From 'Farm to Fork': Exploring the Potential of Nutrient-Rich and Stress-Resilient Emergent Crops for Sustainable and Healthy Food in the Mediterranean Region in the Face of Climate Change Challenges

In the dynamic landscape of agriculture and food science, incorporating emergent crops appears as a pioneering solution for diversifying agriculture, unlocking possibilities for sustainable cultivation and nutritional bolstering food security, and creating economic prospects amid evolving environmental and market conditions with positive impacts on human health. This review explores the potential of utilizing emergent crops in Mediterranean environments under current climate scenarios, emphasizing the manifold benefits of agricultural and food system diversification and assessing the impact of environmental factors on their quality and consumer health. Through a deep exploration of the resilience, nutritional value, and health impacts of neglected and underutilized species (NUS) such as quinoa, amaranth, chia, moringa, buckwheat, millet, teff, hemp, or desert truffles, their capacity to thrive in the changing Mediterranean climate is highlighted, offering novel opportunities for agriculture and functional food development. By analysing how promoting agricultural diversification can enhance food system adaptability to evolving environmental conditions, fostering sustainability and resilience, we discuss recent findings that underscore the main benefits and limitations of these crops from agricultural, food science, and health perspectives, all crucial for responsible and sustainable adoption. Thus, by using a sustainable and holistic approach, this revision analyses how the integration of NUS crops into Mediterranean agrifood systems can enhance agriculture resilience and food quality addressing environmental, nutritional, biomedical, economic, and cultural dimensions, thereby mitigating the risks associated with monoculture practices and bolstering local economies and livelihoods under new climate scenarios.

Grains in a Modern Time: A Comprehensive Review of Compositions and Understanding Their Role in Type 2 Diabetes and Cancer

Globally, type 2 diabetes (T2D) and Cancer are the major causes of morbidity and mortality worldwide and are considered to be two of the most significant public health concerns of the 21st century. Over the next two decades, the global burden is expected to increase by approximately 60%. Several observational studies as well as clinical trials have demonstrated the health benefits of consuming whole grains to lower the risk of several chronic non-communicable diseases including T2D and cancer. Cereals grains are the primary source of energy in the human diet. The most widely consumed pseudo cereals include (quinoa, amaranth, and buckwheat) and cereals (wheat, rice, and corn). From a nutritional perspective, both pseudo cereals and cereals are recognized for their complete protein, essential amino acids, dietary fibers, and phenolic acids. The bran layer of the seed contains the majority of these components. Greater intake of whole grains rather than refined grains has been consistently linked to a lower risk of T2D and cancer. Due to their superior nutritional compositions, whole grains make them a preferred choice over refined grains. The modulatory effects of whole grains on T2D and cancer are also likely to be influenced by several mechanisms; some of these effects may be direct while others involve altering the composition of gut microbiota, increasing the abundance of beneficial bacteria, and lowering harmful bacteria, increasing insulin sensitivity, lowering solubility of free bile acids, breaking protein down into peptides and amino acids, producing short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs), and other beneficial metabolites that promote the proliferation in the colon which modulate the antidiabetic and anticancer pathway. Thus, the present review had two aims. First, it summarized the recent knowledge about the nutritional composition and bioactive acids in pseudo cereals (quinoa, amaranth, and buckwheat) and cereals (wheat, rice, and corn); the second section summarized and discussed the progress in recent human studies, such as observational (cross-sectional studies, case-control studies, and cohort studies) and intervention studies to understand their role in T2D and cancer including the potential mechanism. Overall, according to the scientific data, whole grain consumption may reduce the incidence of T2D and cancer. Future studies should carry out randomized controlled trials to validate observational results and establish causality. In addition, the current manuscript encourages researchers to investigate the specific mechanisms by which whole grains exert their beneficial effects on health by examining the effects of different types of specific protein, dietary fibers, and phenolic acids that might help to prevent or treat T2D and cancer.

Formulation of new sourdough bread prototypes fortified with non-compliant chickpea and pea residues

Purpose

Nowadays, the promotion of a circular economy is fundamental to reduce food losses and waste. In this context, the possibility of using food supply chains non-compliant residues emerges. Much interest has been directed toward legume residues, in general and, in particular, to the possibility of combining different plant-matrices to improve nutritional profile, providing high-quality products.

