Lysosomal iron mobilization and induction of the mitochondrial permeability transition in acetaminophen-induced toxicity to mouse hepatocytes

Central Mechanisms of Acetaminophen Hepatotoxicity: Mitochondrial Dysfunction by Protein Adducts and Oxidant Stress

Acetaminophen (APAP) is an analgesic and antipyretic drug used worldwide, which is safe at therapeutic doses. However, an overdose can induce liver injury and even liver failure. Mechanistic studies in mice beginning with the seminal papers published by B.B. Brodie's group in the 1970s have resulted in important insight into the pathophysiology. Although the metabolic activation of APAP with generation of a reactive metabolite, glutathione depletion, and protein adduct formation are critical initiating events, more recently, mitochondria have come into focus as an important target and decision point of cell death. This review provides a comprehensive overview of the induction of mitochondrial superoxide and peroxynitrite formation and its propagation through a mitogen-activated protein kinase cascade, the mitochondrial permeability transition pore opening caused by iron-catalyzed protein nitration, and the mitochondria-dependent nuclear DNA fragmentation. In addition, the role of adaptive mechanisms that can modulate the pathophysiology, including autophagy, mitophagy, nuclear erythroid 2 p45-related factor 2 activation, and mitochondrial biogenesis, are discussed. Importantly, it is outlined how the mechanisms elucidated in mice translate to human hepatocytes and APAP overdose patients, and how this mechanistic insight explains the mechanism of action of the clinically approved antidote N-acetylcysteine and led to the recent discovery of a novel compound, fomepizole, which is currently under clinical development. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT: Acetaminophen (APAP)-induced liver injury is the most frequent cause of acute liver failure in western countries. Extensive mechanistic research over the last several decades has revealed a central role of mitochondria in the pathophysiology of APAP hepatotoxicity. This review article provides a comprehensive discussion of a) mitochondrial protein adducts and oxidative/nitrosative stress, b) mitochondria-regulated nuclear DNA fragmentation, c) adaptive mechanisms to APAP-induced cellular stress, d) translation of cell death mechanisms to overdose patients, and e) mechanism-based antidotes against APAP-induced liver injury.

The thrombopoietin mimetic JNJ-26366821 reduces the late injury and accelerates the onset of liver recovery after acetaminophen-induced liver injury in mice

Acetaminophen (APAP)-induced hepatotoxicity is comprised of an injury and recovery phase. While pharmacological interventions, such as N-acetylcysteine (NAC) and 4-methylpyrazole (4-MP), prevent injury there are no therapeutics that promote recovery. JNJ-26366821 (TPOm) is a novel thrombopoietin mimetic peptide with no sequence homology to endogenous thrombopoietin (TPO). Endogenous thrombopoietin is produced by hepatocytes and the TPO receptor is present on liver sinusoidal endothelial cells in addition to megakaryocytes and platelets, and we hypothesize that TPOm activity at the TPO receptor in the liver provides a beneficial effect following liver injury. Therefore, we evaluated the extent to which TPOm, NAC or 4-MP can provide a protective and regenerative effect in the liver when administered 2 h after an APAP overdose of 300 mg/kg in fasted male C57BL/6J mice. TPOm did not affect protein adducts, oxidant stress, DNA fragmentation and hepatic necrosis up to 12 h after APAP. In contrast, TPOm treatment was beneficial at 24 h, i.e., all injury parameters were reduced by 42-48%. Importantly, TPOm enhanced proliferation by 100% as indicated by PCNA-positive hepatocytes around the area of necrosis. When TPOm treatment was delayed by 6 h, there was no effect on the injury, but a proliferative effect was still evident. In contrast, 4MP and NAC treated at 2 h after APAP significantly attenuated all injury parameters at 24 h but failed to enhance hepatocyte proliferation. Thus, TPOm arrests the progression of liver injury by 24 h after APAP and accelerates the onset of the proliferative response which is essential for liver recovery.

Phytic acid attenuates acetaminophen-induced hepatotoxicity via modulating iron-mediated oxidative stress and SIRT-1 expression in mice

Introduction: Administration of high doses of acetaminophen (APAP) results in liver injury. Oxidative stress and iron overload play roles in the pathogenesis of APAP-induced hepatotoxicity. The present study assessed the potential hepatoprotective effects of phytic acid (PA), a natural antioxidant and iron chelator, on APAP-induced hepatotoxicity and the possible underlying mechanism through its effects on CYP2E1 gene expression, iron homeostasis, oxidative stress, and SIRT-1 expression levels. Methods: Twenty-four adult male albino mice were used in this study. Mice were divided into four groups (six mice in each group): control, APAP-treated, PA-treated and APAP + PA-treated groups. Liver function tests, serum and liver tissue iron load were evaluated in all the study groups. Hepatic tissue homogenates were used to detect oxidative stress markers, including malondialdehyde (MDA) and reduced glutathione (GSH). Histological hepatic evaluation and immunohistochemistry of SIRT-1 were performed. Quantitative real-time PCR was used for the assessment of CYP2E1 and SIRT-1 gene expressions. APAP-induced biochemical and structural hepatic changes were reported. Results: PA administration showed beneficial effects on APAP-induced hepatotoxicity through improvements in liver functions, decreased CYP2E1 gene expression, decreased serum and liver iron load, decreased MDA, increased GSH, increased SIRT-1 expression level and improvement in hepatic architecture. Conclusion: Conclusively, PA can be considered a potential compound that can attenuate acetaminophen-induced hepatotoxicity through its role as an iron chelator and antioxidant, as well as the up-regulation of SIRT-1 and down-regulation of CYP2E1.

Acetaminophen Hepatotoxicity: Paradigm for Understanding Mechanisms of Drug-Induced Liver Injury

Acetaminophen (APAP) overdose is the clinically most relevant drug hepatotoxicity in western countries, and, because of translational relevance of animal models, APAP is mechanistically the most studied drug. This review covers intracellular signaling events starting with drug metabolism and the central role of mitochondrial dysfunction involving oxidant stress and peroxynitrite. Mitochondria-derived endonucleases trigger nuclear DNA fragmentation, the point of no return for cell death. In addition, adaptive mechanisms that limit cell death are discussed including autophagy, mitochondrial morphology changes, and biogenesis. Extensive evidence supports oncotic necrosis as the mode of cell death; however, a partial overlap with signaling events of apoptosis, ferroptosis, and pyroptosis is the basis for controversial discussions. Furthermore, an update on sterile inflammation in injury and repair with activation of Kupffer cells, monocyte-derived macrophages, and neutrophils is provided. Understanding these mechanisms of cell death led to discovery of N-acetylcysteine and recently fomepizole as effective antidotes against APAP toxicity.

The mitochondrial calcium uniporter mediates mitochondrial Fe2+ uptake and hepatotoxicity after acetaminophen

Acetaminophen (APAP) overdose disrupts hepatocellular lysosomes, which release ferrous iron (Fe2+) that translocates into mitochondria putatively via the mitochondrial calcium uniporter (MCU) to induce oxidative/nitrative stress, the mitochondrial permeability transition (MPT), and hepatotoxicity. To investigate how MCU deficiency affects mitochondrial Fe2+ uptake and hepatotoxicity after APAP overdose, global MCU knockout (KO), hepatocyte specific (hs) MCU KO, and wildtype (WT) mice were treated with an overdose of APAP both in vivo and in vitro. Compared to strain-specific WT mice, serum ALT decreased by 88 and 56%, respectively, in global and hsMCU KO mice at 24 h after APAP (300 mg/kg). Hepatic necrosis also decreased by 84 and 56%. By contrast, when MCU was knocked out in Kupffer cells, ALT release and necrosis were unchanged after overdose APAP. Intravital multiphoton microscopy confirmed loss of viability and mitochondrial depolarization in pericentral hepatocytes of WT mice, which was decreased in MCU KO mice. CYP2E1 expression, hepatic APAP-protein adduct formation, and JNK activation revealed that APAP metabolism was equivalent between WT and MCU KO mice. In cultured hepatocytes after APAP, loss of cell viability decreased in hsMCU KO compared to WT hepatocytes. Using fructose plus glycine to prevent cell killing, mitochondrial Fe2+ increased progressively after APAP, as revealed with mitoferrofluor (MFF), a mitochondrial Fe2+ indicator. By contrast in hsMCU KO hepatocytes, mitochondrial Fe2+ uptake after APAP was suppressed. Rhod-2 measurements showed that Ca2+ did not increase in mitochondria after APAP in either WT or KO hepatocytes. In conclusion, MCU mediates uptake of Fe2+ into mitochondria after APAP and plays a central role in mitochondrial depolarization and cell death during APAP-induced hepatotoxicity.

Advances in the study of acetaminophen-induced liver injury

Acetaminophen (APAP) overdose is a significant cause of drug-induced liver injury and acute liver failure. The diagnosis, screening, and management of APAP-induced liver injury (AILI) is challenging because of the complex mechanisms involved. Starting from the current studies on the mechanisms of AILI, this review focuses on novel findings in the field of diagnosis, screening, and management of AILI. It highlights the current issues that need to be addressed. This review is supposed to summarize the recent research progress and make recommendations for future research.

