Potential hazards of bisphenol A on the male reproductive system: Induction of programmed cell death in testicular cells

A common industrial chemical known as bisphenol A (BPA) has been linked to endocrine disruption and can interfere with hormonal signaling pathways in humans and animals. This comprehensive review aims to explore the detrimental consequences of BPA on reproductive organ performance and apoptosis induction, shedding light on the emerging body of evidence from laboratory animal studies. Historically, most studies investigating the connection between BPA and reproductive tissue function have mainly leaned on laboratory animal models. These studies have provided crucial insights into the harmful effects of BPA on several facets of reproduction. This review consolidates an increasing literature that correlates exposure to BPA in the environment with a negative impact on human health. It also integrates findings from laboratory studies conducted on diverse species, collectively bolstering the mounting evidence that environmental BPA exposure can be detrimental to both humans and animals, particularly to reproductive health. Furthermore, this article explores the fundamental processes by which BPA triggers cell death and apoptosis in testicular cells. By elucidating these mechanisms, this review aids a deeper understanding of the complex interactions between BPA and reproductive tissues.

Adverse outcomes of the newly emerging bisphenol A substitutes

BPA and its analogues are facing increasingly stringent regulations restricting their use due to the increasing knowledge of their harmful effects. It is therefore expected that novel BPA analogues and alternatives will replace them in plastic products, cans and thermal paper to circumvent restrictions imposed by legislation. This raises concerns about the safety of "BPA-free" products, as they contain BPA substitutes whose safety has not been sufficiently assessed prior to their market introduction. The regulatory agencies have recognised BPAP, BPBP, BPC2, BPE, BPFL, BPG, BPP, BPPH, BPS-MAE, BPS-MPE, BP-TMC, BPZ and the alternatives BTUM, D-90, UU and PF201 as compound with insufficient data regarding their safety. We demonstrate that the mentioned compounds are present in consumer products, food and the environment, thus exhibiting toxicological risk not only to humans, but also to other species where their toxic effects have already been described. Results of in silico, in vitro and in vivo studies examining the endocrine disruption and other effects of BPA analogues show that they disrupt the endocrine system by targeting various nuclear receptors, impairing reproductive function and causing toxic effects such as hepatotoxicity, altered behaviour and impaired reproductive function. In vitro and in vivo data on BPA alternatives are literally non-existent, although these compounds are already present in commonly used thermal papers. However, in silico studies predicted that they might cause adverse effects as well. The aim of this article is to comprehensively collate the information on selected BPA substitutes to illustrate their potential toxicity and identify safety gaps.

Inhibition of reactive oxygen species generation by N-Acetyl Cysteine can mitigate male germ cell toxicity induced by bisphenol analogs

The estrogen-like effect of bisphenol A (BPA) disrupting the maintenance of functional male germ cells is associated with male sub-fertility. This study investigated toxicity of male germ cells induced by four bisphenol analogs: BPA, BPAF, BPF, and BPS. The investigation of bisphenol analogs' impact on male germ cells included assessing proliferation, apoptosis induction, and the capacity to generate reactive oxygen species (ROS) in GC-1 spermatogonia (spg) cells, specifically type B spermatogonia. Additionally, the therapeutic potential and protective effects of N-Acetyl Cysteine (NAC) and NF-κB inhibitor parthenolide was evaluated. In comparison to BPA, BPF and BPS, BPAF exhibited the most pronounced adverse effect in GC-1 spg cell proliferation. This effect was characterized by pronounced inhibition of phosphorylation of PI3K, AKT, and mTOR, along with increased release of cytochrome c and subsequent cleavages of caspase 3, caspase 7, and poly (ADP-ribose) polymerase. Both NAC and parthenolide were effective reducing cellular ROS induced by BPAF. However, only NAC demonstrated a substantial recovery in proliferation, accompanied by a significant reduction in cytochrome c release and cleaved PARP. These results suggest that NAC supplementation may play an effective therapeutic role in countering germ cell toxicity induced by environmental pollutants with robust oxidative stress-generating capacity.

Adverse effects of bisphenol A and its analogues on male fertility: An epigenetic perspective

In recent years, there has been growing concern about the adverse effects of endocrine disrupting chemicals (EDCs) on male fertility. Epigenetic modification is critical for male germline development, and has been suggested as a potential mechanism for impaired fertility induced by EDCs. Bisphenol A (BPA) has been recognized as a typical EDC. BPA and its analogues, which are still widely used in various consumer products, have garnered increasing attention due to their reproductive toxicity and the potential to induce epigenetic alteration. This literature review provides an overview of studies investigating the adverse effects of bisphenol exposures on epigenetic modifications and male fertility. Existing studies provide evidence that exposure to bisphenols can lead to adverse effects on male fertility, including declined semen quality, altered reproductive hormone levels, and adverse reproductive outcomes. Epigenetic patterns, including DNA methylation, histone modification, and non-coding RNA expression, can be altered by bisphenol exposures. Transgenerational effects, which influence the fertility and epigenetic patterns of unexposed generations, have also been identified. However, the magnitude and direction of certain outcomes varied across different studies. Investigations into the dynamics of histopathological and epigenetic alterations associated with bisphenol exposures during developmental stages can enhance the understanding of the epigenetic effects of bisphenols, the implication of epigenetic alteration on male fertility, and the health of successive generation.

Redox mechanisms of environmental toxicants on male reproductive function

Humans and wildlife, including domesticated animals, are exposed to a myriad of environmental contaminants that are derived from various human activities, including agricultural, household, cosmetic, pharmaceutical, and industrial products. Excessive exposure to pesticides, heavy metals, and phthalates consequently causes the overproduction of reactive oxygen species. The equilibrium between reactive oxygen species and the antioxidant system is preserved to maintain cellular redox homeostasis. Mitochondria play a key role in cellular function and cell survival. Mitochondria are vulnerable to damage that can be provoked by environmental exposures. Once the mitochondrial metabolism is damaged, it interferes with energy metabolism and eventually causes the overproduction of free radicals. Furthermore, it also perceives inflammation signals to generate an inflammatory response, which is involved in pathophysiological mechanisms. A depleted antioxidant system provokes oxidative stress that triggers inflammation and regulates epigenetic function and apoptotic events. Apart from that, these chemicals influence steroidogenesis, deteriorate sperm quality, and damage male reproductive organs. It is strongly believed that redox signaling molecules are the key regulators that mediate reproductive toxicity. This review article aims to spotlight the redox toxicology of environmental chemicals on male reproduction function and its fertility prognosis. Furthermore, we shed light on the influence of redox signaling and metabolism in modulating the response of environmental toxins to reproductive function. Additionally, we emphasize the supporting evidence from diverse cellular and animal studies.

Potential impacts of bisphenols on prostate cells: An overview of cytotoxicity, proliferation, oxidative stress, apoptosis, and ER-stress response activation

This study aimed to evaluate the toxic effects of Bisphenol A (BPA), Bisphenol F (BPF) and Bisphenol S (BPS) on PNT1A and PC-3 cells, focusing on their effects on endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress and related pathways. PNT1A and PC-3 were treated with BPA, BPF and BPS at concentrations of 0.1, 1 and 10 μM for 48 h cytotoxicity, BrdU cell proliferation, ROS generation, apoptosis detection, gene expression analysis and Western blot analysis were performed. BPA induced proliferation and late apoptosis in PNT1A cells, whereas it induced both late apoptosis and early apoptosis in PC-3 cells. BPF and BPS induced late apoptosis in PC-3 cells. Increased ROS levels were observed in PNT1A cells exposed to 1-10 μM BPA. BPA, BPF and BPS increased the expression levels of ER stress-related genes in PNT1A cells. Furthermore, exposure to BPA increased the expression of ER stress-related CHOP/DDIT3 protein in PNT1A cells. These findings highlight the potential health risks associated with BPA, BPF and BPS exposure and emphasize the importance of investigating the underlying mechanisms by which these chemicals may affect human health. Further research is required to comprehensively understand the role of ER stress pathways in cellular responses to these substances.