Methods

Five different formulations of breads, with a combination of seeds and cereals, were fortified with chickpea and pea protein concentrates. Samples were analyzed and compared with their relative control recipe to determine differences in composition, actual protein quality and integrity, and protein digestibility (performed with the INFOGEST method).

Results

Samples showed a clear improvement in the nutritional profile with higher values of proteins, from averagely 12.9 (control breads) to 29.6% (fortified breads) (17.7-24.7 g/100 g of dry matter respectively), and an improvement in amino acidic profile, with a better balancing of essential amino acids (lysine and sulfur amino acid contents), without affecting protein integrity. Regarding in vitro gastro-intestinal digestibility, sample C (19% chickpea proteins) showed the best results, having a comparable protein digestibility to its control bread-48.8 ± 1.1% versus 51.7 ± 2.3%, respectively.

Conclusion

The results showed how the fortification with chickpea and/or pea protein concentrate improved the nutritional profile of bread. These prototypes seem to be a valid strategy to also increase the introduction of high biological value proteins. Furthermore, the not-expected lower digestibility suggested the possible presence of residual anti-nutritional factors in the protein concentrates interfering with protein digestibility. Therefore, it seems of fundamental importance to further investigate these aspects.

First principles modelling of the ion binding capacity of finger millet

Finger millet, a cereal grain widely consumed in India and Africa, has gained more attention in recent years due to its high dietary fibre (arabinoxylan) and trace mineral content, and its climate resilience. The aim of this study was to understand the interactions between potassium (K+), calcium (Ca2+) and zinc (Zn2+) ions and the arabinoxylan structure and determine its ion-binding capacity. Three variations of a proposed model of the arabinoxylan structure were constructed and first principles Density Functional Theory calculations were carried out to determine the cation-binding capacity of the arabinoxylan complexes. Zn2+-arabinoxylan complexes were highly unstable and thermodynamically unfavourable in all three models. Ca2+ and K+ ions, however, form thermodynamically stable complexes, particularly involving two glucuronic acid residues as a binding pocket. Glucuronic acid residues are found to play a key role in stabilising the cation-arabinoxylan complex, and steric effects are more important to the stability than charge density. Our results highlight the most important structural features of the millet fibre regarding ion-storage capacity, and provide valuable preliminary data for confirmatory experimental studies and for the planning of clinical trials where the bioavailability of bound ions following digestion may be tested.

A comparison of the bioaccessible calcium supplies of various plant-based products relative to bovine milk

Calcium deficiency is widespread globally, especially in diets with minimal consumption of dairy. It is therefore important to identify plant-based sources of calcium that can make a meaningful contribution to calcium intakes for populations following diets with a minimum supply of dairy products. The best sources of calcium have a high calcium content and bioavailability. Therefore, we evaluated the gross and bioaccessible calcium supplies of 25 plant-based products from 5 food groups considered to be good and important sources of calcium. Bioaccessible calcium was examined using the INFOGEST static digestion model in which isotopically labelled 43Ca was used as a tracer of reagent calcium to improve accuracy of bioaccessibility measurements. The gross calcium content varied widely amongst all the food products, ranging between 7.48 and 959 mg/100 g fresh weight (fw), with approximately 50 % of the products being equivalent to or surpassing the calcium content of skimmed milk. Bioaccessibility of calcium was equally variable, ranging from about 0.1 - 50 %. The lowest bioaccessibility (<10 %) was found in spinach, plant-based beverages, tofu, dried figs and tahini and was attributed to: 1. the high content of oxalate and phytate in some of the products, and 2. the low solubility of tricalcium phosphate which was used for fortification in the plant-based beverages. The remaining products generally had a high bioaccessibility that was similar to, or higher than that of skimmed milk (∼30 %). When both bioaccessibility and recommended serving portions were considered, only 3 products were identified as good sources of calcium, requiring 0.2 - 1.4 servings to equal the bioaccessible supply from skimmed milk. The top three sources of plant-based calcium identified were kale, finger millet and fortified white bread in that order, with kale providing 5 times more bioaccessible calcium than 1 serving of skimmed milk. Moderate sources of calcium where 1.5 - 3 servings was equivalent to 1 serving of skimmed milk included wholemeal bread, some bean varieties (black chickpeas, chickpeas, kidney beans, peas), broccoli, cabbage and almond drink. The rest of the products were either of low calcium content, poor bioaccessibility, and/or not consumed in sufficient quantities to make a significant contribution to daily requirements. White bread was a good source of calcium as it was fortified with calcium carbonate and this suggests that mandatory widescale fortification of staple cereals with this form of calcium should be considered a viable approach to augment dietary calcium intakes in vulnerable populations. Low bioaccessibility of fortified calcium in plant-based beverages, often marketed as good sources of calcium, suggests the need for regulation and for further in vivo studies to validate bioavailability of calcium in these products.