Mitochondria in Acetaminophen-Induced Liver Injury and Recovery: A Concise Review

Mitochondria are critical organelles responsible for the maintenance of cellular energy homeostasis. Thus, their dysfunction can have severe consequences in cells responsible for energy-intensive metabolic function, such as hepatocytes. Extensive research over the last decades have identified compromised mitochondrial function as a central feature in the pathophysiology of liver injury induced by an acetaminophen (APAP) overdose, the most common cause of acute liver failure in the United States. While hepatocyte mitochondrial oxidative and nitrosative stress coupled with induction of the mitochondrial permeability transition are well recognized after an APAP overdose, recent studies have revealed additional details about the organelle's role in APAP pathophysiology. This concise review highlights these new advances, which establish the central role of the mitochondria in APAP pathophysiology, and places them in the context of earlier information in the literature. Adaptive alterations in mitochondrial morphology as well as the role of cellular iron in mitochondrial dysfunction and the organelle's importance in liver recovery after APAP-induced injury will be discussed.

Role of Pyroptosis in Acetaminophen-Induced Hepatotoxicity

Acetaminophen (APAP) is a widely used pain reliever that can cause liver injury or liver failure in response to an overdose. Understanding the mechanisms of APAP-induced cell death is critical for identifying new therapeutic targets. In this respect it was hypothesized that hepatocytes die by oncotic necrosis, apoptosis, necroptosis, ferroptosis and more recently pyroptosis. The latter cell death is characterized by caspase-dependent gasdermin cleavage into a C-terminal and an N-terminal fragment, which forms pores in the plasma membrane. The gasdermin pores can release potassium, interleukin-1β (IL-1β), IL-18, and other small molecules in a sublytic phase, which can be the main function of the pores in certain cell types such as inflammatory cells. Alternatively, the process can progress to full lysis of the cell (pyroptosis) with extensive cell contents release. This review discusses the experimental evidence for the involvement of pyroptosis in APAP hepatotoxicity as well as the arguments against pyroptosis as a relevant mechanism of APAP-induced cell death in hepatocytes. Based on the critical evaluation of the currently available literature and understanding of the pathophysiology, it can be concluded that pyroptotic cell death is unlikely to be a relevant contributor to APAP-induced liver injury.

A new fluorescent sensor mitoferrofluor indicates the presence of chelatable iron in polarized and depolarized mitochondria

Mitochondrial chelatable iron contributes to the severity of several injury processes, including ischemia/reperfusion, oxidative stress, and drug toxicity. However, methods to measure this species in living cells are lacking. To measure mitochondrial chelatable iron in living cells, here we synthesized a new fluorescent indicator, mitoferrofluor (MFF). We designed cationic MFF to accumulate electrophoretically in polarized mitochondria, where a reactive group then forms covalent adducts with mitochondrial proteins to retain MFF even after subsequent depolarization. We also show in cell-free medium that Fe²⁺ (and Cu²⁺), but not Fe³⁺, Ca²⁺, or other biologically relevant divalent cations, strongly quenched MFF fluorescence. Using confocal microscopy, we demonstrate in hepatocytes that red MFF fluorescence colocalized with the green fluorescence of the mitochondrial membrane potential (ΔΨ_m) indicator, rhodamine 123 (Rh123), indicating selective accumulation into the mitochondria. Unlike Rh123, mitochondria retained MFF after ΔΨ_m collapse. Furthermore, intracellular delivery of iron with membrane-permeant Fe³⁺/8-hydroxyquinoline (FeHQ) quenched MFF fluorescence by ∼80% in hepatocytes and other cell lines, which was substantially restored by the membrane-permeant transition metal chelator pyridoxal isonicotinoyl hydrazone. We also show FeHQ quenched the fluorescence of cytosolically coloaded calcein, another Fe²⁺ indicator, confirming that Fe³⁺ in FeHQ undergoes intracellular reduction to Fe²⁺. Finally, MFF fluorescence did not change after addition of the calcium mobilizer thapsigargin, which shows MFF is insensitive to physiologically relevant increases of mitochondrial Ca²⁺. In conclusion, the new sensor reagent MFF fluorescence is an indicator of mitochondrial chelatable Fe²⁺ in normal hepatocytes with polarized mitochondria as well as in cells undergoing loss of ΔΨ_m.

The role of Iron in lipid peroxidation and protein nitration during acetaminophen-induced liver injury in mice

Acetaminophen (APAP) hepatotoxicity, a leading cause of acute liver failure in western countries, is characterized by mitochondrial superoxide and peroxynitrite formation. However, the role of iron, especially as facilitator of lipid peroxidation (LPO), has been controversial. Our aim was to determine the mechanism by which iron promotes cell death in this context. Fasted male C57BL/6J mice were treated with the iron chelator deferoxamine, minocycline (inhibitor of the mitochondrial calcium uniporter) or vehicle 1 h before 300 mg/kg APAP. Deferoxamine and minocycline significantly attenuated APAP-induced elevations in serum alanine amino transferase levels and hepatic necrosis at 6 h. This protection correlated with reduced 3-nitro-tyrosine protein adducts; LPO (malondialdehyde, 4-hydroxynonenal) was not detected. Activation of c-jun N-terminal kinase (JNK) was not affected but mitochondrial release of intermembrane proteins was reduced suggesting that the effect of iron was at the level of mitochondria. Co-treatment of APAP with FeSO4 exacerbated liver injury and protein nitration and triggered significant LPO; all effects were reversed by deferoxamine. Thus, after APAP overdose, iron imported into mitochondria facilitates protein nitration by peroxynitrite triggering mitochondrial dysfunction and cell death. Under these conditions, endogenous defense mechanisms largely prevent LPO. However, after iron overload, protein nitration and LPO contribute to APAP hepatotoxicity.

Recommendations for the use of the acetaminophen hepatotoxicity model for mechanistic studies and how to avoid common pitfalls

Acetaminophen (APAP) is a widely used analgesic and antipyretic drug, which is safe at therapeutic doses but can cause severe liver injury and even liver failure after overdoses. The mouse model of APAP hepatotoxicity recapitulates closely the human pathophysiology. As a result, this clinically relevant model is frequently used to study mechanisms of drug-induced liver injury and even more so to test potential therapeutic interventions. However, the complexity of the model requires a thorough understanding of the pathophysiology to obtain valid results and mechanistic information that is translatable to the clinic. However, many studies using this model are flawed, which jeopardizes the scientific and clinical relevance. The purpose of this review is to provide a framework of the model where mechanistically sound and clinically relevant data can be obtained. The discussion provides insight into the injury mechanisms and how to study it including the critical roles of drug metabolism, mitochondrial dysfunction, necrotic cell death, autophagy and the sterile inflammatory response. In addition, the most frequently made mistakes when using this model are discussed. Thus, considering these recommendations when studying APAP hepatotoxicity will facilitate the discovery of more clinically relevant interventions.

Oxidant Stress and Acetaminophen Hepatotoxicity: Mechanism-Based Drug Development

Significance: Acetaminophen (APAP) is one of the quantitively most consumed drugs worldwide. Although safe at therapeutic doses, intentional or unintentional overdosing occurs frequently causing severe liver injury and even liver failure. In the United States, 50% of all acute liver failure cases are caused by APAP overdose. However, only one antidote with a limited therapeutic window, N-acetylcysteine, is clinically approved. Thus, more effective therapeutic interventions are urgently needed. Recent Advances: Although APAP hepatotoxicity has been extensively studied for almost 50 years, particular progress has been made recently in two areas. First, there is now a detailed understanding of involvement of oxidative and nitrosative stress in the pathophysiology, with identification of the reactive species involved, their initial generation in mitochondria, amplification through the c-Jun N-terminal kinase pathway, and the mechanisms of cell death. Second, it was demonstrated in human hepatocytes and through biomarkers in vivo that the mechanisms of liver injury in animals accurately reflect the human pathophysiology, which allows the translation of therapeutic targets identified in animals to patients. Critical Issues: For progress, solid understanding of the pathophysiology of APAP hepatotoxicity and of a drug's targets is needed to identify promising new therapeutic intervention strategies and drugs, which may be applied to humans. Future Directions: In addition to further refine the mechanistic understanding of APAP hepatotoxicity and identify additional drugs with complementary mechanisms of action to prevent cell death, more insight into the mechanisms of regeneration and developing of drugs, which promote recovery, remains a future challenge. Antioxid. Redox Signal. 35, 718-733.

Ferroptosis and Acetaminophen Hepatotoxicity: Are We Going Down Another Rabbit Hole?

Acetaminophen (APAP) hepatotoxicity is the most frequent cause of acute liver failure in the US. The mechanisms of APAP-induced liver injury have been under extensive investigations for decades, and many key events of this necrotic cell death are known today. Initially, two opposing hypotheses for cell death were proposed: reactive metabolite and protein adduct formation versus reactive oxygen and lipid peroxidation (LPO). In the end, both mechanisms were reconciled, and it is now generally accepted that the toxicity starts with formation of reactive metabolites that, after glutathione depletion, bind to cellular proteins, especially on mitochondria. This results in a mitochondrial oxidant stress, which requires amplification through a mitogen-activated protein kinase cascade, leading ultimately to enough reactive oxygen and peroxynitrite formation to trigger the mitochondrial membrane permeability transition and cell death. However, the earlier rejected LPO hypothesis seems to make a comeback recently under a different name: ferroptosis. Therefore, the objective of this review was to critically evaluate the available information about intracellular signaling mechanisms of APAP-induced cell death and those of ferroptosis. Under pathophysiologically relevant conditions, there is no evidence for quantitatively enough LPO to cause cell death, and thus APAP hepatotoxicity is not caused by ferroptosis. However, the role of mitochondria-localized minor LPO remains to be further investigated.