Drivers of divergent assessments of bisphenol-A hazards to semen quality by various European agencies, regulators and scientists

The downward revision of the bisphenol A (BPA) Health-based Guidance Value (HBGV) by the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) has led to disagreements with other regulatory agencies, among them the German Federal Institute for Risk Assessment (BfR). The BfR has recently published an alternative Tolerable Daily Intake (TDI), 1000-times higher than the EFSA HBGV of 0.2 ng/kg/d. While the EFSA value is defined in relation to immunotoxicity, the BfR alternative TDI is based on declines in sperm counts resulting from exposures in adulthood. Earlier, we had used semen quality deteriorations to estimate a BPA Reference Dose (RfD) of 3 ng/kg/d for use in mixture risk assessments of male reproductive health. We derived this estimate from animal studies of gestational BPA exposures which both EFSA and BfR viewed as irrelevant for human hazard characterisations. Here, we identify factors that drive these diverging views. We find that the fragmented, endpoint-oriented study evaluation system used by EFSA and BfR, with its emphasis on data that can support dose-response analyses, has obscured the overall BPA effect pattern relevant to male reproductive effects. This has led to a disregard for the effects of gestational BPA exposures. We also identify problems with the study evaluation schemes used by EFSA and BfR which leads to the omission of entire streams of evidence from consideration. The main driver of the diverging views of EFSA and BfR is the refusal by BfR to accept immunotoxic effects as the basis for establishing an HBGV. We find that switching from immunotoxicity to declines in semen quality as the basis for deriving a BPA TDI by deterministic or probabilistic approaches produces values in the range of 2.4-6.6 ng/kg/d, closer to the present EFSA HBGV of 0.2 ng/kg/d than the BfR TDI of 200 ng/kg/d. The proposed alternative BfR value is the result of value judgements which erred on the side of disregarding evidence that could have supported a lower TDI. The choices made in terms of selecting key studies and methods for dose-response analyses produced a TDI that comes close to doses shown to produce effects on semen quality in animal studies and in human studies of adult BPA exposures.

Endocrine disrupting chemicals and male fertility: from physiological to molecular effects

The deleterious effects of chemical or non-chemical endocrine disruptors (EDs) on male fertility potential is well documented but still not fully elucidated. For example, the detection of industrial chemicals' metabolites in seminal plasma and follicular fluid can affect efficiency of the gametogenesis, the maturation and competency of gametes and has guided scientists to hypothesize that endocrine disrupting chemicals (EDCs) may disrupt hormonal homoeostasis by leading to a wide range of hormonal control impairments. The effects of EDCs exposure on reproductive health are highly dependent on factors including the type of EDCs, the duration of exposure, individual susceptibility, and the presence of other co-factors. Research and scientists continue to study these complex interactions. The aim of this review is to summarize the literature to better understand the potential reproductive health risks of EDCs in France.

The State of Research and Weight of Evidence on the Epigenetic Effects of Bisphenol A

Bisphenol A (BPA) is a high-production-volume chemical with numerous industrial and consumer applications. BPA is extensively used in the manufacture of polycarbonate plastics and epoxy resins. The widespread utilities of BPA include its use as internal coating for food and beverage cans, bottles, and food-packaging materials, and as a building block for countless goods of common use. BPA can be released into the environment and enter the human body at any stage during its production, or in the process of manufacture, use, or disposal of materials made from this chemical. While the general population is predominantly exposed to BPA through contaminated food and drinking water, non-dietary exposures through the respiratory system, integumentary system, and vertical transmission, as well as other routes of exposure, also exist. BPA is often classified as an endocrine-disrupting chemical as it can act as a xenoestrogen. Exposure to BPA has been associated with developmental, reproductive, cardiovascular, neurological, metabolic, or immune effects, as well as oncogenic effects. BPA can disrupt the synthesis or clearance of hormones by binding and interfering with biological receptors. BPA can also interact with key transcription factors to modulate regulation of gene expression. Over the past 17 years, an epigenetic mechanism of action for BPA has emerged. This article summarizes the current state of research on the epigenetic effects of BPA by analyzing the findings from various studies in model systems and human populations. It evaluates the weight of evidence on the ability of BPA to alter the epigenome, while also discussing the direction of future research.

Re-evaluation of the risks to public health related to the presence of bisphenol A (BPA) in foodstuffs

In 2015, EFSA established a temporary tolerable daily intake (t-TDI) for BPA of 4 μg/kg body weight (bw) per day. In 2016, the European Commission mandated EFSA to re-evaluate the risks to public health from the presence of BPA in foodstuffs and to establish a tolerable daily intake (TDI). For this re-evaluation, a pre-established protocol was used that had undergone public consultation. The CEP Panel concluded that it is Unlikely to Very Unlikely that BPA presents a genotoxic hazard through a direct mechanism. Taking into consideration the evidence from animal data and support from human observational studies, the immune system was identified as most sensitive to BPA exposure. An effect on Th17 cells in mice was identified as the critical effect; these cells are pivotal in cellular immune mechanisms and involved in the development of inflammatory conditions, including autoimmunity and lung inflammation. A reference point (RP) of 8.2 ng/kg bw per day, expressed as human equivalent dose, was identified for the critical effect. Uncertainty analysis assessed a probability of 57-73% that the lowest estimated Benchmark Dose (BMD) for other health effects was below the RP based on Th17 cells. In view of this, the CEP Panel judged that an additional uncertainty factor (UF) of 2 was needed for establishing the TDI. Applying an overall UF of 50 to the RP, a TDI of 0.2 ng BPA/kg bw per day was established. Comparison of this TDI with the dietary exposure estimates from the 2015 EFSA opinion showed that both the mean and the 95th percentile dietary exposures in all age groups exceeded the TDI by two to three orders of magnitude. Even considering the uncertainty in the exposure assessment, the exceedance being so large, the CEP Panel concluded that there is a health concern from dietary BPA exposure.

Bisphenol-S Influence on Oxidative Stress and Endocrine Biomarkers of Reproductive System: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

Background

Bisphenol-S (BPS), as a new human public health concern, was introduced to the plastic industry by BPA-free labeled products following the restrictions of Bisphenol-A (BPA) as a safe alternative. However, recent research has revealed a controversial issue. In this regard, the present study aimed to review the relationship between BPS exposure and reproductive system dis/malfunction.

Methods

PubMed and other databases were searched up to January 2021. The standard mean difference (SMD) with a 95% confidence interval (CI) was calculated for the main parameters using the random-effects model. Finally, 12 studies with 420 subjects were included in this research. Forest plot, meta-regression, and non-linear dose-response effect were calculated for each parameter by random-effects model.

Results

Based on the results of in vitro assessment, a significant increase was found in the oxidative stress parameters, including superoxide dismutase (SMD: 0.63, 95% CI: 0.321, 0.939), thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (SMD: 0.760, 95% CI: 0.423, 1.096), and reactive oxygen species (SMD: 0.484, 95% CI: 0.132, 0.835). In addition, the hormonal assessment revealed a significant decrease in male testosterone concertation (SMD: -0.476, 95% CI: -0.881, -0.071). Moreover, in vivo examination revealed a significant decrease in hormonal parameters, such as female testosterone (SMD: -0.808, 95% CI: -1.149, -0.467), female estrogen (SMD: -2.608, 95% CI: -4.588, -0.628), female luteinizing hormone (SMD: -0.386, 95% CI: -0.682, -0.089), and female follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) (SMD: -0.418, 95% CI: -0.716, -0.119). Besides, linear and non-linear correlations were detected in the main parameters.

Conclusion

In conclusion, based on the current meta-analysis, BPS was suggested to be toxic for the reproductive system, similar to the other bisphenols. Moreover, a possible correlation was indicated between oxidative and hormonal status disruption induced by BPS in male and female reproductive systems dis/malfunction.

Epigenotoxicity: a danger to the future life

Environmental toxicants can regulate gene expression in the absence of DNA mutations via epigenetic mechanisms such as DNA methylation, histone modifications, and non-coding RNAs' (ncRNAs). Here, all three epigenetic modifications for seven important categories of diseases and the impact of eleven main environmental factors on epigenetic modifications were discussed. Epigenetic-related mechanisms are among the factors that could explain the root cause of a wide range of common diseases. Its overall impression on the development of diseases can help us diagnose and treat diseases, and besides, predict transgenerational and intergenerational effects. This comprehensive article attempted to address the relationship between environmental factors and epigenetic modifications that cause diseases in different categories. The studies main gap is that the precise role of environmentally-induced epigenetic alterations in the etiology of the disorders is unknown; thus, still more well-designed researches need to be accomplished to fill this gap. The present review aimed to first summarize the adverse effect of certain chemicals on the epigenome that may involve in the onset of particular disease based on in vitro and in vivo models. Subsequently, the possible adverse epigenetic changes that can lead to many human diseases were discussed.