Calcium food sources in primary school children with low calcium intakes in Kuala Lumpur

Background: Adequate calcium intake at an early age is crucial to achieving peak bone mass. Nevertheless, low calcium intake is common in Malaysian children. Aim: This study examined the calcium food sources and factors associated with low calcium intake among 243 children aged 9-11 years in Kuala Lumpur. Methods: Diet histories and bone density were measured. Results: The mean calcium intake was 370 ± 187 mg/day. The main contributors to calcium intake were beverages (19.2%), cereal (18.6%), milk and dairy (13.0%), meat and poultry (12.9%), and fish and seafood (10.1%). Within each food group, calcium-contributing foods tend to be from low bioavailability sources such as rice, cocoa-based and malted drinks, and chicken rather than milk. Children who practised regular meals, ate breakfast and snacks and consumed milk more than one serving daily have a higher calcium intake. Conclusion: In conclusion, public health strategies to improve the status of low calcium intake and poor choices of calcium-rich foods are needed to optimise bone health in this population.

A comparative study on comprehensive nutritional profiling of indigenous non-bio-fortified and bio-fortified varieties and bio-fortified hybrids of pearl millets

Seven indigenous pearl millet varieties, including non-bio-fortified (HC-10 & HC-20) and bio-fortified (Dhanashakti) and bio-fortified hybrids, viz., AHB-1200, HHB-299, HHB-311, and RHB-233, were studied in the present work. There was not any significant difference observed in the crucial anti-nutrients content, i.e., phytate (24.88-32.56 mg/g), tannin (3.07-4.35 mg/g), and oxalate (0.33-0.43 mg/g). Phytochemical content and antioxidant activity showed significantly high (p < 0.05) TPC and FRAP, TFC, and DPPH radical scavenging activity in the HHB 299 and Dhanashakti, respectively. Quantitative analysis of polyphenols by HPLC (first report on these varieties) revealed that HHB-299 has the highest amount of gallic acid. Fatty acid profiling by GC-FID showed that Dhanashakti, AHB-1200, and HHB-299 have rich monounsaturated fatty acid (MUFA) and polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA). Mineral analysis by ICP-OES showed high iron (87.79 and 84.26 mg/kg) and zinc (55.05 and 52.43 mg/kg) content in the HHB-311 and Dhanashakti, respectively. Results of the present study would help facilitate the formulation of various processed functional food products (RTC/RTE) that are currently not reported/unavailable.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s13197-022-05452-x.

Modification of Dietary Fibers to Valorize the By-Products of Cereal, Fruit and Vegetable Industry-A Review on Treatment Methods

Many by-products originating from cereal, fruit and vegetable industries contain quite high amounts of dietary fiber (DF), which play an important role in maintaining the healthy state of the human body. Nevertheless, huge proportions of these by-products are still underutilized as feed ingredients, to generate energy within an anaerobic digestion plant or even landfilled. One of the biggest hindrances in the valorization of such by-products is their very low soluble dietary fiber (SDF) to insoluble dietary fiber (IDF) ratios, impairing their nutritional functionality, palatability and technological applicability. Therefore, it is of interest to develop methods that can enhance the SDF to IDF ratio and that can be applied to the by-product streams of the food industry, enabling better valorization perspectives for human nutrition purposes. In this regard, the review paper provides an overview of existing technologies to modify the SDF to IDF ratio in by-products of the food industry by means of physical, chemical and biological treatments. For each type of treatment, available data on application examples including achieved increases in SDF contents are given. Additionally, a comparative discussion regarding the advantages and disadvantages of these methods is provided.