Novel Therapeutic Approaches Against Acetaminophen-induced Liver Injury and Acute Liver Failure

Liver injury and acute liver failure caused by acetaminophen (APAP, N-acetyl-p-aminophenol, paracetamol) overdose is a significant clinical problem in most western countries. The only clinically approved antidote is N-acetylcysteine (NAC), which promotes the recovery of hepatic GSH. If administered during the metabolism phase, GSH scavenges the reactive metabolite N-acetyl-p-benzoquinone imine. More recently, it was shown that NAC can also reconstitute mitochondrial GSH levels and scavenge reactive oxygen/peroxynitrite and can support mitochondrial bioenergetics. However, NAC has side effects and may not be efficacious after high overdoses. Repurposing of additional drugs based on their alternate mechanisms of action could be a promising approach. 4-Methylpyrazole (4MP) was shown to be highly effective against APAP toxicity by inhibiting cytochrome P450 enzymes in mice and humans. In addition, 4MP is a potent c-Jun N-terminal kinase inhibitor expanding its therapeutic window. Calmangafodipir (CMFP) is a SOD mimetic, which is well tolerated in patients and has the potential to be effective after severe overdoses. Other drugs approved for humans such as metformin and methylene blue were shown to be protective in mice at high doses or at human therapeutic doses, respectively. Additional protective strategies such as enhancing antioxidant activities, Nrf2-dependent gene induction and autophagy activation by herbal medicine components are being evaluated. However, at this point, their mechanistic insight is limited, and the doses used are high. More rigorous mechanistic studies are needed to advance these herbal compounds. Nevertheless, based on recent studies, 4-methylpyrazole and calmangafodipir have realistic prospects to become complimentary or even alternative antidotes to NAC for APAP overdose.

Assessment of the biochemical pathways for acetaminophen toxicity: Implications for its carcinogenic hazard potential

In 2019 California's Office of Environmental Health Hazard Assessment (OEHHA) initiated a review of the carcinogenic hazard potential of acetaminophen. In parallel with this review, herein we evaluated the mechanistic data related to the steps and timing of cellular events following therapeutic recommended (≤4 g/day) and higher doses of acetaminophen that may cause hepatotoxicity to evaluate whether these changes indicate that acetaminophen is a carcinogenic hazard. At therapeutic recommended doses, acetaminophen forms limited amounts of N-acetyl-p-benzoquinone-imine (NAPQI) without adverse cellular effects. Following overdoses of acetaminophen, there is potential for more extensive formation of NAPQI and depletion of glutathione, which may result in mitochondrial dysfunction and DNA damage, but only at doses that result in cell death - thus making it implausible for acetaminophen to induce the kind of stable, genetic damage in the nucleus indicative of a genotoxic or carcinogenic hazard in humans. The collective data demonstrate a lack of a plausible mechanism related to carcinogenicity and are consistent with rodent cancer bioassays, epidemiological results reviewed in companion manuscripts in this issue, as well as conclusions of multiple international health authorities.

Review: Usnic acid-induced hepatotoxicity and cell death

Increasing prevalence of herbal and dietary supplement-induced hepatotoxicity has been reported worldwide. Usnic acid (UA) is a well-known hepatotoxin derived from lichens. Since 2000, more than 20 incident reports have been received by the US Food and Drug Administration after intake of UA containing dietary supplement resulting in severe complications. Scientists and clinicians have been studying the cause, prevention and treatment of UA-induced hepatotoxicity. It is now known that UA decouples oxidative phosphorylation, induces adenosine triphosphate (ATP) depletion, decreases glutathione (GSH), and induces oxidative stress markedly leading to lipid peroxidation and organelle stress. In addition, experimental rat liver tissues have shown massive vacuolization associated with cellular swellings. Additionally, various signaling pathways, such as c-JNK N-terminal kinase (JNK), store-operated calcium entry, nuclear erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2), and protein kinase B/mammalian target of rapamycin (Akt/mTOR) pathways are stimulated by UA causing beneficial or harmful effects. Nevertheless, there are controversial issues, such as UA-induced inflammatory or anti-inflammatory responses, cytochrome P450 detoxifying UA into non-toxic or transforming UA into reactive metabolites, and unknown mechanism of the formation of vacuolization and membrane pore. This article focused on the previous and latest comprehensive putative mechanistic findings of UA-induced hepatotoxicity and cell death. New insights on controversial issues and future perspectives are also discussed and summarized.

The development and hepatotoxicity of acetaminophen: reviewing over a century of progress

Acetaminophen (APAP) was first synthesized in the 1800s, and came on the market approximately 65 years ago. Since then, it has become one of the most used drugs in the world. However, it is also a major cause of acute liver failure. Early investigations of the mechanisms of toxicity revealed that cytochrome P450 enzymes catalyze formation of a reactive metabolite in the liver that depletes glutathione and covalently binds to proteins. That work led to the introduction of N-acetylcysteine (NAC) as an antidote for APAP overdose. Subsequent studies identified the reactive metabolite N-acetyl-p-benzoquinone imine, specific P450 enzymes involved, the mechanism of P450-mediated oxidation, and major adducted proteins. Significant gaps remain in our understanding of the mechanisms downstream of metabolism, but several events appear critical. These events include development of an initial oxidative stress, reactive nitrogen formation, altered calcium flux, JNK activation and mitochondrial translocation, inhibition of mitochondrial respiration, the mitochondrial permeability transition, and nuclear DNA fragmentation. Additional research is necessary to complete our knowledge of the toxicity, such as the source of the initial oxidative stress, and to greatly improve our understanding of liver regeneration after APAP overdose. A better understanding of these mechanisms may lead to additional treatment options. Even though NAC is an excellent antidote, its effectiveness is limited to the first 16 hours following overdose.

Iron loading exerts synergistic action via a different mechanistic pathway from that of acetaminophen-induced hepatic injury in mice

Acetaminophen (APAP) overdose is a major cause of drug-induced acute liver failure. In such cases, free iron is released from lysosomes and is transported to mitochondria where it plays a pivotal role in APAP-induced liver injury. We previously reported that ascorbic acid (Asc) markedly mitigates APAP-induced hepatic damage in aldehyde reductase (Akr1a)-knockout (KO) mice that produce about 10% Asc as wild-type (WT) mice. However, the issue of the protective mechanism of Asc in association with the status of iron remains ambiguous. To gain additional insights into this issue, we examined effects of APAP (500 mg/kg) on female KO mice under conditions of iron loading. While the KO mice without AsA supplementation were more sensitive to APAP toxicity than the WT mice, FeSO₄ loading (25 mg/kg) to WT mice aggravated the hepatic injury, which was a similar extent to that of the KO mice. Supplementation of Asc (1.5 mg/ml in the drinking water) ameliorated KO mice irrespective of iron status but did not change the iron-mediated increase in the lethality in the WT mice. Hepatic cysteine and glutathione levels declined to similar extents in all mouse groups at 3 h irrespective of the iron status and largely recovered at 18 h after the APAP treatment when liver damage was evident. Asc prominently mitigated APAP toxicity in KO mice irrespective of the iron status but had no effect on the synergistic action of iron and APAP in the WT mice, suggesting that the mechanism for the deteriorating action of loaded iron is different from that of APAP toxicity.

(+)-Clausenamide protects against drug-induced liver injury by inhibiting hepatocyte ferroptosis

Drug-induced liver injury is the major cause of acute liver failure. However, the underlying mechanisms seem to be multifaceted and remain poorly understood, resulting in few effective therapies. Here, we report a novel mechanism that contributes to acetaminophen-induced hepatotoxicity through the induction of ferroptosis, a distinctive form of programmed cell death. We subsequently identified therapies protective against acetaminophen-induced liver damage and found that (+)-clausenamide ((+)-CLA), an active alkaloid isolated from the leaves of Clausena lansium (Lour.) Skeels, inhibited acetaminophen-induced hepatocyte ferroptosis both in vivo and in vitro. Consistently, (+)-CLA significantly alleviated acetaminophen-induced or erastin-induced hepatic pathological damages, hepatic dysfunctions and excessive production of lipid peroxidation both in cultured hepatic cell lines and mouse liver. Furthermore, treatment with (+)-CLA reduced the mRNA level of prostaglandin endoperoxide synthase 2 while it increased the protein level of glutathione peroxidase 4 in hepatocytes and mouse liver, confirming that the inhibition of ferroptosis contributes to the protective effect of (+)-CLA on drug-induced liver damage. We further revealed that (+)-CLA specifically reacted with the Cys-151 residue of Keap1, which blocked Nrf2 ubiquitylation and resulted in an increased Nrf2 stability, thereby leading to the activation of the Keap1–Nrf2 pathway to prevent drug-induced hepatocyte ferroptosis. Our studies illustrate the innovative mechanisms of acetaminophen-induced liver damage and present a novel intervention strategy to treat drug overdose by using (+)-CLA.