Bisphenol S induces oxidative stress-mediated impairment of testosterone synthesis by inhibiting the Nrf2/HO-1 signaling pathway

Bisphenol S (BPS) is an environmental endocrine disruptor widely used in industrial production. BPS induces oxidative stress and exhibits male reproductive toxicity in mice, but the mechanisms by which BPS impairs steroid hormone synthesis are not fully understood. Nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2(Nrf2)/HO-1 signaling is a key pathway in improving cellular antioxidant defense capacities. Therefore, this study explored the effects of exposure to BPS on testosterone synthesis in adult male mice and its mechanisms with regard to the Nrf2/HO-1 signaling pathway. Adult male C57BL/6 mice were orally exposed to BPS (2, 20, and 200 mg/kg BW) with sesame oil as a vehicle (0.1 ml/10 g BW) per day for 28 consecutive days. The results showed that compared with the control group, serum testosterone levels were substantially reduced in the 20 and 200 mg/kg BPS treatment groups, and testicular testosterone levels were reduced in all BPS treatment groups. These changes were accompanied by a prominent decrease in the expression levels of testosterone synthesis-related enzymes (STAR, CYP11A1, CYP17A1, HSD3B1, and HSD17B3) in the mouse testis. In addition, BPS induced oxidative stress in the testis by upregulating the messenger RNA and protein levels of Keap1 and downregulating the levels of Nrf2, HO-1, and downstream antioxidant enzymes (CAT, SOD1, and Gpx4). In summary, our results indicate that exposure of adult male mice to BPS can inhibit Nrf2/HO-1 signaling and antioxidant enzyme activity, which induces oxidative stress and thereby may impair testosterone synthesis in testicular tissues, leading to reproductive damage.

Comparison of toxicokinetic properties of eleven analogues of Bisphenol A in pig after intravenous and oral administrations

Due to the restrictions of its use, Bisphenol A (BPA) has been replaced by many structurally related bisphenols (BPs) in consumer products. The endocrine disrupting potential similar to that of BPA has been described for several bisphenols, there is therefore an urgent need of toxicokinetic (TK) data for these emerging BPs in order to evaluate if their internal exposure could increase the risk of endocrine disruption. We investigated TK behaviors of eleven BPA substitutes (BPS, BPAF, BPB, BPF, BPM, BPZ, 3-3BPA, BP4-4, BPAP, BPP, and BPFL) by intravenous and oral administrations of mixtures of them to piglets and serial collection of blood over 72 h and urine over 24 h, to evaluate their disposition. Data were analyzed using nonlinear mixed-effects modeling and a comparison was made with TK predicted by the generic model HTTK package. The low urinary excretion of some BPs, in particular BPM, BPP and BPFL, is an important aspect to consider in predicting human exposure based on urine biomonitoring. Despite their structural similarities, for the same oral dose, all BPA analogues investigated showed a higher systemic exposure (area under the plasma concentration-time curve (AUC) of the unconjugated Bisphenol) than BPA (2 to 4 fold for 3-3BPA, BPAF, BPB and BPZ, 7-20 fold for BP4-4, BPAP, BPP, BPFL, BPF and BPM and 150 fold for BPS) due mainly to a considerable variation of oral bioavailability (proportion of BP administered by oral route that attains the systemic circulation unchanged). Given similarities in the digestive tract between pigs and humans, our TK data suggest that replacing BPA with some of its alternatives, particularly BPS, will likely lead to higher internal exposure to potential endocrine disruptive compounds. These findings are crucial for evaluating the risk of human exposure to these emerging BPs.

Mito-TEMPO protects against Bisphenol-A-induced testicular toxicity: An in vivo study

Bisphenol-A (BPA) is a common environmental toxin which alters testicular function in both animals and humans. BPA exerts its cytotoxic potential by altering mitochondrial oxidative stress and functioning. Therefore, protecting mitochondria from oxidative stress may prevent BPA-induced testicular damage. In the present study, modulation of BPA toxicity by mitochondria-targeted antioxidant, mito-TEMPO was studied in male wistar rats. Rats were administered mito-TEMPO (0.1 mg/kg b.w, i.p.) twice a week, followed by BPA (10 mg/kg b.w., orally) once a week for 4 weeks. After 4 weeks, sperm parameters were evaluated in the testis along with histopathological analysis. The mitochondrial oxidative stress, mitochondrial membrane potential (MMP) and enzymatic activity of mitochondrial complex II and IV were estimated in the testicular tissue. Pre-treatment of mito-TEMPO protected animals from toxic effect of BPA as indicated by the normalisation of sperm parameters and preserved histoarchitecture of testis. BPA treatment to animals significantly increased mitochondrial reactive oxygen species (ROS) and lipid peroxidation (LPO). A significant decrease in the activity of mitochondrial complex II was also observed after BPA exposure whereas, mitochondrial complex II activity was increased. In addition, an increase in MMP was also observed in BPA group. Mito-TEMPO successfully normalised mitochondrial ROS and LPO formation. Similar normalisation effect was also noted in the activity of mitochondrial complex II, complex IV and MMP. Results suggested that mito-TEMPO pre-treatment significantly protected BPA-induced oxidative stress and thereby mito-TEMPO effectively prevented testicular damage.

Effects of bisphenol A and estradiol in adult rat testis after prepubertal and pubertal exposure

Over the past few decades, male fertility has been decreasing worldwide. Many studies attribute this outcome to endocrine disruptors exposure such as bisphenol A (BPA), which is a chemical compound used in plastics synthesis and exhibiting estrogenic activity. In order to assess how the window of exposure modulates the effects of BPA on the testis, prepubertal (15 dpp to 30 dpp) and pubertal (60 dpp to 75 dpp) male Sprague-Dawley rats were exposed to BPA (50 µg/kg bw/day), 17-β-estradiol (E2) (20 µg/kg bw/day) as a positive control, or to a combination of these compounds. For both periods of exposure, the rats were sacrificed and their testes were collected at 75 dpp. The histological analysis and the quantification of the gene expression of testis cell markers by RT-qPCR confirmed the complete spermatogenesis in all groups for both periods of exposure. However, our results suggest a deleterious effect of BPA on the blood-testis barrier in adults after pubertal exposure as BPA and BPA+E2 treatments induced a decrease in caveolin-1 and connexin-43 gene expression; which are proteins of the junctional complexes. As none of these effects were found after a prepubertal exposure, these results suggested the reversibility of BPA's effects. Caution must be taken when transposing this finding to humans and further studies are needed in this regard. However, from a regulatory perspective, this study emphasizes the importance of taking into account different periods of exposure, as they present different sensitivities to BPA exposure.

Maternal exposure to bisphenol S induces neuropeptide signaling dysfunction and oxidative stress in the brain, and abnormal social behaviors in zebrafish (Danio rerio) offspring

Recent studies show that bisphenol S (BPS) induces multiple adverse effects in exposed organisms; however, the maternal effects of BPS exposure remain poorly understood. Here, we expose adult female zebrafish to environmentally relevant concentrations of BPS (0, 1, 10, 30 μg/L) and 1 μg/L of 17-β-estradiol (E2) as a positive control for 60 days. Females were then paired with BPS-unexposed males and their offspring were raised in control water for 6 months. Maternal exposure to BPS was found to alter social behavior and anxiety response in a dose-specific manner in male offspring. Group preferences and social cohesion were significantly reduced by maternal exposure to 1 and 10 μg/L BPS, respectively. Additionally, maternal exposure to 1 and 30 μg/L BPS and E2 decreased offspring stress responses during the novel tank test. The impaired social behavior was associated with elevated arginine-vasotocin (AVT) level as well as with the altered expression of genes involved in AVT signaling pathway (AVT, avpr1aa) and enzymatic antioxidant genes (cat and Mn-sod) in the brain. Collectively, these results suggest that maternal exposure to environmentally relevant concentrations of BPS alters social behavior in zebrafish offspring, which is likely mediated by oxidative stress and disruption of neuropeptide signaling pathways in the brain.

Effects of BPA substitutes on the prenatal and cardiovascular systems

Bisphenol A (BPA) is a ubiquitous chemical compound constantly being released into the environment, making it one of the most persistent endocrine-disrupting chemical (EDC) in nature. This EDC has already been associated with developing various pathologies, such as diabetes, obesity, and cardiovascular, renal, and behavioral complications, among others. Therefore, over the years, BPA has been replaced, gradually, by its analog compounds. However, these compounds are structurally similar to BPA, so, in recent years, questions have been raised concerning their safety for human health. Numerous investigations have been performed to determine the effects BPA substitutes may cause, particularly during pregnancy and prenatal life. On the other hand, studies investigating the association of these compounds with the development of cardiovascular diseases (CVD) have been developed. In this sense, this review summarizes the existing literature on the transgenerational transfer of BPA substitutes and the consequent effects on maternal and offspring health following prenatal exposure. In addition, these compounds' effects on the cardiovascular system and the susceptibility to develop CVD will be presented. Therefore, this review aims to highlight the need to investigate further the safety and benefits, or hazards, associated with replacing BPA with its analogs.