Non-starch polysaccharides in beer and brewing: A review of their occurrence and significance

It has become apparent that beer (both alcoholic and nonalcoholic) contains appreciable amounts of non-starch polysaccharides, a broad subgroup of dietary fiber. It is worth noting that the occurrence of non-starch polysaccharides in alcoholic beer does not imply this should be consumed as a source of nutrition. But the popularity of nonalcoholic beer is growing, and the lessons learnt from non-starch polysaccharides in brewing can be largely translated to nonalcoholic beer. For context, we briefly review the origins of dietary fiber, its importance within the human diet and the significance of water-soluble dietary fiber in beverages. We review the relationship between non-starch polysaccharides and brewing, giving focus to the techniques used to quantify non-starch polysaccharides in beer, how they affect the physicochemical properties of beer and their influence on the brewing process. The content of non-starch polysaccharides in both regular and low/nonalcoholic beer ranges between 0.5 - 4.0 g/L and are predominantly composed of arabinoxylans and β-glucans. The process of malting, wort production and filtration significantly affect the soluble non-starch polysaccharide content in the final beer. Beer viscosity and turbidity are strongly associated with the content of non-starch polysaccharides.

Overview of the Composition of Whole Grains’ Phenolic Acids and Dietary Fibre and Their Effect on Chronic Non-Communicable Diseases

Chronic non-communicable diseases are the major cause of death globally. Whole grains are recommended in dietary guidelines worldwide due to increasing evidence that their consumption can improve health beyond just providing energy and nutrients. Epidemiological studies have suggested that the incorporation of whole grains, as part of a healthy diet, plays a key role in reducing one’s risk for cardiovascular diseases (CVDs), obesity, type 2 diabetes (T2D) and cancer. Phenolic acids and dietary fibre are important components found in whole grains that are largely responsible for these health advantages. Both phenolic acids and dietary fibre, which are predominantly present in the bran layer, are abundant in whole-grain cereals and pseudo-cereals. Several studies indicate that whole grain dietary fibre and phenolic acids are linked to health regulation. The main focus of this study is two-fold. First, we provide an overview of phenolic acids and dietary fibres found in whole grains (wheat, barley, oats, rice and buckwheat). Second, we review existing literature on the linkages between the consumption of whole grains and the development of the following chronic non-communicable diseases: CVDs, obesity, T2D and cancer. Altogether, scientific evidence that the intake of whole grains reduces the risk of certain chronic non-communicable disease is encouraging but not convincing. Based on previous studies, the current review encourages further research to cover the gap between the emerging science of whole grains and human health.

Dietary Fiber in Plant Cell Walls—The Healthy Carbohydrates

Dietary fiber (DF) is one of the major classes of nutrients for humans. It is widely distributed in the edible parts of natural plants, with the cell wall being the main DF-containing structure. The DF content varies significantly in different plant species and organs, and the processing procedure can have a dramatic effect on the DF composition of plant-based foods. Given the considerable nutritional value of DF, a deeper understanding of DF in food plants, including its composition and biosynthesis, is fundamental to the establishment of a daily intake reference of DF and is also critical to molecular breeding programs for modifying DF content. In the past decades, plant cell wall biology has seen dramatic progress, and such knowledge is of great potential to be translated into DF-related food science research and may provide future research directions for improving the health benefits of food crops. In this review, to spark interdisciplinary discussions between food science researchers and plant cell wall biologists, we focus on a specific category of DF—cell wall carbohydrates. We first summarize the content and composition of carbohydrate DF in various plant-based foods, and then discuss the structure and biosynthesis mechanism of each carbohydrate DF category, in particular the respective biosynthetic enzymes. Health impacts of DF are highlighted, and finally, future directions of DF research are also briefly outlined.

Measuring and Influencing Behavior Change in Dietary Intake: Integrated Photovoice Approach in Nutrition Interventions in Eastern Kenya

A study conducted in two wards of Tharaka Nithi subcounty in Kenya documented the impact of using photovoice as a learning tool to build awareness about diets in order to influence behavior change, as well as a method to measure dietary intake. After a year's nutrition awareness drive using Smart Food branding, in the intervention area, a total of 60 participants from intervention and control areas were identified for the photovoice exercise. The analysis showed household and women's dietary diversity scores to be higher in the intervention group by 35% and 45%, respectively. An estimate of nutrient intake revealed a higher intake of calories, protein, calcium, iron and zinc ranging from 70% to 205% in the intervention group. Qualitative feedback on the photovoice approach reflected increased nutrition awareness and behavior change. Results showed the efficacy of the approach in evaluating diets while simultaneously improving participants' realization of what they were consuming using images captured and a one-on-one discussion with nutritionists. The improvement in dietary diversity scores reflected the effectiveness of this creative participatory and branded approach in imparting a strong message on and enthusiasm for learning about nutrition, resulting in behavior change.