A mitochondrial journey through acetaminophen hepatotoxicity

Acetaminophen (APAP) overdose is the leading cause of acute liver failure in the United States and APAP-induced hepatotoxicity is initiated by formation of a reactive metabolite which depletes hepatic glutathione and forms protein adducts. Studies over the years have established the critical role of c-Jun N terminal kinase (JNK) and its mitochondrial translocation, as well as mitochondrial oxidant stress and subsequent induction of the mitochondrial permeability transition in APAP pathophysiology. However, it is now evident that mitochondrial responses to APAP overdose are more nuanced than appreciated earlier, with multiple levels of control, for example, to dose of APAP. In addition, mitochondrial dynamics, as well as the organelle's importance in recovery and regeneration after APAP-induced liver injury is also being recognized, which are exciting new areas with significant therapeutic potential. Thus, this review examines the temporal course of hepatocyte mitochondrial responses to an APAP overdose with an emphasis on mechanistic response to various trigger checkpoints such as NAPQI-mitochondrial protein adduct formation and activated JNK translocation. Mitochondrial dynamics, the organelle's role in recovery after APAP and emerging areas of research which promise to provide further insight into modulation of APAP pathophysiology by these fascinating organelles will also be discussed.

THE ROLE OF OXIDANT STRESS IN ACETAMINOPHE-INDUCED LIVER INJURY

Acetaminophen is a widely used analgesic and antipyretic, which can cause liver injury after an overdose. Although a controversial topic for some time, solid evidence for a critical role of oxidative and nitrosative stress has emerged during the last two decades. This review will discuss the cellular sources, amplification mechanisms and the consequences of the excessive formation of reactive oxygen and nitrogen species in the clinically relevant mouse model of acetaminophen hepatotoxicity. This new mechanistic insight contributes to the better understanding of the mechanism of action of N-acetylcysteine, the only clinically approved antidote. In addition, it provides the rationale for the development of new antidotes that target the formation or metabolism of mitochondrial superoxide.

Aldehyde dehydrogenase-2 activation decreases acetaminophen hepatotoxicity by prevention of mitochondrial depolarization

Oxidative stress contributes to acetaminophen (APAP) hepatotoxicity. Since lipid peroxidation produces reactive aldehydes, we investigated whether activation of mitochondrial aldehyde dehydrogenase-2 (ALDH2) with Alda-1 decreases liver injury after APAP. Male C57BL/6 mice fasted overnight received Alda-1 (20 mg/kg, i.p.) or vehicle 30 min before APAP (300 mg/kg, i.p.). Blood and livers were collected 2 or 24 h after APAP. Intravital multiphoton microscopy of rhodamine 123 (Rh123) and propidium iodide (PI) fluorescence was conducted 6 h after APAP administration to detect mitochondrial polarization status and cell death. 4-Hydroxynonenal protein adducts were present in 0.1% of tissue area without APAP treatment but increased to 7% 2 h after APAP treatment, which Alda-1 blunted to 1%. Serum alanine and aspartate aminotransferases increased to 7594 and 9768 U/L at 24 h respectively, which decreased ≥72% by Alda-1. Alda-1 also decreased centrilobular necrosis at 24 h after APAP from 47% of lobular areas to 21%. N-acetyl-p-benzoquinone imine protein adduct formation and c-Jun-N-terminal kinase phosphorylation increased after APAP as expected, but Alda-1 did not alter these changes. Without APAP, no mitochondrial depolarization was detected by intravital microscopy. At 6 h after APAP, 62% of tissue area showed depolarization, which decreased to 33.5% with Alda-1. Cell death as detected by PI labeling increased from 0 to 6.8 cells per 30× field 6 h after APAP, which decreased to 0.6 cells by Alda-1. In conclusion, aldehydes are important mediators of APAP hepatotoxicity. Accelerated aldehyde degradation by ALDH2 activation with Alda-1 decreases APAP hepatotoxicity by protection against mitochondrial dysfunction.

Suppression of iron mobilization from lysosomes to mitochondria attenuates liver injury after acetaminophen overdose in vivo in mice: Protection by minocycline

Acetaminophen (APAP) overdose causes hepatotoxicity involving mitochondrial dysfunction. Previous studies showed that translocation of Fe²⁺ from lysosomes into mitochondria by the mitochondrial Ca²⁺ uniporter (MCU) promotes the mitochondrial permeability transition (MPT) after APAP. Here, our Aim was to assess protection by iron chelation and MCU inhibition against APAP hepatotoxicity in mice. C57BL/6 mice and hepatocytes were administered toxic doses of APAP with and without starch-desferal (an iron chelator), minocycline (MCU inhibitor), or N-acetylcysteine (NAC). In mice, starch-desferal and minocycline pretreatment decreased ALT and liver necrosis after APAP by >60%. At 24 h after APAP, loss of fluorescence of mitochondrial rhodamine 123 occurred in pericentral hepatocytes often accompanied by propidium iodide labeling, indicating mitochondrial depolarization and cell death. Starch-desferal and minocycline pretreatment decreased mitochondrial depolarization and cell death by more than half. In cultured hepatocytes, cell killing at 10 h after APAP decreased from 83% to 49%, 35% and 27%, respectively, by 1 h posttreatment with minocycline, NAC, and minocycline plus NAC. With 4 h posttreatment in vivo, minocycline and minocycline plus NAC decreased ALT and necrosis by ~20% and ~50%, respectively, but NAC alone was not effective. In conclusion, minocycline and starch-desferal decrease mitochondrial dysfunction and severe liver injury after APAP overdose, suggesting that the MPT is likely triggered by iron uptake into mitochondria through MCU. In vivo, minocycline and minocycline plus NAC posttreatment after APAP protect at later time points than NAC alone, indicating that minocycline has a longer window of efficacy than NAC.

Mitochondrial Damage and Biogenesis in Acetaminophen-induced Liver Injury

Liver injury and acute liver failure caused by acetaminophen (APAP) overdose is the clinically most important drug toxicity in western countries. Mechanistic investigations have revealed a central role of mitochondria in the pathophysiology. Excess formation of the reactive metabolite N-acetyl-p-benzoquinone imine (NAPQI) after an overdose leads to hepatic glutathione depletion, mitochondrial protein adducts formation and an initial oxidant stress, which triggers the activation of mitogen activated protein (MAP) kinase cascade ultimately leading to c-jun N-terminal kinase (JNK) phosphorylation. Phospho-JNK translocates to the mitochondria and amplifies the oxidative and nitrosative stress eventually causing the mitochondrial membrane permeability transition pore opening and cessation of ATP synthesis. In addition, mitochondrial matrix swelling ruptures the outer membrane and releases endonucleases, which cause nuclear DNA fragmentation. Together, the nuclear DNA damage and the extensive mitochondrial dysfunction result in necrotic cell death. However, the pro-cell death signaling events are counteracted by adaptive responses such as autophagy and mitochondrial biogenesis. The improved mechanistic insight into the pathophysiology leads to better understanding of the mechanisms of action of the existing antidote N-acetylcysteine and justifies the clinical testing of novel therapeutics such as 4-methylpyrazole and calmangafodipir.

Emerging and established modes of cell death during acetaminophen-induced liver injury

Acetaminophen (APAP)-induced liver injury is an important clinical and toxicological problem. Understanding the mechanisms and modes of cell death are vital for the development of therapeutic interventions. The histological and clinical features of APAP hepatotoxicity including cell and organelle swelling, karyolysis, and extensive cell contents release lead to the characterization of the cell death as oncotic necrosis. However, the more recent identification of detailed signaling mechanisms of mitochondrial dysfunction, the amplification mechanisms of mitochondrial oxidant stress and peroxynitrite formation by a mitogen-activated protein kinase cascade, mechanisms of the mitochondrial permeability transition pore opening and nuclear DNA fragmentation as well as the characterization of the sterile inflammatory response suggested that the mode of cell death is better termed programmed necrosis. Additional features like mitochondrial Bax translocation and cytochrome c release, mobilization of lysosomal iron and the activation of receptor-interacting protein kinases and the inflammasome raised the question whether other emerging modes of cell death such as apoptosis, necroptosis, ferroptosis and pyroptosis could also play a role. The current review summarizes the key mechanisms of APAP-induced liver injury and compares these with key features of the newly described modes of cell death. Based on the preponderance of experimental and clinical evidence, the mode of APAP-induced cell death should be termed programmed necrosis; despite some overlap with other modes of cell death, APAP hepatotoxicity does not fulfill the characteristics of either apoptosis, necroptosis, ferroptosis, pyroptosis or autophagic cell death.