Bisphenol A damages testicular junctional proteins transgenerationally in mice

Testicular junctions are pivotal to male fertility and regulated by constituent proteins. Increasing evidence suggests that environmental chemicals, including bisphenol A (BPA), may impact these proteins, but whether the impacts persist for generations is not yet known. Here, we investigate the effect of BPA (a ubiquitous endocrine-disrupting chemical) on testis and sperm functions and whether the effects are transferred to subsequent generations. Male mice (F0) were exposed to corn oil (Control) or 5 or 50 mg BPA/kg body weight/day from 6 to 12 weeks of age. The F0 were mated with wild-type females to produce the first filial (F1) generation. F2 and F3 were produced using similar procedures. Our results showed that BPA doses decreased the levels of some junctional proteins partly via binding with estrogen receptors (ERα and Erβ), upregulation of p-ERK1/2, P85, p-JNK and activation of p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase signaling. Consequently, testicular histological abnormalities, disrupted spermatogenesis, decreased sperm count, and inability to fertilize eggs were observed in mice exposed to BPA. These effects were transferred to successive generations (F2), partly through DNA methylation, but mostly alleviated in F3 males. Our findings suggest that paternal exposure to chemicals promoting alteration of testicular junctional proteins and its transgenerational inheritance is a key component of the origin of male reproductive health problems.

Transgenerational effects of parental bisphenol S exposure on zebrafish (Danio rerio) reproduction

Bisphenol S (BPS) is extensively used for production of polycarbonates and other commodities, and is often detected in environment and biota. Parental BPS exposure has been reported to interfere with reproductive development of offspring, but limited information is available on its multigenerational reproductive toxicity. In our present study, zebrafish (Danio rerio) were exposed to BPS (1 and 100 μg/L) from 3 hpf to 120 dpf, and the effects on reproduction, sex steroid hormones, DNA methylation levels and gene transcription involved in steroidogenesis and DNA methylation were investigated in unexposed F1-2 offspring. The results showed that 100 μg/L BPS exposure increased DNA methylation in F1 testes, and 1 μg/L BPS led to DNA methylation in F2 ovaries. The increased DNA methylation levels led to decreased expression of steroidogenic enzymes, including cyp11a, cyp17 and 3βhsd, which might be a main reason for the elevated plasma 17β-estradiol and decreased testosterone levels. In addition, sex ratio indicated a female dominance trend, and reproductive capacity of male fish was severely impaired. Overall, these findings suggest that parental BPS exposure impairs reproductive development of unexposed offspring via DNA methylation and BPS-induced epigenetic modification inheritance has a long-term effect on the fitness and sustainability of fish populations.

Early programming of reproductive health and fertility: novel neuroendocrine mechanisms and implications in reproductive medicine

BACKGROUND

According to the Developmental Origins of Health and Disease (DOHaD) hypothesis, environmental changes taking place during early maturational periods may alter normal development and predispose to the occurrence of diverse pathologies later in life. Indeed, adverse conditions during these critical developmental windows of high plasticity have been reported to alter the offspring developmental trajectory, causing permanent functional and structural perturbations that in the long term may enhance disease susceptibility. However, while solid evidence has documented that fluctuations in environmental factors, ranging from nutrient availability to chemicals, in early developmental stages (including the peri-conceptional period) have discernible programming effects that increase vulnerability to develop metabolic perturbations, the impact and eventual mechanisms involved, of such developmental alterations on the reproductive phenotype of offspring have received less attention.

OBJECTIVE AND RATIONALE

This review will summarize recent advances in basic and clinical research that support the concept of DOHaD in the context of the impact of nutritional and hormonal perturbations, occurring during the periconceptional, fetal and early postnatal stages, on different aspects of reproductive function in both sexes. Special emphasis will be given to the effects of early nutritional stress on the timing of puberty and adult gonadotropic function, and to address the underlying neuroendocrine pathways, with particular attention to involvement of the Kiss1 system in these reproductive perturbations. The implications of such phenomena in terms of reproductive medicine will also be considered.

SEARCH METHODS

A comprehensive MEDLINE search, using PubMed as main interface, of research articles and reviews, published mainly between 2006 and 2021, has been carried out. Search was implemented using multiple terms, focusing on clinical and preclinical data from DOHaD studies, addressing periconceptional, gestational and perinatal programming of reproduction. Selected studies addressing early programming of metabolic function have also been considered, when relevant.

OUTCOMES

A solid body of evidence, from clinical and preclinical studies, has documented the impact of nutritional and hormonal fluctuations during the periconceptional, prenatal and early postnatal periods on pubertal maturation, as well as adult gonadotropic function and fertility. Furthermore, exposure to environmental chemicals, such as bisphenol A, and maternal stress has been shown to negatively influence pubertal development and gonadotropic function in adulthood. The underlying neuroendocrine pathways and mechanisms involved have been also addressed, mainly by preclinical studies, which have identified an, as yet incomplete, array of molecular and neurohormonal effectors. These include, prominently, epigenetic regulatory mechanisms and the hypothalamic Kiss1 system, which likely contribute to the generation of reproductive alterations in conditions of early nutritional and/or metabolic stress. In addition to the Kiss1 system, other major hypothalamic regulators of GnRH neurosecretion, such as γ-aminobutyric acid and glutamate, may be targets of developmental programming.

WIDER IMPLICATIONS

This review addresses an underdeveloped area of reproductive biology and medicine that may help to improve our understanding of human reproductive disorders and stresses the importance, and eventual pathogenic impact, of early determinants of puberty, adult reproductive function and fertility.

Assessing the toxicity of bisphenol A and its six alternatives on zebrafish embryo/larvae

Bisphenol A (BPA) analogues are gradually replacing BPA in the plastics industry. Whether these alternatives are indeed safer than BPA itself, however, remains unclear. Here, we studied the toxicity of BPA and six of its alternatives-BPB, BPC, BPE, BPF, BPAF, and BPAP-using zebrafish embryos/larvae. According to their half lethal concentration (LC₅₀) values, the acute toxicity of BPA and six alternative bisphenols to zebrafish embryos, from highest to lowest, was BPAP ≈ BPAF > BPC > BPB > BPA > BPE > BPF. Under nonlethal concentrations, the tested bisphenols had different toxic effects on development in terms of reducing the hatching rate, frequency of spontaneous movements, and heart rate in the embryo, as well as inducing yolk sac edema, pericardial edema, and spinal deformation in the larvae. The estrogenic activity of BPE, BPF, and BPAF was higher than that of BPA, as shown by vtg1 expression assays. Moreover, BPA and its alternatives increased SOD activity and cell apoptosis in embryos/larvae under nonlethal concentrations. Our findings indicate that BPA alternatives may not be safer than BPA in zebrafish, and that these BPA alternatives should be applied with caution.

Male Infertility in the XXI Century: Are Obesogens to Blame?

The permanent exposure to environmental contaminants promoting weight gain (i.e., obesogens) has raised serious health concerns. Evidence suggests that obesogens are one of the leading causes of the marked decline in male fertility and are key players in shaping future health outcomes, not only for those who are directly exposed to them, but also for upcoming generations. It has been hypothesized that obesogens affect male fertility. By using an interdisciplinary strategy, combining in silico, in vitro, in vivo and epidemiological findings, this review aims to contribute to the biological understanding of the molecular transformations induced by obesogens that are the basis of male infertility. Such understanding is shaped by the use of Adverse Outcomes Pathways, a new approach that may shift the paradigm of reproductive toxicology, contributing to the improvement of the diagnosis and management of the adverse effects of obesogens in male fertility.