Improvement of nutrient bioavailability in millets: Emphasis on the application of enzymes

Millets are a traditional staple food of the dryland regions of the world and are rich in essential nutrients like protein, fatty acids, minerals, vitamins, and dietary fiber. Also, millets commonly synthesize a range of secondary metabolites to protect themselves against adverse conditions. These factors are collectively termed anti-nutritional factors and the existence of these factors in millets might reduce the accessibility of the nutrients in humans. Some of these factors include protease inhibitors, tannins, non-starch polysaccharides-glucans, phytates, and oxalates each of which might directly or indirectly affect the digestibility of nutrients. Methods like soaking, germination, autoclaving, debranning, and the addition of exogenous enzymes have been used to reduce the anti-nutritional factors and elevate the bioavailability of the nutrients. This review summarizes various methods that have been used to improve nutrient bioavailability, specifically emphasizing the use of enzymes to improve nutrient bioavailability from millets. © 2021 Society of Chemical Industry.

Effect of packaging materials and storage conditions on the microbial quality of pearl millet sourdough bread

Sourdough is one of the oldest methods of cereal fermentation applied mainly for the sole purpose of baking and has been proven to enhance the production of microbiologically safe products. This study investigated the effect of packaging materials and storage conditions on the microbial quality and some intrinsic parameters of the sourdough bread. Pearl millet flour was naturally fermented for 72 h to obtain sourdough which was used with pearl millet flour to produce sourdough bread while the control bread was produced with pearl millet flour and yeast. The bread samples were packaged in low density polyethylene and aluminium foil and stored at -5, 4, 6, 28 and 37 °C. The total bacteria count (log cfu/g) and total fungal count (spore/g) increased with an increase in storage temperature and storage days. Fungi colonies isolated from stored bread samples include species of Rhizopus, Aspergillus, Penicillium and Mucor. A significant increase (p ≤ 0.05) in the pH and decrease in the moisture content of the bread samples were observed as storage period and storage temperature increased. Sourdough fermentation improved the microbial qualities and extended the shelf life of bread.

Dietary Fibre from Whole Grains and Their Benefits on Metabolic Health

The consumption of whole grain products is often related to beneficial effects on consumer health. Dietary fibre is an important component present in whole grains and is believed to be (at least partially) responsible for these health benefits. The dietary fibre composition of whole grains is very distinct over different grains. Whole grains of cereals and pseudo-cereals are rich in both soluble and insoluble functional dietary fibre that can be largely classified as e.g., cellulose, arabinoxylan, β-glucan, xyloglucan and fructan. However, even though the health benefits associated with the consumption of dietary fibre are well known to scientists, producers and consumers, the consumption of dietary fibre and whole grains around the world is substantially lower than the recommended levels. This review will discuss the types of dietary fibre commonly found in cereals and pseudo-cereals, their nutritional significance and health benefits observed in animal and human studies.

Effect of phytase treatment of sorghum flour, an alternative for gluten free foods and bioaccessibility of essential minerals

This study evaluated the effect of phytase treatment on the bioavailability of iron (Fe), calcium (Ca), zinc (Zn), and myo-inositol phosphate fractions in sorghum flour; and characterized its macronutrients and minerals. The proximate composition and mineral content indicated that, sorghum flour has a nutritional potential superior to wheat and maize. The results obtained in the solubility and dialysis assays indicated that, naturally occurring minerals (without phytase treatment) in sorghum flour, presented considerable bioaccessibility; reaching 32, 47 and 67% of dialyzable Fe, Zn, and Ca respectively. The use of phytase had a positive influence on the reduction of myo-inositol phosphates, mainly the IP6 fraction, present in sorghum flour samples, and an increase in the soluble percentage (Fe 52% for one sample, for Zn higher than 266%) and dialyzed minerals (Fe 7.8-150%; Zn 19.7 for one sample; and Ca 5-205%) for most samples. Therefore, the essential minerals naturally occurring in sorghum have an absorption potential; and the use of phytase reduced the IP6 fraction and improved the availability of the minerals evaluated.