Metabolic implications of organelle-mitochondria communication

Cellular organelles are not static but show dynamism-a property that is likely relevant for their function. In addition, they interact with other organelles in a highly dynamic manner. In this review, we analyze the proteins involved in the interaction between mitochondria and other cellular organelles, especially the endoplasmic reticulum, lipid droplets, and lysosomes. Recent results indicate that, on one hand, metabolic alterations perturb the interaction between mitochondria and other organelles, and, on the other hand, that deficiency in proteins involved in the tethering between mitochondria and the ER or in specific functions of the interaction leads to metabolic alterations in a variety of tissues. The interaction between organelles is an emerging field that will permit to identify key proteins, to delineate novel modulation pathways, and to elucidate their implications in human disease.

Acetaminophen Hepatotoxicity

Acetaminophen (APAP) is one of the most popular and safe pain medications worldwide. However, due to its wide availability, it is frequently implicated in intentional or unintentional overdoses where it can cause severe liver injury and even acute liver failure (ALF). In fact, APAP toxicity is responsible for 46% of all ALF cases in the United States. Early mechanistic studies in mice demonstrated the formation of a reactive metabolite, which is responsible for hepatic glutathione depletion and initiation of the toxicity. This insight led to the rapid introduction of N-acetylcysteine as a clinical antidote. However, more recently, substantial progress was made in further elucidating the detailed mechanisms of APAP-induced cell death. Mitochondrial protein adducts trigger a mitochondrial oxidant stress, which requires amplification through a MAPK cascade that ultimately results in activation of c-jun N-terminal kinase (JNK) in the cytosol and translocation of phospho-JNK to the mitochondria. The enhanced oxidant stress is responsible for the membrane permeability transition pore opening and the membrane potential breakdown. The ensuing matrix swelling causes the release of intermembrane proteins such as endonuclease G, which translocate to the nucleus and induce DNA fragmentation. These pathophysiological signaling mechanisms can be additionally modulated by removing damaged mitochondria by autophagy and replacing them by mitochondrial biogenesis. Importantly, most of the mechanisms have been confirmed in human hepatocytes and indirectly through biomarkers in plasma of APAP overdose patients. The extensive necrosis caused by APAP overdose leads to a sterile inflammatory response. Although recruitment of inflammatory cells is necessary for removal of cell debris in preparation for regeneration, these cells have the potential to aggravate the injury. This review touches on the newest insight into the intracellular mechanisms of APAP-induced cells death and the resulting inflammatory response. Furthermore, it discusses the translation of these findings to humans and the emergence of new therapeutic interventions.

Acetaminophen hepatotoxicity: A mitochondrial perspective

Acetaminophen (APAP) is a highly effective analgesic, which is safe at therapeutic doses. However, an overdose can cause hepatotoxicity and even liver failure. APAP toxicity is currently the most common cause of acute liver failure in the United States. Decades of research on mechanisms of liver injury have established the role of mitochondria as central players in APAP-induced hepatocyte necrosis and this chapter examines the various facets of the organelle's involvement in the process of injury as well as in resolution of damage. The injury process is initiated by formation of a reactive metabolite, which binds to sulfhydryl groups of cellular proteins including mitochondrial proteins. This inhibits the electron transport chain and leads to formation of reactive oxygen species, which induce the activation of redox-sensitive members of the MAP kinase family ultimately causing activation of c-Jun N terminal kinase, JNK. Translocation of JNK to the mitochondria then amplifies mitochondrial dysfunction, ultimately resulting in mitochondrial permeability transition and release of mitochondrial intermembrane proteins, which trigger nuclear DNA fragmentation. Together, these events result in hepatocyte necrosis, while adaptive mechanisms such as mitophagy remove damaged mitochondria and minimize the extent of the injury. This oscillation between recovery and necrosis is predominant in cells at the edge of the necrotic area in the liver, where induction of mitochondrial biogenesis is important for liver regeneration. All these aspects of mitochondria in APAP hepatotoxicity, as well as their relevance to humans with APAP overdose and development of therapeutic approaches will be examined in detail in this chapter.

The Effects of Chronic Iron Overload in Rats with Acute Acetaminophen Overdose

BACKGROUND AND AIMS

Rats are resistant to acetaminophen (APAP) hepatotoxicity. In this study, we evaluated whether by augmentation of the hepatic oxidative stress, through the induction of hepatic iron overload (IO), it will be feasible to overcome the resistance of rats to the toxic effects of APAP.

METHOD

Rats with no or increased hepatic IO.

RESULTS

Providing iron by diet induced hepatocellular IO, while parenteral iron administration induced combined hepatocellular and sinusoidal cell IO. APAP administration to rats with no IO caused an increase in hepatic oxidative stress and a decrease in the hepatic antioxidative markers but no hepatic cell damage. APAP administration to rats with hepatocellular IO further amplified the hepatic oxidative stress but induced only hepatocyte feathery degeneration without any increase in serum aminotransaminases. APAP administration to rats with combined hepatocellular and sinusoidal cell IO caused an unexpected decrease in hepatic oxidative stress and increase in the hepatic antioxidative markers and no hepatic cell damage. No hepatic expression of activated c-jun-N-terminal kinase was detected in any of the rats.

CONCLUSIONS

The hepatic distribution of iron may affect its oxidative/antioxidative milieu. Augmentation of hepatic oxidative stress did not increase the rats' vulnerability to APAP.

Mitochondrial dysfunction as a mechanism of drug-induced hepatotoxicity: current understanding and future perspectives

Mitochondria are critical cellular organelles for energy generation and are now also recognized as playing important roles in cellular signaling. Their central role in energy metabolism, as well as their high abundance in hepatocytes, make them important targets for drug-induced hepatotoxicity. This review summarizes the current mechanistic understanding of the role of mitochondria in drug-induced hepatotoxicity caused by acetaminophen, diclofenac, anti-tuberculosis drugs such as rifampin and isoniazid, anti-epileptic drugs such as valproic acid and constituents of herbal supplements such as pyrrolizidine alkaloids. The utilization of circulating mitochondrial-specific biomarkers in understanding mechanisms of toxicity in humans will also be examined. In summary, it is well-established that mitochondria are central to acetaminophen-induced cell death. However, the most promising areas for clinically useful therapeutic interventions after acetaminophen toxicity may involve the promotion of adaptive responses and repair processes including mitophagy and mitochondrial biogenesis, In contrast, the limited understanding of the role of mitochondria in various aspects of hepatotoxicity by most other drugs and herbs requires more detailed mechanistic investigations in both animals and humans. Development of clinically relevant animal models and more translational studies using mechanistic biomarkers are critical for progress in this area.

Relevance for patients:This review focuses on the role of mitochondrial dysfunction in liver injury mechanisms of clinically important drugs like acetaminophen, diclofenac, rifampicin, isoniazid, amiodarone and others. A better understanding ofthe mechanisms in animal models and their translation to patients will be critical for the identification of new therapeutic targets.

Mitochondrial-Lysosomal Axis in Acetaminophen Hepatotoxicity

Acetaminophen (APAP) toxicity is the most common cause of acute liver failure and a major indication for liver transplantion in the United States and Europe. Although significant progress has been made in understanding the molecular mechanisms underlying APAP hepatotoxicity, there is still an urgent need to find novel and effective therapies against APAP-induced acute liver failure. Hepatic APAP metabolism results in the production of the reactive metabolite N-acetyl-p-benzoquinone imine (NAPQI), which under physiological conditions is cleared by its conjugation with glutathione (GSH) to prevent its targeting to mitochondria. APAP overdose or GSH limitation leads to mitochondrial NAPQI-protein adducts formation, resulting in oxidative stress, mitochondrial dysfunction, and necrotic cell death. As mitochondria are a major target of APAP hepatotoxicity, mitochondrial quality control and clearance of dysfunctional mitochondria through mitophagy, emerges as an important strategy to limit oxidative stress and the engagement of molecular events leading to cell death. Recent evidence has indicated a lysosomal-mitochondrial cross-talk that regulates APAP hepatotoxicity. Moreover, as lysosomal function is essential for mitophagy, impairment in the fusion of lysosomes with autophagosomes-containing mitochondria may compromise the clearance of dysfunctional mitochondria, resulting in exacerbated APAP hepatotoxicity. This review centers on the role of mitochondria in APAP hepatotoxicity and how the mitochondrial/lysosomal axis can influence APAP-induced liver failure.

Oxidant Stress and Lipid Peroxidation in Acetaminophen Hepatotoxicity

Acetaminophen (APAP) overdose is the most frequent cause of liver injury and acute liver failure in many western countries. The mechanism of APAP-induced hepatocyte necrosis has been investigated extensively. The formation of a reactive metabolite and its binding to cellular proteins was initially thought to be responsible for cell death. A competing hypothesis was introduced that questioned the relevance of protein binding and instead suggested that P450-derived oxidant stress and lipid peroxidation causes APAP-induced liver injury. However, work over the last 15 years has reconciled some of these apparent contradictory hypotheses. This review summarizes the present state of knowledge on the role of reactive oxygen species (ROS) in APAP hepatotoxicity. Detailed investigations into the sources and relevance of the oxidant stress have clearly shown the critical role of the electron transport chain of mitochondria as main source of the oxidant stress. Other potential sources of ROS such as cytochrome P450 enzymes or NADPH oxidase on phagocytes are of limited relevance. The mitochondria-derived superoxide and peroxynitrite formation is initiated by the binding of the reactive metabolite to mitochondrial proteins and the amplification by mitogen activated protein kinases. The consequences of this oxidant stress are the opening of the mitochondrial membrane permeability transition pore with cessation of ATP synthesis, nuclear DNA fragmentation and ultimately cell necrosis. Lipid peroxidation is not a relevant mechanism of cell death but can be a marker of ROS formation. These mechanistic insights suggest that targeting mitochondrial oxidant stress is a promising therapeutic option for APAP hepatotoxicity.