Associations between urinary bisphenol A and its analogues and semen quality: A cross-sectional study among Chinese men from an infertility clinic

Human studies on association between bisphenol A (BPA) exposure and semen quality, mostly based on single urinary measurement, are inconsistent. There is limited human evidence on BPA analogues such as bisphenol F (BPF) and bisphenol S (BPS), and little is known on potential effects of bisphenol mixtures. We aimed to explore whether individual or mixtures of BPA, BPS and BPF assessed in repeated urinary measurements were associated with semen quality among 984 Chinese men from an infertility clinic. We found that higher BPA exposure was associated with increased odds ratios (ORs) of having below-reference sperm concentration, total sperm count, progressive motility and total motility (all P for trends < 0.05). Higher BPS exposure was associated with increased ORs of having below-reference progressive motility and total motility (both P for trends = 0.02); the ORs comparing extreme quartiles were 1.62 (95% CI: 1.07, 2.43) and 1.57 (95% CI: 1.06, 2.33), respectively. Elevated risks for each outcome were also observed when bisphenol mixtures were at ≥ 55th percentiles. For semen quality parameters modeled as continuous outcomes, inverse associations with individual BPA and BPS and bisphenol mixtures were still estimated. Our results suggested that higher exposure to individual BPA and BPS and bisphenol mixtures were associated with impaired semen quality.

Regulatory and academic studies to derive reference values for human health: The case of bisphenol S

The close structural analogy of bisphenol (BP) S with BPA, a recognized endocrine-disrupting chemical and a substance of very high concern in the European Union, highlights the need to assess the extent of similarities between the two compounds and carefully scrutinize BPS potential toxicity for human health. This analysis aimed to investigate human health toxicity data regarding BPS, to find a point of departure for the derivation of human guidance values. A systematic and transparent methodology was applied to determine whether European or international reference values have been established for BPS. In the absence of such values, the scientific literature on human health effects was evaluated by focusing on human epidemiological and animal experimental studies. The results were analyzed by target organ/system: male and female reproduction, mammary gland, neurobehavior, and metabolism/obesity. Academic experimental studies were analyzed and compared to regulatory data including subchronic studies and an extended one-generation and reproduction study. In contrast to the regulatory studies, which were performed at dose levels in the mg/kg bw/day range, the academic dataset on specific target organs or systems showed adverse effects for BPS at much lower doses (0.5-10 μg/kg bw/day). A large disparity between the lowest-observed-adverse-effect levels (LOAELs) derived from regulatory and academic studies was observed for BPS, as for BPA. Toxicokinetic data on BPS from animal and human studies were also analyzed and showed a 100-fold higher oral bioavailability compared to BPA in a pig model. The similarities and differences between the two bisphenols, in particular the higher bioavailability of BPS in its active (non-conjugated) form and its potential impact on human health, are discussed. Based on the available experimental data, and for a better human protection, we propose to derive human reference values for exposure to BPS from the N(L)OAELs determined in academic studies.

Nursing Exposure to Bisphenols as a Cause of Male Idiopathic Infertility

Idiopathic infertility is a serious problem, which can be caused and explained by exposure to endocrine disruptors, such as bisphenols. In our study, we studied transactional exposure to bisphenol and its effects on newborn male mice throughout their reproductive life. Newborn male mice were exposed to bisphenol S and bisphenol F through maternal milk from post-natal day 0 to post-natal day 15 at concentrations of 0.1 ng.g/bw/day and 10 ng.g/bw/day, respectively. Although there were minimal differences between the control and experimental groups in testicular tissue quality and spermatozoa quality, we discovered an interesting influence on early embryonic development. Moderate doses of bisphenol negatively affected cleavage of the early embryo and subsequently, the blastocyst rate, as well as the number of blastomeres per blastocyst. In our study, we focused on correlations between particular stages from spermatogenesis to blastocyst development. We followed epigenetic changes such as dimethylation of histone H3 and phosphorylation of histone H2 from germ cells to blastocysts; we discovered the transfer of DNA double-strand breaks through the paternal pronucleus from spermatozoa to blastomeres in the blastocyst. We elucidated the impact of sperm DNA damage on early embryonic development, and our results indicate that idiopathic infertility in adulthood may have causes related to the perinatal period.

Bisphenol S exposure induces cytotoxicity in mouse Leydig cells

Bisphenol S (BPS), an increasingly used alternative to bisphenol A, has been linked to testosterone deficiency and male reproductive dysfunction in laboratory animals. This study aimed to examine the cytotoxicity of BPS exposure to Leydig cells and to investigate its possible mechanisms. After treatment with BPS (100, 200 and 400 μM) for 48 h in vitro, TM3 mouse Leydig cells exhibited a dose-dependent decrease in the viability. Furthermore, BPS challenge triggered oxidative stress manifested by compromised activities of superoxide dismutase and catalase with exaggerated formation of reactive oxygen species. Especially, BPS exposure resulted in augmented mitochondrial permeability transition pore opening, dissipated mitochondrial membrane potential and reduced ATP generation, along with an altered energy metabolism. Moreover, BPS stimulation enhanced BAX expression and caspase-3 activity and inhibited BCL-2 expression. In addition, BPS-treated TM3 cells showed an accumulation of autophagic vacuoles, together with increased Beclin1 and P62 expression and elevated LC3B-II/LC3B-I ratio. These results demonstrated that in vitro exposure to BPS exerted cytotoxicity to TM3 Leydig cells through inducing oxidative stress, mitochondrial impairment, autophagic disturbance and apoptosis.

Vapor cannabis exposure generationally affects male reproductive functions in mice

This study was performed to examine whether vapor exposure to cannabis plant matter negatively impacts male reproductive functions and testis development in mice. Adult CD-1 male mice (F0) were exposed to air (control) or 200 mg of vaporized cannabis plant matter 3x/day over a 10 day period. Subsequently, F0 males were bred with drug naïve CD-1 females to generate F1 males, and F1 offspring were used to generate F2 males. Cannabis vapor exposure decreased sperm count and/or motility in F0 and F1 males and disrupted the progression of germ cell development, as morphometric analyses exhibited an abnormal distribution of the stages of spermatogenesis in F0 males. Although plasma levels of testosterone were not affected by cannabis exposure in any ages or generations of males, dysregulated steroidogenic enzymes, Cyp11a1 and Cyp19a1, were observed in F0 testis. In the neonatal testis from F1 males, while apoptosis was not altered, DNA damage and DNMT1, but not DNMT3A and DNMT3B, were increased in germ cells following cannabis exposure. In contrast, the alterations of DNA damage and DNMT1 expression were not observed in F2 neonatal males. These results suggest that cannabis vapor exposure generationally affects male reproductive functions, probably due to disruption of spermatogenesis in the developing testis.

Disrupted metabolic pathways and potential human diseases induced by bisphenol S

Although the toxicity of bisphenol S has been studied in some species, the global metabolic network disrupted by bisphenol S remains unclear. To this end, published datasets related to the genes, proteins, and metabolites disturbed by bisphenol S were investigated through omics methods. The dataset revealed that bisphenol S at high concentrations tended to downregulate biomolecules, while low concentrations of bisphenol S tended to enhance metabolic reactions. The results showed that exposure to bisphenol S upregulated estrogen and downregulated androgen metabolism in humans, mice, rats, and zebrafish. Fatty acid metabolism and phospholipid metabolism in mice were upregulated. Reactions in amino acid metabolism were upregulated, with the exception of the suppressive conversion of arginine to ornithine. In zebrafish, fatty acid synthesis was promoted, while nucleotide metabolism was primarily depressed through the downregulation of pyruvate 2-o-phosphotransferase. The interference in amino acid metabolism by bisphenol S could trigger Alzheimer's disease, while its disturbance of glucose metabolism was associated with type II diabetes. Disturbed glycolipid metabolism and vitamin metabolism could induce Alzheimer's disease and diabetes. These findings based on omics data provide scientific insight into the metabolic network regulated by bisphenol S and the diseases triggered by its metabolic disruption.

Bisphenol A and its effects on the systemic organs of children

For the past two decades, growing research has been pointing to multiple repercussions of bisphenol A (BPA) exposure to human health. BPA is a synthetic oestrogen which primarily targets the endocrine system; however, the compound also disturbs other systemic organ functions, in which the magnitude of impacts in those other systems is as comparable to those in the endocrine system. To date, the discoveries on the association between BPA and health outcomes mainly came from animal and in vitro studies, with limited human studies which emphasised on children's health. In this comprehensive review, we summarised studies on human, in vivo and in vitro models to understand the consequences of pre-, post- and perinatal BPA exposure on the perinatal, children and adult health, encompassing cardiovascular, neurodevelopmental, endocrine and reproductive effects.Conclusion: Evidence from in vitro and animal studies may provide further support and better understanding on the correlation between environmental BPA exposure and its detrimental effects in humans and child development, despite the difficulties to draw direct causal relations of BPA effects on the pathophysiology of the diseases/syndromes in children, due to differences in body system complexity between children and adults, as well as between animal and in vitro models and humans. What is known: • Very limited reviews are available on how BPA adversely affects children's health. • Previous papers mainly covered two systems in children. What is new: • Comprehensive review on the detrimental effects of BPA on children health outcomes, including expectations on adult health outcomes following perinatal BPA exposure, as well as covering a small part of BPA alternatives. • Essentially, BPA exposure during pregnancy has huge impacts on the foetus in which it may cause changes in foetal epigenetic programming, resulting in disease onsets during childhood as well as adulthood.

