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Mazzio E, Barnes A, Badisa R, Council S, Soliman KFA. Plants against cancer: the immune-boosting herbal microbiome: not of the plant, but in the plant. Basic concepts, introduction, and future resource for vaccine adjuvant discovery. Front Oncol 2023; 13:1180084. [PMID: 37588095 PMCID: PMC10426289 DOI: 10.3389/fonc.2023.1180084] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/05/2023] [Accepted: 05/30/2023] [Indexed: 08/18/2023] Open
Abstract
The presence of microorganism communities (MOCs) comprised of bacteria, fungi, archaea, algae, protozoa, viruses, and the like, are ubiquitous in all living tissue, including plant and animal. MOCs play a significant role in establishing innate and acquired immunity, thereby influencing susceptibility and resistance to disease. This understanding has fostered substantial advancements in several fields such as agriculture, food science/safety, and the development of vaccines/adjuvants, which rely on administering inactivated-attenuated MOC pathogens. Historical evidence dating back to the 1800s, including reports by Drs Busch, Coley, and Fehleisen, suggested that acute febrile infection in response to "specific microbes" could trigger spontaneous tumor remission in humans. This discovery led to the purposeful administration of the same attenuated strains, known as "Coley's toxin," marking the onset of the first microbial (pathogen) associated molecular pattern (MAMPs or PAMPs)-based tumor immunotherapy, used clinically for over four decades. Today, these same MAMPS are consumed orally by billions of consumers around the globe, through "specific" mediums (immune boosting "herbal supplements") as carriers of highly concentrated MOCs accrued in roots, barks, hulls, sea algae, and seeds. The American Herbal Products Association (AHPA) mandates microbial reduction in botanical product processing but does not necessitate the removal of dead MAMP laden microbial debris, which we ingest. Moreover, while existing research has focused on the immune-modulating role of plant phytochemicals, the actual immune-boosting properties might instead reside solely in the plant's MOC MAMP laden biomass. This assertion is logical, considering that antigenic immune-provoking epitopes, not phytochemicals, are known to stimulate immune response. This review explores a neglected area of research regarding the immune-boosting effects of the herbal microbiome - a presence which is indirectly corroborated by various peripheral fields of study and poses a fundamental question: Given that food safety focuses on the elimination of harmful pathogens and crop science acknowledges the existence of plant microbiomes, what precisely are the immune effects of ingesting MAMPs of diverse structural composition and concentration, and where are these distributed in our botanicals? We will discuss the topic of concentrated edible MAMPs as acid and thermally stable motifs found in specific herbs and how these would activate cognate pattern recognition receptors (PPRs) in the upper gut-associated lymphoid tissue (GALT), including Peyer's patches and the lamina propria, to boost antibody titers, CD8+ and CD4+ T cells, NK activity, hematopoiesis, and facilitating M2 to M1 macrophage phenotype transition in a similar manner as vaccines. This new knowledge could pave the way for developing bioreactor-grown/heat-inactivated MOC therapies to boost human immunity against infections and improve tumor surveillance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elizabeth Mazzio
- Divison of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Institute of Public Health, Florida A & M University, Tallahassee, FL, United States
| | - Andrew Barnes
- Divison of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Institute of Public Health, Florida A & M University, Tallahassee, FL, United States
| | - Ramesh Badisa
- Divison of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Institute of Public Health, Florida A & M University, Tallahassee, FL, United States
| | - Stevie Council
- John Gnabre Science Research Institute, Baltimore, MD, United States
| | - Karam F. A. Soliman
- Divison of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Institute of Public Health, Florida A & M University, Tallahassee, FL, United States
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Tang Y, Shen Y, Hong Y, Zhang Z, Zhai Q, Fu Z, Li H, Lu K, Lin J. miR-181a regulates the host immune response against Schistosoma japonicum infection through the TLR4 receptor pathway. Parasit Vectors 2021; 14:548. [PMID: 34689797 PMCID: PMC8543936 DOI: 10.1186/s13071-021-05063-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/22/2021] [Accepted: 10/12/2021] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Schistosomiasis japonica is a serious zoonotic parasitic disease. Preliminary studies have shown that the expression of microRNA-181a (miR-181a) in the liver, lung and spleen tissues of susceptible host BALB/c mice and resistant host reed vole (Microtus fortis) 10 days post-infection (dpi) with Schistosoma japonicum was significantly different