Acetaminophen Toxicity: Novel Insights Into Mechanisms and Future Perspectives

Acetaminophen (APAP) overdose is the most common cause of acute liver failure in the US, and decades of intense study of its pathogenesis resulted in the development of the antidote N-acetylcysteine, which facilitates scavenging of the reactive metabolite and is the only treatment in clinical use. However, the narrow therapeutic window of this intervention necessitates a better understanding of the intricacies of APAP-induced liver injury for the development of additional therapeutic approaches that can benefit late-presenting patients. More recent investigations into APAP hepatotoxicity have established the critical role of mitochondrial dysfunction in mediating liver injury as well as clarified mechanisms of APAP-induced hepatocyte cell death. Thus, it is now established that mitochondrial oxidative and nitrosative stress is a key mechanistic feature involved in downstream signaling after APAP overdose. The identification of specific mediators of necrotic cell death further establishes the regulated nature of APAP-induced hepatocyte cell death. In addition, the discovery of the role of mitochondrial dynamics and autophagy in APAP-induced liver injury provides additional insight into the elaborate cell signaling mechanisms involved in the pathogenesis of this important clinical problem. In spite of these new insights into the mechanisms of liver injury, significant controversy still exists on the role of innate immunity in APAP-induced hepatotoxicity.

Oxidative Stress and Acute Hepatic Injury

Reactive oxygen species have long been implicated in the pathophysiology of acute liver injury. However, the translation of these findings to the clinic and the development of therapeutic agents have been slow mainly due to the poor mechanistic understanding of the pathophysiology and the many indirect approaches used to characterize the role of oxidant stress in liver injury. The current review discusses in depth the sources of reactive oxygen, the oxidants involved and the impact of this oxidant stress in the mechanism of cell death in 3 different clinically relevant acute liver injury models.

Sodium 4-phenylbutyric acid prevents murine acetaminophen hepatotoxicity by minimizing endoplasmic reticulum stress

BACKGROUND

Acetaminophen (APAP) overdose induces severe oxidative stress followed by hepatocyte apoptosis/necrosis. Previous studies have indicated that endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress is involved in the cell death process. Therefore, we investigated the effect of the chemical chaperone 4-phenyl butyric acid (PBA) on APAP-induced liver injury in mice.

METHODS

Eight-week-old male C57Bl6/J mice were given a single intraperitoneal (i.p.) injection of APAP (450 mg/kg body weight), following which some were repeatedly injected with PBA (120 mg/kg body weight, i.p.) every 3 h starting at 0.5 h after the APAP challenge. All mice were then serially euthanized up to 12 h later.

RESULTS

PBA treatment dramatically ameliorated the massive hepatocyte apoptosis/necrosis that was observed 6 h after APAP administration. PBA also significantly prevented the APAP-induced increases in cleaved activating transcription factor 6 and phosphorylation of c-Jun N-terminal protein kinase and significantly blunted the increases in mRNA levels for binding immunoglobulin protein, spliced X-box binding protein-1, and C/EBP homologous protein. Moreover, PBA significantly prevented APAP-induced Bax translocation to the mitochondria, and the expression of heme oxygenase-1 mRNA and 4-hydroxynonenal. By contrast, PBA did not affect hepatic glutathione depletion following APAP administration, reflecting APAP metabolism.

CONCLUSIONS

PBA prevents APAP-induced liver injury even when an APAP challenge precedes its administration. The underlying mechanism of action most likely involves the prevention of ER stress-induced apoptosis/necrosis in the hepatocytes during APAP intoxication.

Mechanisms of acetaminophen hepatotoxicity and their translation to the human pathophysiology

Acetaminophen (APAP) overdose is the most common cause of acute liver failure in the United States and mechanisms of liver injury induced by APAP overdose have been the focus of extensive investigation. Studies in the mouse model, which closely reproduces the human condition, have shown that hepatotoxicity is initiated by formation of a reactive metabolite N-acetyl-p-benzoquinone imine (NAPQI), which depletes cellular glutathione and forms protein adducts on mitochondrial proteins. This leads to mitochondrial oxidative and nitrosative stress, accompanied by activation of c-jun N-terminal kinase (JNK) and its translocation to the mitochondria. This then amplifies the mitochondrial oxidant stress, resulting in translocation of Bax and dynamin related protein 1 (Drp1) to the mitochondria, which induces mitochondrial fission, and ultimately induction of the mitochondrial membrane permeability transition (MPT). The induction of MPT triggers release of intermembrane proteins such as apoptosis inducing factor (AIF) and endonuclease G into the cytosol and their translocation to the nucleus, causing nuclear DNA fragmentation and activation of regulated necrosis. Though these cascades of events were primarily identified in the mouse model, studies on human hepatocytes and analysis of circulating biomarkers from patients after APAP overdose, indicate that a number of mechanistic events are identical in mice and humans. Circulating biomarkers also seem to be useful in predicting the course of liver injury after APAP overdose in humans and hold promise for significant clinical use in the near future.

The protection effects of (1E,6E)-1,7-diphenylhepta-1,6-diene-3,5-dione, a curcumin analogue, against operative liver injury in rats

The relationship between the chemistry characteristic and the hepatoprotective effects of (1E,6E)-1,7-diphenylhepta-1,6-diene-3,5-dione (DDD), a curcumin analogue, in operative liver injury rats was investigated to reveal the mechanism of hepatic protection effects of DDD. DDD (1.2-4.8mmol/kg) was administrated 10min before reperfusion phase in hepatic ischemia-reperfusion injury (IRI) rats. DDD (4.8mmol/kg) administrated 10min before ischemia and N-acetylcysteine (NAC) (4.8mmol/kg) administrated 10min before reperfusion were included for comparative studies. The plasma liver enzyme activities, histopathological indices and markers of lipid peroxide were determined to evaluate the hepatic protection effects. Effects of DDD on succinate dehydrogenase (SDH) activity were also investigated. DDD showed dose-dependent hepatocyte protections when administrated 10min before reperfusion stages in hepatic IRI rats. DDD showed almost equivalent hepatoprotective effects when administrated 10min before ischemia phase demonstrating that DDD acted on the reperfusion stages selectively against the hepatic IRI, instead of ischemia phase. NAC was not effective against hepatic IRI when treated 10min before reperfusion because of the higher pKa of NAC. In additional, DDD had no effect on the SDH both in hepatic IRI rats and in mitochondria. In conclusion, DDD had dose-dependent hepatocyte protections in the reperfusion stages in hepatic IRI rats, while the observed hepatocyte protections of DDD did not involve SDH activities. β-Diketone structures of DDD were crucial for the hepatocyte protections. The abilities of DDD to clear up the unsaturated aldehydes related with the enolate nucleophilicity and the pKa. DDD might be a promising candidate to treat hepatic IRI.

Trifluoperazine inhibits acetaminophen-induced hepatotoxicity and hepatic reactive nitrogen formation in mice and in freshly isolated hepatocytes

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Increased reactive nitrogen and oxygen species formation leads to APAP hepatoxicity.

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TFP is known to block nNOS both in vivo as well as in vitro.

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The nNOS inhibitor TFP blocks toxicity and the increased RNS/ROS formation.

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Toxicity occurs with increased 3- nitro tyrosine both in vivo as well as in vitro.

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NNOS inhibition by TFP leads to decreasing 3-nitro tyrosine in vivo as well as in vitro.

The hepatotoxicity of acetaminophen (APAP) occurs by initial metabolism to N-acetyl-p-benzoquinone imine which depletes GSH and forms APAP-protein adducts. Subsequently, the reactive nitrogen species peroxynitrite is formed from nitric oxide (NO) and superoxide leading to 3-nitrotyrosine in proteins. Toxicity occurs with inhibited mitochondrial function. We previously reported that in hepatocytes the nNOS (NOS1) inhibitor NANT inhibited APAP toxicity, reactive nitrogen and oxygen species formation, and mitochondrial dysfunction. In this work we examined the effect of trifluoperazine (TFP), a calmodulin antagonist that inhibits calcium induced nNOS activation, on APAP hepatotoxicity and reactive nitrogen formation in murine hepatocytes and in vivo. In freshly isolated hepatocytes TFP inhibited APAP induced toxicity, reactive nitrogen formation (NO, GSNO, and 3-nitrotyrosine in protein), reactive oxygen formation (superoxide), loss of mitochondrial membrane potential, decreased ATP production, decreased oxygen consumption rate, and increased NADH accumulation. TFP did not alter APAP induced GSH depletion in the hepatocytes or the formation of APAP protein adducts which indicated that reactive metabolite formation was not inhibited. Since we previously reported that TFP inhibits the hepatotoxicity of APAP in mice without altering hepatic APAP-protein adduct formation, we examined the APAP treated mouse livers for evidence of reactive nitrogen formation. 3-Nitrotyrosine in hepatic proteins and GSNO were significantly increased in APAP treated mouse livers and decreased in the livers of mice treated with APAP plus TFP. These data are consistent with a hypothesis that APAP hepatotoxicity occurs with altered calcium metabolism, activation of nNOS leading to increased reactive nitrogen formation, and mitochondrial dysfunction.