Bisphenol AF and Bisphenol F Induce Similar Feminizing Effects in Chicken Embryo Testis as Bisphenol A

The plastic component bisphenol A (BPA) impairs reproductive organ development in various experimental animal species. In birds, effects are similar to those caused by other xenoestrogens. Because of its endocrine disrupting activity, BPA is being substituted with other bisphenols in many applications. Using the chicken embryo model, we explored whether the BPA alternatives bisphenol AF (BPAF), bisphenol F (BPF), and bisphenol S (BPS) can induce effects on reproductive organ development similar to those induced by BPA. Embryos were exposed in ovo from embryonic day 4 (E4) to vehicle, BPAF at 2.1, 21, 210, and 520 nmol/g egg, or to BPA, BPF, or BPS at 210 nmol/g egg and were dissected on embryonic day 19. Similar to BPA, BPAF and BPF induced testis feminization, manifested as eg testis-size asymmetry and ovarian-like cortex in the left testis. In the BPS-group, too few males were alive on day 19 to evaluate any effects on testis development. We found no effects by any treatment on ovaries or Müllerian ducts. BPAF and BPS increased the gallbladder-somatic index and BPAF, BPF and BPS caused increased embryo mortality. The overall lowest-observed-adverse-effect level for BPAF was 210 nmol/g egg based on increased mortality, increased gallbladder-somatic index, and various signs of testis feminization. This study demonstrates that the BPA replacements BPAF, BPF, and BPS are embryotoxic and suggests that BPAF is at least as potent as BPA in inducing estrogen-like effects in chicken embryos. Our results support the notion that these bisphenols are not safe alternatives to BPA.

Comparison of the materno-fetal transfer of fifteen structurally related bisphenol analogues using an ex vivo human placental perfusion model

Regulatory measures and public concerns regarding bisphenol A (BPA) have led to its replacement by a variety of alternatives in consumer products. Due to their structural similarity to BPA, these alternatives are under surveillance, however, for potential endocrine disruption. Understanding the materno-fetal transfer of these BPA-related alternatives across the placenta is therefore crucial to assess prenatal exposure risks. The objective of the study was to assess and compare the placental transfer of a set of 15 selected bisphenols (BPs) (BP 4-4, BPA, BPAF, BPAP, 3-3 BPA, BPB, BPBP, BPC, BPE, BPF, BPFL, BPM, BPP, BPS and BPZ) using the ex vivo human placental perfusion model. The UHPLC-MS/MS method for simultaneous quantification of these BPs in perfusion media, within a concentration range of 0.003-5 μM, was able to measure placenta transfer rates as low as 0.6%-4%. Despite their structural similarities, these BPs differed greatly in placental transport efficiency. The placental transfer rates of BP4-4, BPAP, BPE, BPF, 3-3BPA, BPB, BPA were similar to that of antipyrine, indicating that their main transport mechanism was passive diffusion. By contrast, the placental transfer rates of BPFL and BPS were very limited, and intermediate for BPBP, BPZ, BPC, BPM, BPP and BPAF, suggesting weak diffusional permeability and/or that their passage might involve efflux transport. These placental transfer data will be particularly useful for predicting the fetal exposure of this important class of emerging contaminants.

Gonadal sex steroid hormone secretion after exposure of male rats to estrogenic chemicals and their combinations

Environmental chemicals can interfere with the endocrine axis hence they are classified as endocrine disrupting chemicals (EDCs). Bisphenol S (BPS) is used in the manufacture of consumer products because of its superior thermal stability and is thought to be a safe replacement chemical for its analog bisphenol A (BPA). However, the safety profile of these compounds alone or in the presence of other EDCs is yet to be fully investigated. Also, the estrogenic chemical 17α-ethinyl estradiol (EE2) and a constituent of female oral contraceptives for women, is present in water supplies. To simulate concurrent exposure of the population to chemical mixtures, we investigated the effects of BPA, BPS, EE2, and their combinations on sex steroid secretion in the growing male rat gonad. Prepubertal and pubertal male rats at 21 and 35 days of age were provided test chemicals in drinking water (parts per billion) for 14 days. At termination of exposure, some individual chemical effects were modified by exposure to chemical combinations. Single chemical exposures markedly decreased androgen secretion but their combination (e.g., BPA + BPS + EE2) caused the opposite effect, i.e., increased Leydig cell T secretion. Also, the test chemicals acting alone or in combination increased testicular and Leydig cell 17β-estradiol (E2) secretion. Chemical-induced changes in T and E2 secretion were associated with altered testicular expression of the cholesterol side-chain cleavage (Cyp11a1) and 17β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase (Hsd17β) enzyme protein. Additional studies are warranted to understand the mechanisms by which single and chemical combinations impact function of testicular cells and disrupt their paracrine regulation.

Evaluation of testicular toxicity upon fetal exposure to bisphenol A using an organ culture method

Humans are exposed to a multitude of endocrine disruptor chemicals (EDCs) that can interfere with the action of endogenous hormones and the normal development of reproductive organs. Bisphenol A (BPA) is one of the most common EDCs found in the environment. Here, we evaluated BPA toxicity on fetal testes using an in vitro organ culture system. Mouse fetal testes sampled at 15.5 days post coitus were cultured in a medium containing BPA for 5 days. The number of germ cells was reduced by BPA treatment, whereas the number of Sertoli cells was slightly increased by BPA at the highest dose (100 μM). Consistently, BPA treatment reduced the protein and gene expression levels of germ cell markers, but it increased the expression levels of Sertoli cell markers. The expression levels of fetal Leydig cell markers such as Cyp11a1, Thbs2, Cyp17a1, and Pdgf-α were significantly increased, whereas those of adult Leydig cell markers such as Hsd17b3, Ptgds, Sult1e1, Vcam1, and Hsd11b1 were decreased in the testes exposed to BPA. Generally, Notch signaling restricts Leydig cell differentiation from progenitor cells during fetal testis development. The expression levels of Notch1, Notch2, Notch3, Hes1, Ptch1, Jag1, Jag2, c-Myc, Hey1, and Hey2, which are involved in Notch signaling, were markedly higher in BPA-treated fetal testes than in the controls, indicating that BPA interrupts fetal Leydig cell development. BPA also disrupted steroidogenesis in the fetal testis organ culture system. In conclusion, our study showed that BPA inhibits fetal germ cell growth, Leydig cell development, and steroidogenesis.

Environmental pollutants exposure and male reproductive toxicity: The role of epigenetic modifications

Male fertility rates have shown a progressive decrease in recent decades. There is a growing concern about the male reproductive dysfunction caused by environmental pollutants exposure, however the underlying molecular mechanisms are still not well understood. Epigenetic modifications play a key role in the biological responses to external stressors. Therefore, this review discusses the roles of epigenetic modifications in male reproductive toxicity induced by environmental pollutants, with a particular emphasis on DNA methylation, histone modifications and miRNAs. The available literature proposed that environmental pollutants can directly or cause oxidative stress and DNA damage to induce a variety of epigenetic changes, which lead to gene dysregulation, mitochondrial dysfunction and consequent male reproductive toxicity. However, future studies focusing on more kinds of epigenetic modifications and their crosstalk as well as epidemiological data are still required to fill in the current research gaps. In addition, the intrinsic links between pollutants-mediated epigenetic regulations and male reproduction-related physiological responses deserve to be further explored.