from pre-infection levels. This difference suggests the possibility that miR-181a expression may be related to the regulation of the hosts’ early immune response against S. japonicum infection and thereby affect the development and survival of parasites in their final hosts. Methods BALB/c mice, M. fortis, Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4)-deficient mice and wild-type mice (C57BL/6) were infected with S. japonicum, and differences in miR-181a expression between BALB/c mice and M. fortis over different time points post-infection (0, 3, 7, 10 and 14 dpi) were compared. MiR-181a mimic, miR-181a inhibitor and irrelevant miRNA, as well as lipopolysaccharide (LPS), a TLR4 receptor ligand, were used to transfect mouse RAW264.7 macrophages. The expression levels of the TLR4 pathway-related cytokines interleukin (IL)-1β, tumor necrosis factor α (TNF-α) and IL-6 were detected by quantitative PCR analysis. Results The expression of miR-181a was significantly upregulated in the serum and liver of mice infected with S. japonicum and downregulated in the serum and liver of M. fortis. T-helper cell (Th1)-type cytokines, such as TNF-α, IL-6 and IL-1β, and Th2-type cytokines, such as IL-10 and IL-4, were differentially expressed in M. fortis and BALB/c mice in the early stage of infection. The expression level of miR-181a in the serum was threefold higher in TLR4-deficient mice than in wild-type mice 10 dpi with S. japonicum. The expression of IL-1β, TNF-α and IL-6 decreased in RAW264.7 cells transfected with miR-181a mimic and increased in cells transfected with miR-181a inhibitor. miR-181a expression was downregulated and the expressions of TLR4 and three TLR4 pathway-related cytokines (IL-1β, IL-6, and TNF-α) were upregulated in RAW264.7 macrophages stimulated with the TLR4 receptor ligand LPS. Conclusion These results suggest the possibility of mutual regulation between miR-181a and the TLR4 signaling pathway during S. japonicum infection. miR-181a may regulate the expression of pro-inflammatory factors through the TLR4 receptor pathway and participate in the immunomodulatory effect of anti-S. japonicum infection. Graphical abstract ![]()
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Affiliation(s)
- Yixiao Tang
- National Reference Laboratory for Animal Schistosomiasis, Shanghai Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Shanghai, 200241, P.R. China.,Key Laboratory of Animal Parasitology of Ministry of Agriculture, Shanghai Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Shanghai, 200241, P.R. China
| | - Yuanxi Shen
- National Reference Laboratory for Animal Schistosomiasis, Shanghai Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Shanghai, 200241, P.R. China.,Key Laboratory of Animal Parasitology of Ministry of Agriculture, Shanghai Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Shanghai, 200241, P.R. China
| | - Yang Hong
- National Reference Laboratory for Animal Schistosomiasis, Shanghai Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Shanghai, 200241, P.R. China. .,Key Laboratory of Animal Parasitology of Ministry of Agriculture, Shanghai Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Shanghai, 200241, P.R. China.
| | - Zuhang Zhang
- National Reference Laboratory for Animal Schistosomiasis, Shanghai Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Shanghai, 200241, P.R. China.,Key Laboratory of Animal Parasitology of Ministry of Agriculture, Shanghai Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Shanghai, 200241, P.R. China
| | - Qi Zhai
- National Reference Laboratory for Animal Schistosomiasis, Shanghai Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Shanghai, 200241, P.R. China.,Key Laboratory of Animal Parasitology of Ministry of Agriculture, Shanghai Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Shanghai, 200241, P.R. China
| | - Zhiqiang Fu
- National Reference Laboratory for Animal Schistosomiasis, Shanghai Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Shanghai, 200241, P.R. China.,Key Laboratory of Animal Parasitology of Ministry of Agriculture, Shanghai Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Shanghai, 200241, P.R. China
| | - Hao Li
- National Reference Laboratory for Animal Schistosomiasis, Shanghai Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Shanghai, 200241, P.R. China.,Key Laboratory of Animal Parasitology of Ministry of Agriculture, Shanghai Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Shanghai, 200241, P.R. China
| | - Ke Lu
- National Reference Laboratory for Animal Schistosomiasis, Shanghai Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Shanghai, 200241, P.R. China.,Key Laboratory of Animal Parasitology of Ministry of Agriculture, Shanghai Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Shanghai, 200241, P.R. China
| | - Jiaojiao Lin
- National Reference Laboratory for Animal Schistosomiasis, Shanghai Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Shanghai, 200241, P.R. China. .,Key Laboratory of Animal Parasitology of Ministry of Agriculture, Shanghai Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Shanghai, 200241, P.R. China.