Dietary fiber sources and human benefits: The case study of cereal and pseudocereals

Dietary fiber (DF) includes the remnants of the edible part of plants and analogous carbohydrates that are resistant to digestion and absorption in the human small intestine with complete or partial fermentation in the human large intestine. DF can be classified into two main groups according to its solubility, namely insoluble dietary fiber (IDF) that mainly consists on cell wall components, including cellulose, some hemicelluloses, lignin and resistant starch, and soluble dietary fiber (SDF) that consists of non-cellulosic polysaccharides as non-digestible oligosaccharides, arabinoxylans (AX), β-glucans, some hemicelluloses, pectins, gums, mucilages and inulin. The intake of DF is associated with health benefits. IDF can contribute to the normal function of the intestinal tract and it has an important role in the prevention of colonic diverticulosis and constipation. SDF is extensively fermented by gut microbiota and it is associated with carbohydrate and lipid metabolism, with important health benefits due to its hypocholesterolemic properties. Due to these nutritional and health properties, DF is widely used as functional ingredients in food industry, being whole grain cereals, pulses, fruits and vegetables the main sources of DF. Also some synthetic sources are employed, namely polydextrose, hydroxypropyl methylcellulose or cyclodextrins. The DF content of cereals varies depending on cultivars, their botanical components (pericarp, emdosperm and germ) and the processing conditions they have undergone (baking, extrusion, etc.). In cereal grains, AX are the predominant non-cellulose DF polysaccharides followed by cellulose and β-glucans, while in pseudocereals, pectins are quantitatively predominant.

Harnessing Finger Millet to Combat Calcium Deficiency in Humans: Challenges and Prospects

Humans require more than 20 mineral elements for healthy body function. Calcium (Ca), one of the essential macromineral, is required in relatively large quantities in the diet for maintaining a sound overall health. Young children, pregnant and nursing women in marginalized and poorest regions of the world, are at highest risk of Ca malnutrition. Elderly population is another group of people most commonly affected by Ca deficiency mainly in the form of osteoporosis and osteopenia. Improved dietary intake of Ca may be the most cost-effective way to meet such deficiencies. Finger millet [Eleusine coracana (L.) Gaertn.], a crop with inherently higher Ca content in its grain, is an excellent candidate for understanding genetic mechanisms associated with Ca accumulation in grain crops. Such knowledge will also contribute toward increasing Ca contents in other staple crops consumed on daily basis using plant-breeding (also known as biofortification) methods. However, developing Ca-biofortified finger millet to reach nutritional acceptability faces various challenges. These include identifying and translating the high grain Ca content to an adequately bioavailable form so as to have a positive impact on Ca malnutrition. In this review, we assess some recent advancements and challenges for enrichment of its Ca value and present possible inter-disciplinary prospects for advancing the actual impact of Ca-biofortified finger millet.

Malting process optimization for protein digestibility enhancement in finger millet grain

Finger millet (Eleusine coracana) is a nutritious, gluten-free, and drought resistant cereal containing high amounts of protein, carbohydrate, and minerals. However, bio-availability of these nutrients is restricted due to the presence of an excessive level of anti-nutrient components, mainly phytic acid, tannin, and oxalate. It has been shown that a well-designed malting/germination process can significantly reduce these anti-nutrients and consequently enhance the nutrient availability. In the present study, the effects of two important germination factors, duration and temperature, on the enhancement of in-vitro protein digestibility of finger millet were thoroughly investigated and optimized. Based on a central composite design, the grains were germinated for 24, 36, and 48 h at 22, 26, and 30 °C. For all factor combinations, protein, peptide, phytic acid, tannin, and oxalate contents were evaluated and digestibility was assessed. It was shown that during the malting/germinating process, both temperature and duration factors significantly influenced the investigated quantities. Germination of finger millet for 48 h at 30 °C increased protein digestibility from 74 % (for native grain) up to 91 %. Besides, it notably decreased phytic acid, tannin, and oxalate contents by 45 %, 46 %, and 29 %, respectively. Linear correlations between protein digestibility and these anti-nutrients were observed.