Elucidation of the Effects of Bisphenol A and Structural Analogs on Germ and Steroidogenic Cells Using Single Cell High-Content Imaging

Concerns about the potential adverse effects of bisphenol A (BPA) have led to an increase in the use of replacements, yet the toxicity data for several of these chemicals are limited. Using high-content imaging, we compared the effects of BPA, BPAF, BPF, BPS, BPM, and BPTMC in germ (C18-4 spermatogonial) and steroidogenic (MA-10 Leydig and KGN granulosa) cell lines. Effects on cell viability and phenotypic markers were analyzed to determine benchmark concentrations (BMCs) and estimate administered equivalent doses (AEDs). In all 3 cell lines, BPA was one of the least cytotoxic bisphenol compounds tested, whereas BPM and BPTMC were the most cytotoxic. Interestingly, BPF and BPS were cytotoxic only in MA-10 cells. Effects on phenotypic parameters, including mitochondria, lysosomes, lipid droplets, and oxidative stress, were both bisphenol- and cell-line specific. BPA exposure affected mitochondria (BMC: 1.2 μM; AED: 0.09 mg/kg/day) in C18-4 cells. Lysosome numbers were increased in MA-10 cells exposed to BPA or BPAF but decreased in KGN cells exposed to BPAF or BPM. Lipid droplets were decreased in C18-4 cells exposed to BPF and in MA-10 cells exposed to BPTMC but increased in BPF, BPM, and BPTMC-exposed KGN cells. BPA and BPM exposure induced oxidative stress in MA-10 and KGN cells, respectively. In summary, structurally similar bisphenols displayed clear cell-line-specific differences in BMC and AED values for effects on cell viability and phenotypic endpoints. This approach, together with additional data on human exposure, may aid in the selection and prioritization of responsible replacements for BPA. .

The role of epigenetics in the reproductive toxicity of environmental endocrine disruptors

Environmental endocrine disruptors (EEDs) seriously endanger human health by interfering with the normal function of reproductive systems. In males, EEDs can affect sperm formation and semen quality as well spermatogenesis, ultimately reducing fertility. In females, EEDs can affect uterine development and the expression levels of reproduction-related genes, ultimately reducing female fertility and the normal development of the fetus. There are a large number of putative mechanisms by which EEDs can induce reproductive toxicity, and many studies have shown the involvement of epigenetics. In this review, we summarize the role of DNA methylation, noncoding RNAs, genomic imprinting, chromatin remodeling and histone modification in the reproductive toxicity of EEDs.

Chronic exposure to bisphenol S induces oxidative stress, abnormal anxiety, and fear responses in adult zebrafish (Danio rerio)

Bisphenol S (BPS) is increasingly used in a wide range of industrial and consumer products, resulting in its ubiquitous distribution across the environment, including aquatic ecosystems. Although it is commonly known as a weak/moderate estrogenic compound, there has been a growing acknowledgment of the potential of BPS to cause toxicity by inducing oxidative stress. Oxidative stress is a major participant in the development of anxiety-like behaviors in humans and animals. Therefore, the present study was designed to examine the impact of BPS on anxiety-like behavior and fear responses in adult zebrafish and also to elucidate the possible linkage between the BPS neurotoxicity and oxidative status of the brain. To this end, adult male and female zebrafish were exposed to 0 (control), 1, 10, and 30 μg/L of BPS and 1 μg/L of 17-β-estradiol (E2) for 75 days. Following exposure, changes in anxiety and fear-related responses were evaluated by applying a novel tank test and by exposing focal fish to chemical alarm cues. Additionally, we evaluated the expression of multiple antioxidant genes in the zebrafish brain. Our results indicate that BPS, irrespective of exposure concentration, and E2 significantly decreased bottom-dwelling behavior and the latency to enter the upper water column. Furthermore, exposure to the highest concentration of BPS and E2 induced a significant decrease in fear-related responses. The impaired anxiety and reduced fear-related responses were associated with a down-regulation in the transcription of genes involved in enzymatic antioxidant defense. Taken together, our results suggest that chronic exposure to BPS impairs anxiety and fear responses in adult zebrafish, possibly by inducing oxidative stress in the brain.

The impact of bisphenols on reproductive system and on offspring in pigs - A review 2011-2020

This study summarizes the knowledge about effects of bisphenol A (BPA) and its analogues on reproduction of pigs and some parameters of their offspring during period 2011-2020. Bisphenols are known as one of the most harmful environmental toxicants with endocrine-disrupting properties. One study in the reference period related to male reproductive system. Treatment with an antagonist of G-protein coupled estrogen receptor (GPER) - G15, and bisphenol A and its analogues, tetrabromobisphenol A (TBBPA) and tetrachromobisphenol A (TCBPA) diversely disrupted protein molecules controlling the biogenesis and function of microRNA in Leydig cells. Nine studies examined the effect of BPA, bisphenol S (BPS) or fluorene-9-bisphenol (BHPF) on female reproductive system. From the possible protective effect's point of view seems to be perspective the administration of melatonin in BPA-exposed oocytes. Finally, two studies were found to evaluate the maternal exposure to BPA on offspring's meat quality, muscle metabolism and oxidative stress. Administration of methyl donor improved antioxidant enzymes activity and reduced oxidative stress in piglets.

Identification of the Bisphenol A (BPA) and the Two Analogues BPS and BPF in Cryptorchidism

OBJECTIVE

to explore the association of plasma concentrations of bisphenol A (BPA), bisphenol S (BPS), and bisphenol F (BPF) with unilateral cryptorchidism. In addition, to analyze selected demographic and intraoperative characteristics.

DESIGN

Retrospective analysis to determine plasma concentrations of total BPA, BPS and BPF using gas chromatography - mass spectrometry (GC-MS) among prepubertal boys with cryptorchidism and prebupertal male control subjects. During operation, the size, turgor and location of the cryptorchid testes were assessed.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE

Plasma concentrations of total BPA, BPS and BPF.

RESULTS

In children with cryptorchidism, plasma levels of BPA, BPS and BPF were significantly higher compared to the control subjects. For BPA, it was: median value: 9.95 ng/mL vs. 5.54 ng/mL, p<0.05. For BPS, it was: median value: 3.93 ng/mL vs. 1.45 ng/mL, p<0.001. For BPF, it was: median value: 3.56 ng/mL vs. 1.83 ng/mL, p<0.05. In cryptorchid group, BPA was detected in 61.4% samples, BPS in 19.3% and BPF in 19.3%. All the three bisphenols were detected in plasma samples of both the healthy subjects and the study cohort. In the latter group, we found significant higher levels of BPA in boys from urban areas. We found a weak positive correlation between the levels of BPS and BPF and reduced turgor of the testes. Furthermore, results showed weak positive correlations between BPA and BPS levels and the age of the children as well as between BPS and BPF concentrations and the place of residence.

CONCLUSIONS

Results provide a first characterization of prepubertal boys suffering from cryptorchidism and exposed to different kind of bisphenols. Our study suggests that cryptorchid boys are widely exposed to BPA and, to a lesser extent, also to its alternatives, such as BPS and BPF.

Early-life exposure to bisphenol A and reproductive-related outcomes in rodent models: a systematic review and meta-analysis

We performed this meta-analysis to elucidate the associations between early-life BPA exposure and reproductive-related outcome indicators. The standardized mean differences (SMDs) and its 95% confidence intervals (CIs) were measured by fixed-effects or random-effects models. The results revealed that BPA exposure at extremely-high dose (>50mg/kg/day) was significantly associated with negative reproductive-related outcomes (Prostate weight: SMD: -4.21; 95% Cl: -5.97, -2.44; Testis weight: SMD: -1.92; 95% Cl: -2.61, -1.23; Epididymis weight: SMD: -2.16; 95% Cl: -3.47, -0.86; Daily sperm production; SMD: -1.90; 95% Cl: -3.27, -0.53; Epididymal sperm count; SMD: -3.42; 95% Cl: -3.87, -2.97). Meanwhile, regardless of the dose, early-life BPA exposure could result in an adverse effect on sperm parameters of F1 generation male rodents at any period. Also, we found the non-monotonic dose response curves of BPA in specific tissues or organs, which may challenge the traditional mindset of "safe dose". This study demonstrated that bisphenol A exposure was relevant to adverse reproductive-related outcomes at specially appointed dose and period of life. Yet the assumption that no adverse effects can occur below the "safe" dose is suspected.