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Native Low-Density Lipoproteins Act in Synergy with Lipopolysaccharide to Alter the Balance of Human Monocyte Subsets and Their Ability to Produce IL-1 Beta, CCR2, and CX3CR1 In Vitro and In Vivo: Implications in Atherogenesis. Biomolecules 2021; 11:biom11081169. [PMID: 34439835 PMCID: PMC8391227 DOI: 10.3390/biom11081169] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/11/2021] [Revised: 07/29/2021] [Accepted: 08/04/2021] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Increasing evidence has demonstrated that oxidized low-density lipoproteins (oxLDL) and lipopolysaccharide (LPS) enhance accumulation of interleukin (IL)-1 beta-producing macrophages in atherosclerotic lesions. However, the potential synergistic effect of native LDL (nLDL) and LPS on the inflammatory ability and migration pattern of monocyte subpopulations remains elusive and is examined here. In vitro, whole blood cells from healthy donors (n = 20) were incubated with 100 μg/mL nLDL, 10 ng/mL LPS, or nLDL + LPS for 9 h. Flow cytometry assays revealed that nLDL significantly decreases the classical monocyte (CM) percentage and increases the non-classical monocyte (NCM) subset. While nLDL + LPS significantly increased the number of NCMs expressing IL-1 beta and the C-C chemokine receptor type 2 (CCR2), the amount of NCMs expressing the CX3C chemokine receptor 1 (CX3CR1) decreased. In vivo, patients (n = 85) with serum LDL-cholesterol (LDL-C) >100 mg/dL showed an increase in NCM, IL-1 beta, LPS-binding protein (LBP), and Castelli’s atherogenic risk index as compared to controls (n = 65) with optimal LDL-C concentrations (≤100 mg/dL). This work demonstrates for the first time that nLDL acts in synergy with LPS to alter the balance of human monocyte subsets and their ability to produce inflammatory cytokines and chemokine receptors with prominent roles in atherogenesis.
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Clausen AS, Østergaard DE, Holmberg P, Henriksen JR, Tham J, Damborg PP, Jensen AI, Kjaer A, Hansen AE, Andresen TL. Quantitative determination of 64Cu-liposome accumulation at inflammatory and infectious sites: Potential for future theranostic system. J Control Release 2020; 327:737-746. [PMID: 32920081 DOI: 10.1016/j.jconrel.2020.09.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/11/2020] [Revised: 08/14/2020] [Accepted: 09/08/2020] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Anne Skovsbo Clausen
- Department of Clinical Physiology, Nuclear Medicine & PET and Cluster for Molecular Imaging, Department of Biomedical Sciences, Rigshospitalet and University of Copenhagen, Blegdamsvej 9, DK-2100 Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Daniella Elisabet Østergaard
- Department of Clinical Physiology, Nuclear Medicine & PET and Cluster for Molecular Imaging, Department of Biomedical Sciences, Rigshospitalet and University of Copenhagen, Blegdamsvej 9, DK-2100 Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Petter Holmberg
- Department of Translational Medicine, Clinical Infection Medicine, Lund University, Skåne University Hospital, Ruth Lundskogs gata 3, SE-214 28 Malmö, Sweden
| | - Jonas Rosager Henriksen
- Department of Health Technology, Section for Biotherapeutic Engineering and Drug Targeting, Technical University of Denmark, Anker Engelundsvej 1, DK-2800 Kgs. Lyngby, Denmark
| | - Johan Tham
- Department of Translational Medicine, Clinical Infection Medicine, Lund University, Skåne University Hospital, Ruth Lundskogs gata 3, SE-214 28 Malmö, Sweden
| | - Peter Panduro Damborg
- Department of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Bülowsvej 7, DK-1870 Frederiksberg, Denmark
| | - Andreas I Jensen
- Department of Health Technology, The Hevesy Laboratory, Technical University of Denmark, Frederiksborgvej 399, DK-4000 Roskilde, Denmark
| | - Andreas Kjaer
- Department of Clinical Physiology, Nuclear Medicine & PET and Cluster for Molecular Imaging, Department of Biomedical Sciences, Rigshospitalet and University of Copenhagen, Blegdamsvej 9, DK-2100 Copenhagen, Denmark.
