence implicates that food additives might be closely related to IBD, but the involved molecular mechanisms are still poorly understood. Food additives may be categorized as distinct types in accordance with their function and property, including artificial sweeteners, preservatives, food colorant, emulsifiers, stabilizers, thickeners and so on. Various kinds of food additives play a role in modifying the interaction between gut microbiota and intestinal inflammation. Therefore, this review comprehensively synthesizes the current evidence on the interplay between different food additives and gut microbiome alterations, and further elucidates the potential mechanisms of food additives–associated microbiota changes involved in IBD.

Food Additives, a Key Environmental Factor in the Development of IBD through Gut Dysbiosis

Diet is a key environmental factor in inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) and, at the same time, represents one of the most promising therapies for IBD. Our daily diet often contains food additives present in numerous processed foods and even in dietary supplements. Recently, researchers and national authorities have been paying much attention to their toxicity and effects on gut microbiota and health. This review aims to gather the latest data focusing on the potential role of food additives in the pathogenesis of IBDs through gut microbiota modulation. Some artificial emulsifiers and sweeteners can induce the dysbiosis associated with an alteration of the intestinal barrier, an activation of chronic inflammation, and abnormal immune response accelerating the onset of IBD. Even if most of these results are retrieved from in vivo and in vitro studies, many artificial food additives can represent a potential hidden driver of gut chronic inflammation through gut microbiota alterations, especially in a population with IBD predisposition. In this context, pending the confirmation of these results by large human studies, it would be advisable that IBD patients avoid the consumption of processed food containing artificial food additives and follow a personalized nutritional therapy prescribed by a clinical nutritionist.

Current trends in flavor encapsulation: A comprehensive review of emerging encapsulation techniques, flavour release, and mathematical modelling

Food flavors are volatile compounds that impact the human sensory perception profoundly and find extensive applications in various food products. Because of their volatility and high sensitivity to pH, temperature, oxidation, and external conditions, they require adequate protection to last for a longer duration. Encapsulation plays a critical role in preserving food flavors by enhancing their thermal and oxidative stability, overcoming volatility limitations, and regulating their rapid release with improved bioavailability in food products. The current review focuses on the recent developments in food flavor encapsulation techniques, such as electrospinning/spraying, cyclodextrin inclusion complexes, coacervation, and yeast cell micro-carriers. The review also comprehensively discusses the role of encapsulants in achieving controlled flavor release, the mechanisms involved, and the mathematical modelling for flavor release. Specific well-established nanoencapsulation techniques render better encapsulation efficiency and controlled release of flavor compounds. The review examined specific emerging methods for flavor encapsulation, such as yeast cell encapsulation, which require further exploration and development. This article provides readers with up-to-date information on different encapsulation processes and coating methods used for flavor encapsulation.

Nutritional Global Status and Its Impact in Crohn's Disease

Background

Malnutrition among inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) subjects is well documented in literature and may emerge from factors including inadequate dietary intake, malabsorption and disease activity. The aim of this study was to complete a comprehensive nutrition assessment and explore what possibilities may help bring a better quality of life for IBD subjects.

Methods

Nutritional status based on biochemical tests, body composition and body mass index (BMI). Food intake was assessed by an alternate 3-day food record and the adequacy of intake was evaluated according to national and international references. Clinical disease activity was evaluated by the Harvey-Bradshaw index and CRP levels.

Results

The study included 217 patients and 65 controls, where 54.4% of these patients were classified as normal weight with a mean BMI lower than controls (23.8 ± 4.9 versus 26.9 ± 4.8 kg/m², P = 0.02). Patients with disease activity showed more overweight and obesity than patients with controlled disease. Vitamin B12 deficiency was present in 19% of Crohn’s disease (CD), mainly in patients with ileal commitment and small bowel resections. Anemia was present in 21.7% of patients, being more common in patients with active disease (25%) and bowel resection (23%). Regarding calorie intake (EI), CD group ingested more than controls (1986.3 ± 595.9 kcal versus 1701.8 ± 478.9 kcal; P = 0.003).

Conclusions

CD patients presented micronutrient deficiency when compared with controls, explained for other reasons than intake restrictions. Also, fat excess might have contributed to disease burden as continuously reported in the literature.

Recent Developments in the Formulation and Use of Polymers and Particles of Plant-based Origin for Emulsion Stabilizations

The main scope of this Review was the recent progress in the use of plant-based polymers and particles for the stabilization of Pickering and non-Pickering emulsion systems. Due to their availability and promising performance, it was discussed how the source, modification, and formulation of cellulose, starch, protein, and lignin-based polymers and particles would impact their emulsion stabilization. Special attention was given toward the material synthesis in two forms of polymeric surfactants and particles and the corresponding formulated emulsions. Also, the effects of particle size, degree of aggregation, wettability, degree of substitution, and electrical charge in stabilizing oil/water systems and micro- and macro-structures of oil droplets were discussed. The wide range of applications using such plant-based stabilizers in different technologies as well as their challenge and future perspectives were described.

Effect of diglyceryl dicaprylate on Candida albicans growth and pathogenicity

The antifungal effect of diglyceryl dicaprylate, one of the emulsifiers used as a food additive, on Candida albicans that is a pathogenic fungus that is predominant in the oral cavity was investigated. This component did not affect C. albicans growth; however, it suppressed some virulence factors in a concentration-dependent manner. Furthermore, the suppression of pathogenic factors, such as biofilm formation, adhesion, highly pathogenic dimorphism, and ability to produce proteolytic enzymes, was due to reduction in mRNA expression levels of genes involved in fungal pathogenicities. From these results, this emulsifier could potentially prevent the development of intraoral and extraoral diseases involving C. albicans and could potentially use in oral care and improvement of quality of life.

Polysorbate-Based Drug Formulations for Brain-Targeted Drug Delivery and Anticancer Therapy

Polysorbates (PSs) are synthetic nonionic surfactants consisting of polyethoxy sorbitan fatty acid esters. PSs have been widely employed as emulsifiers and stabilizers in various drug formulations and food additives. Recently, various PS-based formulations have been developed for safe and efficient drug delivery. This review introduces the general features of PSs and PS-based drug carriers, summarizes recent progress in the development of PS-based drug formulations, and discusses the physicochemical properties, biological safety, P-glycoprotein inhibitory properties, and therapeutic applications of PS-based drug formulations. Additionally, recent advances in brain-targeted drug delivery using PS-based drug formulations have been highlighted. This review will help researchers understand the potential of PSs as effective drug formulation agents.

Food Additive Emulsifiers and Their Impact on Gut Microbiome, Permeability, and Inflammation: Mechanistic Insights in Inflammatory Bowel Disease

The global burden of inflammatory bowel disease [IBD] has increased over the 21st century. Despite multiple studies investigating the pathogenesis of IBD, the causative mechanisms pertaining to its increased prevalence remain unclear. There is growing evidence that aspects of a 'Western diet' increase the risk of developing IBD. More recently, evidence implicating dietary emulsifiers has accumulated, with ecological studies showing a positive correlation between inflammatory bowel disease and emulsifier consumption. Further to these, cell and animal studies have demonstrated plausible mechanisms by which dietary emulsifiers may contribute to IBD pathogenesis through mechanisms including: promotion of pro-inflammatory intestinal microbiota; disruption of mucus architecture; increased intestinal permeability; activation of inflammatory pathways; and disruption of the cell cycle. This review critically analyses the current evidence for these mechanisms that may be of pathological relevance to IBD, evaluates recent dietary trials, acknowledges the challenges of dietary intervention studies, and gives an overview of ongoing and future clinical trials in this important area.