Bisphenols Threaten Male Reproductive Health via Testicular Cells

Male reproductive function and health are largely dependent on the testes, which are strictly regulated by their major cell components, i. e., Sertoli, Leydig, and germ cells. Sertoli cells perform a crucial phagocytic function in addition to supporting the development of germ cells. Leydig cells produce hormones essential for male reproductive function, and germ cell quality is a key parameter for male fertility assessment. However, these cells have been identified as primary targets of endocrine disruptors, including bisphenols. Bisphenols are a category of man-made organic chemicals used to manufacture plastics, epoxy resins, and personal care products such as lipsticks, face makeup, and nail lacquers. Despite long-term uncertainty regarding their safety, bisphenols are still being used worldwide, especially bisphenol A. While considerable attention has been paid to the effects of bisphenols on health, current bisphenol-related reproductive health cases indicate that greater attention should be given to these chemicals. Bisphenols, especially bisphenol A, F, and S, have been reported to elicit various effects on testicular cells, including apoptosis, DNA damage, disruption of intercommunication among cells, mitochondrial damage, disruption of tight junctions, and arrest of proliferation, which threaten male reproductive health. In addition, bisphenols are xenoestrogens, which alter organs and cells functions via agonistic or antagonistic interplay with hormone receptors. In this review, we provide in utero, in vivo, and in vitro evidence that currently available brands of bisphenols impair male reproductive health through their action on testicular cells.

Prenatal Exposure to Bisphenol A, E, and S Induces Transgenerational Effects on Male Reproductive Functions in Mice

This study was performed to examine the transgenerational effects of bisphenol (BP) A analogs, BPE, and BPS on male reproductive functions using mice as a model. CD-1 mice (F0) were orally exposed to control treatment (corn oil), BPA, BPE, or BPS (0.5 or 50 µg/kg/day) from gestational day 7 (the presence of vaginal plug = 1) to birth. Mice from F1 and F2 offspring were used to generate F3 males. Prenatal exposure to BPA, BPE, and BPS decreased sperm counts and/or motility and disrupted the progression of germ cell development as morphometric analyses exhibited an abnormal distribution of the stages of spermatogenesis in F3 males. Dysregulated serum levels of estradiol-17β and testosterone, as well as expression of steroidogenic enzymes in F3 adult testis were also observed. In the neonatal testis, although apoptosis and DNA damage were not affected, mRNA levels of DNA methyltransferases, histone methyltransferases, and their associated factors were increased by BP exposure. Furthermore, BP exposure induced immunoreactive expression of DNMT3A in Sertoli cells, strengthened DNMT3B, and weakened H3K9me2 and H3K9me3 in germ cells of the neonatal testis, whereas DNMT1, H3K4me3, and H3K27ac were not affected. In adult testis, stage-specific DNMT3B was altered by BP exposure, although DNMT3A, H3K9me2, and H3K9me3 expression remained stable. These results suggest that prenatal exposure to BPA, BPE, and BPS induces transgenerational effects on male reproductive functions probably due to altered epigenetic modification following disruption of DNMTs and histone marks in the neonatal and/or adult testis.

Global changes in epigenomes during mouse spermatogenesis: possible relation to germ cell apoptosis

Mammalian spermatogenesis is characterized by disproportionate germ cell apoptosis. The high frequency of apoptosis is considered a safety mechanism that serves to avoid unfavorable transmission of paternal aberrant genetic information to the offspring as well as elimination mechanism for removal of overproduced immature or damaged spermatogenic cells. The molecular mechanisms involved in the induction of germ cell apoptosis include both intrinsic mitochondrial Bcl-2/Bax and extrinsic Fas/FasL pathways. However, little is known about the nuclear trigger of those systems. Recent studies indicate that epigenomes are essential in the regulation of gene expression through remodeling of the chromatin structure, and are genome-like transmission materials that reflect the effects of various environmental factors. In spermatogenesis, epigenetic errors can act as the trigger for elimination of germ cells with abnormal chromatin structure, abnormal gene expression and/or morphological defects (disordered differentiation). In this review, we focus on the relationship between global changes in epigenetic parameters and germ cell apoptosis in mice and other mammals.

Environmental contaminants and male infertility: Effects and mechanisms

The escalating prevalence of male infertility and decreasing trend in sperm quality have been correlated with rapid industrialisation and the associated discharge of an excess of synthetic substances into the environment. Humans are inevitably exposed to these ubiquitously distributed environmental contaminants, which possess the ability to intervene with the growth and function of male reproductive organs. Several epidemiological reports have correlated the blood and seminal levels of environmental contaminants with poor sperm quality. Numerous in vivo and in vitro studies have been conducted to investigate the effect of various environmental contaminants on spermatogenesis, steroidogenesis, Sertoli cells, blood-testis barrier, epididymis and sperm functions. The reported reprotoxic effects include alterations in the spermatogenic cycle, increased germ cell apoptosis, inhibition of steroidogenesis, decreased Leydig cell viability, impairment of Sertoli cell structure and function, altered expression of steroid receptors, increased permeability of blood-testis barrier, induction of peroxidative and epigenetic alterations in spermatozoa resulting in poor sperm quality and function. In light of recent scientific reports, this review discusses the effects of environmental contaminants on the male reproductive function and the possible mechanisms of action.

Neuro-toxic and Reproductive Effects of BPA

Background:

Bisphenol A (BPA) is one of the highest volume chemicals produced worldwide. It has recognized activity as an endocrine-disrupting chemical and has suspected roles as a neurological and reproductive toxicant. It interferes in steroid signaling, induces oxidative stress, and affects gene expression epigenetically. Gestational, perinatal and neonatal exposures to BPA affect developmental processes, including brain development and gametogenesis, with consequences on brain functions, behavior, and fertility.

Methods:

This review critically analyzes recent findings on the neuro-toxic and reproductive effects of BPA (and its ana-logues), with focus on neuronal differentiation, synaptic plasticity, glia and microglia activity, cognitive functions, and the central and local control of reproduction.

Results:

BPA has potential human health hazard associated with gestational, peri- and neonatal exposure. Beginning with BPA’s disposition, this review summarizes recent findings on the neurotoxicity of BPA and its analogues, on neuronal dif-ferentiation, synaptic plasticity, neuro-inflammation, neuro-degeneration, and impairment of cognitive abilities. Furthermore, it reports the recent findings on the activity of BPA along the HPG axis, effects on the hypothalamic Gonadotropin Releas-ing Hormone (GnRH), and the associated effects on reproduction in both sexes and successful pregnancy.

Conclusion:

BPA and its analogues impair neuronal activity, HPG axis function, reproduction, and fertility. Contrasting re-sults have emerged in animal models and human. Thus, further studies are needed to better define their safety levels. This re-view offers new insights on these issues with the aim to find the “fil rouge”, if any, that characterize BPA’s mechanism of action with outcomes on neuronal function and reproduction.

Bisphenol S in Food Causes Hormonal and Obesogenic Effects Comparable to or Worse than Bisphenol A: A Literature Review

In recent years, bisphenol analogues such as bisphenol S (BPS) have come to replace bisphenol A in food packaging and food containers, since bisphenol A (BPA) has been shown to leach into food and water, causing numerous negative health effects. Unfortunately, little or no research was done to determine the safety of these BPA-free products before they were marketed to the public as a healthier alternative. The latest studies have shown that some of these bisphenol analogues may be even more harmful than the original BPA in some situations. This article used a literature survey to investigate the bisphenol analogue BPS and compare it to BPA and other analogues with regards to increased obesity, metabolic disorders, cancer, and reproductive defects; among others. It was found that BPS works via different pathways than does BPA while causing equivalent obesogenic effects, such as activating preadipocytes, and that BPS was correlated with metabolic disorders, such as gestational diabetes, that BPA was not correlated with. BPS was also shown to be more toxic to the reproductive system than BPA and was shown to hormonally promote certain breast cancers at the same rate as BPA. Therefore, a strong argument may be made to regulate BPS in exactly the same manner as BPA.

Mechanisms of Testicular Disruption from Exposure to Bisphenol A and Phtalates

Great attention has been paid in recent years to the harmful effects of various chemicals that interfere with our natural hormone balance, collectively known as endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs) or endocrine disruptors. The effects on the reproductive system of bisphenol A (BPA) and phthalates have received particular attention: while they have a short half-life, they are so widespread that human exposure can be considered as continuous. Evidence is often limited to the animal model, disregarding the likelihood of human exposure to a mixture of contaminants. Data from animal models show that maternal exposure probably has harmful effects on the male fetus, with an increased risk of urogenital developmental abnormalities. After birth, exposure is associated with changes in the hypothalamic-pituitary-testicular axis, hindering the development and function of the male genital pathways through the mediation of inflammatory mechanisms and oxidative stress. The epidemiological and clinical evidence, while generally confirming the association between reproductive abnormalities and some phthalate esters and BPA, is more contradictory, with wildly different findings. The aim of this review is therefore to provide an update of the potential mechanisms of the damage caused by BPA and phthalates to reproductive function and a review of the clinical evidence currently available in the literature.