| | - Anders Elias Hansen
- Department of Clinical Physiology, Nuclear Medicine & PET and Cluster for Molecular Imaging, Department of Biomedical Sciences, Rigshospitalet and University of Copenhagen, Blegdamsvej 9, DK-2100 Copenhagen, Denmark; Department of Health Technology, Section for Biotherapeutic Engineering and Drug Targeting, Technical University of Denmark, Anker Engelundsvej 1, DK-2800 Kgs. Lyngby, Denmark
| | - Thomas Lars Andresen
- Department of Health Technology, Section for Biotherapeutic Engineering and Drug Targeting, Technical University of Denmark, Anker Engelundsvej 1, DK-2800 Kgs. Lyngby, Denmark
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Dhananjayan K, Gunawardena D, Hearn N, Sonntag T, Moran C, Gyengesi E, Srikanth V, Münch G. Activation of Macrophages and Microglia by Interferon-γ and Lipopolysaccharide Increases Methylglyoxal Production: A New Mechanism in the Development of Vascular Complications and Cognitive Decline in Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus? J Alzheimers Dis 2018; 59:467-479. [PMID: 28582854 DOI: 10.3233/jad-161152] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Methylglyoxal (MGO), a dicarbonyl compound derived from glucose, is elevated in diabetes mellitus and contributes to vascular complications by crosslinking collagen and increasing arterial stiffness. It is known that MGO contributes to inflammation as it forms advanced glycation end products (AGEs), which activate macrophages via the receptor RAGE. The aim of study was to investigate whether inflammatory activation can increase MGO levels, thereby completing a vicious cycle. In order to validate this, macrophage (RAW264.7, J774A.1) and microglial (N11) cells were stimulated with IFN-γ and LPS (5 + 5 and 10 + 10 IFN-γ U/ml or μg/ml LPS), and extracellular MGO concentration was determined after derivatization with 5,6-Diamino-2,4-dihydroxypyrimidine sulfate by HPLC. MGO levels in activated macrophage cells (RAW264.7) peaked at 48 h, increasing 2.86-fold (3.14±0.4 μM) at 5 U/ml IFN-γ+5 μg/ml LPS, and 4.74-fold (5.46±0.30 μM) at 10 U/ml IFN-γ+10 μg/ml LPS compared to the non-activated controls (1.15±0.02 μM). The other two cell lines, J774A.1 macrophages and N11 microglia, showed a similar response. We suggest that inflammation increases MGO production, possibly exacerbating arterial stiffness, cardiovascular complications, and diabetes-related cognitive decline.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karthik Dhananjayan
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Medicine, Western Sydney University, Penrith, NSW, Australia
| | - Dhanushka Gunawardena
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Medicine, Western Sydney University, Penrith, NSW, Australia
| | - Nerissa Hearn
- Molecular Medicine Research Group, Western Sydney University, Penrith, NSW, Australia
| | - Tanja Sonntag
- Molecular Medicine Research Group, Western Sydney University, Penrith, NSW, Australia
| | - Chris Moran
- Department of Medicine, Peninsula Health & Peninsula Clinical School, Monash University, VIC, Australia
| | - Erika Gyengesi
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Medicine, Western Sydney University, Penrith, NSW, Australia
| | - Velandai Srikanth
- Department of Medicine, Peninsula Health & Peninsula Clinical School, Monash University, VIC, Australia
| | - Gerald Münch
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Medicine, Western Sydney University, Penrith, NSW, Australia.,Molecular Medicine Research Group, Western Sydney University, Penrith, NSW, Australia.,National Institute of Complementary Medicine, Western Sydney University, Penrith, NSW, Australia
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Chen W, Hu YQ, Jiang LF, Wu L. Mechanism of action of Zhuyu Annao pill in mice with cerebral intrahemorrhage based on TLR4. ASIAN PAC J TROP MED 2016; 9:1095-1100. [DOI: 10.1016/j.apjtm.2016.09.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/01/2016] [Revised: 09/02/2016] [Accepted: 09/30/2016] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