TAMH: A Useful In Vitro Model for Assessing Hepatotoxic Mechanisms

In vitro models for hepatotoxicity can be useful tools to predict in vivo responses. In this review, we discuss the use of the transforming growth factor-α transgenic mouse hepatocyte (TAMH) cell line, which is an attractive model to study drug-induced liver injury due to its ability to retain a stable phenotype and express drug-metabolizing enzymes. Hepatotoxicity involves damage to the liver and is often associated with chemical exposure. Since the liver is a major site for drug metabolism, drug-induced liver injury is a serious health concern for certain agents. At the molecular level, various mechanisms may protect or harm the liver during drug-induced hepatocellular injury including signaling pathways and endogenous factors (e.g., Bcl-2, GSH, Nrf2, or MAPK). The interplay between these and other pathways in the hepatocyte can change upon drug or drug metabolite exposure leading to intracellular stress and eventually cell death and liver injury. This review focuses on mechanistic studies investigating drug-induced toxicity in the TAMH line and how alterations to hepatotoxic mechanisms in this model relate to the in vivo situation. The agents discussed herein include acetaminophen (APAP), tetrafluoroethylcysteine (TFEC), flutamide, PD0325901, lapatinib, and flupirtine.

Enolate-Forming Compounds as a Novel Approach to Cytoprotection

Evidence from laboratory studies and clinical trials suggests that plant-derived polyphenolic compounds such as curcumin, resveratrol, or phloretin might be useful in the treatment of certain diseases (e.g., Alzheimer's disease) and acute tissue injury states (e.g., spinal cord trauma). However, despite this potential, the corresponding chemical instability, toxic potential, and low bioavailability of these compounds could limit their ultimate clinical relevance. We have shown that pharmacophores of curcumin (e.g., 2-acetylcyclopentanone) and phloretin (e.g., 2',4',6'-trihydroxyacetophenone; THA) can provide cytoprotection in cell culture and animal models of oxidative stress injury. These pharmacophores are 1,3-dicarbonyl and polyphenol derivatives, the enol groups of which can ionize in biological solutions to form an enolate. This carbanionic moiety can chelate metal ions and, as a nucleophile, can scavenge toxic electrophiles (e.g., acrolein, 4-hydroxy-2-nonenal, and N-acetyl-p-benzoquinone imine) involved in many pathogenic conditions. Aromatic derivatives such as THA can also trap free oxygen and nitrogen radicals and thereby provide another layer of cytoprotection. The multifunctional character of these enolate-forming compounds suggests an ability to block pathogenic processes (e.g., oxidative stress) at several steps. The purpose of this review is to discuss research supporting our theory that enolate formation is a significant cytoprotective property that represents a platform for development of pharmacotherapeutic approaches to a variety of toxic and pathogenic conditions. Our discussion will focus on mechanism and structure-activity studies that define enolate chemistry and their corresponding relationships to cytoprotection.

Oxidative stress during acetaminophen hepatotoxicity: Sources, pathophysiological role and therapeutic potential

Acetaminophen (APAP) hepatotoxicity is characterized by an extensive oxidative stress. However, its source, pathophysiological role and possible therapeutic potential if targeted, have been controversially described. Earlier studies argued for cytochrome P450-generated reactive oxygen species (ROS) during APAP metabolism, which resulted in massive lipid peroxidation and subsequent liver injury. However, subsequent studies convincingly challenged this assumption and the current paradigm suggests that mitochondria are the main source of ROS, which impair mitochondrial function and are responsible for cell signaling resulting in cell death. Although immune cells can be a source of ROS in other models, no reliable evidence exists to support a role for immune cell-derived ROS in APAP hepatotoxicity. Recent studies suggest that mitochondrial targeted antioxidants can be viable therapeutic agents against hepatotoxicity induced by APAP overdose, and re-purposing existing drugs to target oxidative stress and other concurrent signaling events can be a promising strategy to increase its potential application in patients with APAP overdose.

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Oxidative stress plays a critical role in acetaminophen hepatotoxicity.

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Mitochondria are the main source of ROS and RNS that are responsible for the toxicity.

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Cytochrome P450 and inflammatory cells are probably not relevant sources of ROS for the toxicity.

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Mitochondrial oxidative stress is a promising therapeutic target against APAP overdose.

Translocation of iron from lysosomes to mitochondria during acetaminophen-induced hepatocellular injury: Protection by starch-desferal and minocycline

Acetaminophen (APAP) overdose causes hepatotoxicity involving mitochondrial dysfunction and the mitochondrial permeability transition (MPT). Iron is a critical catalyst for ROS formation, and reactive oxygen species (ROS) play an important role in APAP-induced hepatotoxicity. Previous studies show that APAP disrupts lysosomes, which release ferrous iron (Fe(2+)) into the cytosol to trigger the MPT and cell killing. Here, our aim was to investigate whether iron released from lysosomes after APAP is then taken up into mitochondria via the mitochondrial electrogenic Ca(2+), Fe(2+) uniporter (MCFU) to cause mitochondrial dysfunction and cell death. Hepatocytes were isolated from fasted male C57BL/6 mice. Necrotic cell killing was assessed by propidium iodide fluorimetry. Mitochondrial membrane potential (ΔΨ) was visualized by confocal microscopy of rhodamine 123 (Rh123) and tetramethylrhodamine methylester (TMRM). Chelatable Fe(2+) was monitored by quenching of calcein (cytosol) and mitoferrofluor (MFF, mitochondria). ROS generation was monitored by confocal microscopy of MitoSox Red and plate reader fluorimetry of chloromethyldihydrodichlorofluorescein diacetate (cmH2DCF-DA). Administered 1h before APAP (10mM), the lysosomally targeted iron chelator, starch-desferal (1mM), and the MCFU inhibitors, Ru360 (100nM) and minocycline (4µM), decreased cell killing from 83% to 41%, 57% and 53%, respectively, after 10h. Progressive quenching of calcein and MFF began after ~4h, signifying increased cytosolic and mitochondrial chelatable Fe(2+). Mitochondria then depolarized after ~10h. Dipyridyl, a membrane-permeable iron chelator, dequenched calcein and MFF fluorescence after APAP. Starch-desferal, but not Ru360 and minocycline, suppressed cytosolic calcein quenching, whereas starch-desferal, Ru360 and minocycline all suppressed mitochondrial MFF quenching and mitochondrial depolarization. Starch-desferal, Ru360 and minocycline also each decreased ROS formation. Moreover, minocycline 1h after APAP decreased cell killing by half. In conclusion, release of Fe(2+) from lysosomes followed by uptake into mitochondria via MCFU occurs during APAP hepatotoxicity. Mitochondrial iron then catalyzes toxic hydroxyl radical formation, which triggers the MPT and cell killing. The efficacy of minocycline post-treatment shows minocycline as a possible therapeutic agent against APAP hepatotoxicity.

Cyclosporine A Treatment Abrogates Ischemia-Induced Neuronal Cell Death by Preserving Mitochondrial Integrity through Upregulation of the Parkinson's Disease-Associated Protein DJ-1

Aims

Hypoxic‐ischemia alters mitochondrial membrane potential (Δψm), respiratory‐related enzymes, and mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA). Drugs acting on mitochondria, such as cyclosporine A (CsA), may reveal novel mitochondria‐based cell death signaling targets for stroke. Our previous studies showed that Parkinson's disease‐associated protein DJ‐1 participates in the acute endogenous neuroprotection after stroke via mitochondrial pathway. DJ‐1 was detected immediately after stroke and efficiently translocated into the mitochondria offering a new venue for developing treatment strategies against stroke. Here, we examined a molecular interaction between CsA and mitochondrial integrity in the in vitro acute stroke model of oxygen glucose deprivation/reperfusion (OGD/R) injury with emphasis on DJ‐1.

Methods

Primary rat neuronal cells (PRNCs) were exposed to OGD/R injury and processed for immunocytochemistry, ELISA, and mitochondria‐based molecular assays to reveal the role of DJ‐1 in CsA modulation of mitochondrial integrity.

Results

Administration of CsA before stroke onset (24 h pre‐OGD/R) afforded significantly much more robust neuroprotective effects than when CsA was initiated after stroke (2 h post‐OGD/R), revealing that CsA exerted neuroprotection in the early phase of ischemic stroke. CsA prevented the mitochondria‐dependent cell death signaling pathway involved in cytochrome c (Cyt c)‐induced intrinsic apoptotic process. CsA preserved cellular ATP content, but not hexokinase activity under hypoxic conditions. CsA prevented both mtDNA decrement and Δψm degradation after reperfusion, and enhanced secretion of DJ‐1 in the mitochondria, coupled with reduced oxidative stress.

Conclusion

These observations provided evidence that CsA maintained mitochondrial integrity likely via DJ‐1 upregulation, supporting the concept that mitochondria‐based treatments targeting the early phase of disease progression may prove beneficial in stroke.

Regulation of ATP13A2 via PHD2-HIF1α Signaling Is Critical for Cellular Iron Homeostasis: Implications for Parkinson's Disease

We previously reported that pharmacological inhibition of a class of enzymes known as prolyl hydroxylase domain proteins (PHDs) has neuroprotective effects in various in vitro and in vivo models of Parkinson's disease (PD). We hypothesized that this was due to inhibition of the PHD2 isoform, preventing it from hydroxylating the transcription factor hypoxia inducible factor 1 α (HIF1α), targeting it for eventual proteasomal degradation. HIF1α itself induces the transcription of various cellular stress genes, including several involved in iron metabolism. Although all three isoforms of PHD are expressed within vulnerable dopaminergic (DAergic) substantia nigra pars compacta neurons, only select downregulation of the PHD2 isoform was found to protect against in vivo neurodegenerative effects associated with the mitochondrial neurotoxin 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine. These findings were corroborated in induced pluripotent stem cell-derived neurons, providing validation in a pertinent human cell model. PHD2 inhibition was found to result in increased expression of ATP13A2, mutation of which is responsible for a rare juvenile form of PD known as Kufor-Rakeb syndrome. Knockdown of ATP13A2 expression within human DAergic cells was found to abrogate restoration of cellular iron homeostasis and neuronal cell viability elicited by inhibition of PHD2 under conditions of mitochondrial stress, likely via effects on lysosomal iron storage. These data suggest that regulation of ATP13A2 by the PHD2-HIF1α signaling pathway affects cellular iron homeostasis and DAergic neuronal survival. This constitutes a heretofore unrecognized process associated with loss of ATP13A2 function that could have wide-ranging implications for it as a therapeutic target for PD and other related conditions.

SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT

Reductions in PHD2 activity within dopaminergic neurons in vivo and in cultured human induced pluripotent stem cell-derived neurons protects against mitochondrial stress-induced neurotoxicity. Protective effects are dependent on downstream HIF-1α expression. Knockdown of ATP13A2, a gene linked to a rare juvenile form of Parkinson's disease and recently identified as a novel HIF1α target, was found to abrogate maintenance of cellular iron homeostasis and neuronal viability elicited by PHD2 inhibition in vivo and in cultured dopaminergic cells under conditions of mitochondrial stress. Mechanistically, this was due to ATP13A2's role in maintaining lysosomal iron stores. This constitutes a novel mechanism by which alterations in ATP13A2 activity may be driving PD-related neuropathology.

Elucidation of the hepatoprotective moiety of 5β-scymnol that suppresses paracetamol toxicity in mice

The shark bile alcohol, 5β-scymnol, protects mice from the hepatotoxic effects of paracetamol (APAP) overdose. To elucidate the hepatoprotective structural moiety of scymnol, we compared its effect with that of its analogue and natural bile salt, sodium scymnol sulfate, in a clinically relevant model of APAP-induced toxicity. Exposure of healthy male Swiss mice to a toxic overdose of APAP (350 mg/kg, ip) significantly increased serum hepatocellular enzyme activities, decreased hepatocellular glutathione (GSH) levels, and induced severe centrilobular hepatocellular necrosis. Repeated low-dose scymnol (5 mg/kg/day for 7 days, ip) significantly reduced the extent of APAP-induced hepatotoxicity without preventing GSH depletion. Sodium scymnol sulfate, which lacks the tri-hydroxyl-substituted aliphatic side chain of scymnol, failed to reduce the APAP hepatotoxicity or prevent GSH depletion when tested under the same experimental conditions. We conclude that the tri-hydroxyl-substituted aliphatic side chain is the hepatoprotective structural moiety of 5β-scymnol that suppresses APAP-induced cytotoxicity in mice.

Protective Activity of Total Polyphenols from Genista quadriflora Munby and Teucrium polium geyrii Maire in Acetaminophen-Induced Hepatotoxicity in Rats

Oxidative stress is a major cause of drug-induced hepatic diseases and several studies have demonstrated that diet supplementation with plants rich in antioxidant compounds provides a variety of health benefits in these circumstances. Genista quadriflora Munby (Gq) and Teucrium polium geyrii Maire (Tp) are known to possess antioxidant and numerous biological properties and these endemic plants are often used for dietary or medicinal applications. Herein, we evaluated the beneficial effect of rich-polyphenol fractions of Gq and Tp to prevent Acetaminophen-induced liver injury and investigated the mechanisms involved in this protective action. Rats were orally administered polyphenolic extracts from Gq or Tp (300 mg/kg) or N-acetylcysteine (NAC: 200 mg/kg) once daily for ten days prior to the single oral administration of Acetaminophen (APAP: 1 g/kg). The results show that preventive administration of polyphenolic extracts from Gq or Tp exerts a hepatoprotective influence during APAP treatment by improving transaminases leakage and liver histology and stimulating antioxidant defenses. Besides, suppression of liver CYP2E1, GSTpi and TNF-α mRNA levels, with enhancement of mitochondrial bioenergetics may contribute to the observed hepatoprotection induced by Gq and Tp extracts. The effect of Tp extract is significantly higher (1.5–2 fold) than that of Gq extract and NAC regarding the enhancement of mitochondrial functionality. Overall, this study brings the first evidence that pretreatment with these natural extracts display in vivo protective activity against APAP hepatotoxicity through improving mitochondrial bioenergetics, oxidant status, phase I and II enzymes expression and inflammatory processes probably by virtue of their high total polyphenols content.

Low Dose Acetaminophen Induces Reversible Mitochondrial Dysfunction Associated with Transient c-Jun N-Terminal Kinase Activation in Mouse Liver

Acetaminophen (APAP) overdose causes hepatotoxicity involving mitochondrial dysfunction and c-jun N-terminal kinase (JNK) activation. Because the safe limit of APAP dosing is controversial, our aim was to evaluate the role of the mitochondrial permeability transition (MPT) and JNK in mitochondrial dysfunction after APAP dosing considered nontoxic by criteria of serum alanine aminotransferase (ALT) release and histological necrosis in vivo. C57BL/6 mice were given APAP with and without the MPT inhibitor, N-methyl-4-isoleucine cyclosporin (NIM811), or the JNK inhibitor, SP600125. Fat droplet formation, cell viability, and mitochondrial function in vivo were monitored by intravital multiphoton microscopy. Serum ALT, liver histology, total JNK, and activated phospho(p)JNK were also assessed. High APAP (300 mg/kg) caused ALT release, necrosis, irreversible mitochondrial dysfunction, and hepatocellular death. By contrast, lower APAP (150 mg/kg) caused reversible mitochondrial dysfunction and fat droplet formation in hepatocytes without ALT release or necrosis. Mitochondrial protein N-acetyl-p-benzoquinone imine adducts correlated with early JNK activation, but irreversible mitochondrial depolarization and necrosis at high dose were associated with sustained JNK activation and translocation to mitochondria. NIM811 prevented cell death and/or mitochondrial depolarization after both high and low dose APAP. After low dose, SP600125 decreased mitochondrial depolarization. In conclusion, low dose APAP produces reversible MPT-dependent mitochondrial dysfunction and steatosis in hepatocytes without causing ALT release or necrosis, whereas high dose leads to irreversible mitochondrial dysfunction and cell death associated with sustained JNK activation. Thus, nontoxic APAP has the potential to cause transient mitochondrial dysfunction that may synergize with other stresses to promote liver damage and steatosis.

Lysosomal Cholesterol Accumulation Sensitizes To Acetaminophen Hepatotoxicity by Impairing Mitophagy

The role of lysosomes in acetaminophen (APAP) hepatotoxicity is poorly understood. Here, we investigated the impact of genetic and drug-induced lysosomal cholesterol (LC) accumulation in APAP hepatotoxicity. Acid sphingomyelinase (ASMase)^−/− mice exhibit LC accumulation and higher mortality after APAP overdose compared to ASMase^+/+ littermates. ASMase^−/− hepatocytes display lower threshold for APAP-induced cell death and defective fusion of mitochondria-containing autophagosomes with lysosomes, which decreased mitochondrial quality control. LC accumulation in ASMase^+/+ hepatocytes caused by U18666A reproduces the susceptibility of ASMase^−/− hepatocytes to APAP and the impairment in the formation of mitochondria-containing autolysosomes. LC extraction by 25-hydroxycholesterol increased APAP-mediated mitophagy and protected ASMase^−/− mice and hepatocytes against APAP hepatotoxicity, effects that were reversed by chloroquine to disrupt autophagy. The regulation of LC by U18666A or 25-hydroxycholesterol did not affect total cellular sphingomyelin content or its lysosomal distribution. Of relevance, amitriptyline-induced ASMase inhibition in human hepatocytes caused LC accumulation, impaired mitophagy and increased susceptibility to APAP. Similar results were observed upon glucocerebrosidase inhibition by conduritol β-epoxide, a cellular model of Gaucher disease. These findings indicate that LC accumulation determines susceptibility to APAP hepatotoxicity by modulating mitophagy, and imply that genetic or drug-mediated ASMase disruption sensitizes to APAP-induced liver injury.