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Kapil S, Duseja A, Sharma BK, Singla B, Chakraborti A, Das A, Ray P, Dhiman RK, Chawla Y. Small intestinal bacterial overgrowth and toll-like receptor signaling in patients with non-alcoholic fatty liver disease. J Gastroenterol Hepatol 2016. [PMID: 26212089 DOI: 10.1111/jgh.13058] [Citation(s) in RCA: 125] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND AIM The pathogenesis of non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) is multifactorial. There is sparse literature on the role of small intestinal bacterial overgrowth (SIBO) and toll-like receptor (TLR) signaling in NAFLD. The present study evaluated the relationship of SIBO with expression of TLR signaling genes in patients with NAFLD. METHODS A total of 142 subjects composed of NAFLD (n = 60, mean age 38.7 ± 10.4 years), chronic viral hepatitis (CVH) (n = 32, mean age 39.5 ± 10.6 years), and healthy volunteers (n = 50, mean age 36.56 ± 4.2 years) were enrolled in the study. Duodenal fluid was taken endoscopically in 32 prospective patients with NAFLD for evaluation of SIBO. Hepatic mRNA expression of TLR4, CD14, TLR2, NF-κβ, and MD2 and protein expression of TLR4 and TLR2 were studied in 64 patients (NAFLD = 32, CVH = 32) by RT-PCR and immunohistochemistry, respectively. Serum levels of TNF-α, adiponectin, insulin, and endotoxins were also evaluated. RESULTS Small intestinal bacterial overgrowth was present in 12 (37.5%) out of 32 patients with NAFLD with Escherichia coli as the predominant bacterium. In comparison with those without SIBO, patients with SIBO had significantly higher endotoxin levels and higher CD14 mRNA, nuclear factor kappa beta mRNA, and TLR4 protein expression. Patients with NASH had significantly higher endotoxin levels and higher intensity of TLR4 protein expression in comparison with patients without NASH. Serum levels of TNF-α, endotoxins, and insulin were significantly higher and of adiponectin lower in NAFLD in comparison with CVH and healthy volunteers. CONCLUSIONS Our study provides the first direct evidence of role of SIBO and endotoxemia and its relation with TLR signaling genes and liver histology in patients with NAFLD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shweta Kapil
- Department of Hepatology, Postgraduate Institute of Medical Education and Research (PGIMER), Chandigarh, India
| | - Ajay Duseja
- Department of Hepatology, Postgraduate Institute of Medical Education and Research (PGIMER), Chandigarh, India
| | - Bal Krishan Sharma
- Department of Hepatology, Postgraduate Institute of Medical Education and Research (PGIMER), Chandigarh, India
| | - Bhupesh Singla
- Department of Hepatology, Postgraduate Institute of Medical Education and Research (PGIMER), Chandigarh, India
| | - Anuradha Chakraborti
- Department of Experimental Medicine and Biotechnology, Postgraduate Institute of Medical Education and Research (PGIMER), Chandigarh, India
| | - Ashim Das
- Department of Histopathology, Postgraduate Institute of Medical Education and Research (PGIMER), Chandigarh, India
| | - Pallab Ray
- Department of Medical Microbiology, Postgraduate Institute of Medical Education and Research (PGIMER), Chandigarh, India
| | - Radha K Dhiman
- Department of Hepatology, Postgraduate Institute of Medical Education and Research (PGIMER), Chandigarh, India
| | - Yogesh Chawla
- Department of Hepatology, Postgraduate Institute of Medical Education and Research (PGIMER), Chandigarh, India
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Study of Protein Phosphatase 2A (PP2A) Activity in LPS-Induced Tolerance Using Fluorescence-Based and Immunoprecipitation-Aided Methodology. Biomolecules 2015; 5:1284-301. [PMID: 26131975 PMCID: PMC4598752 DOI: 10.3390/biom5031284] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2015] [Revised: 06/03/2015] [Accepted: 06/04/2015] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Protein phosphatase 2A (PP2A) is one of the most abundant intracellular serine/threonine (Ser/Thr) phosphatases accounting for 1% of the total cellular protein content. PP2A is comprised of a heterodimeric core enzyme and a substrate-specific regulatory subunit. Potentially, at least seventy different compositions of PP2A exist because of variable regulatory subunit binding that accounts for various activity modulating numerous cell functions. Due to the constitutive phosphatase activity present inside cells, a sensitive assay is required to detect the changes of PP2A activity under various experimental conditions. We optimized a fluorescence assay (DIFMU assay) by combining it with prior anti-PP2A immunoprecipitation to quantify PP2A-specific phosphatase activity. It is also known that prior exposure to lipopolysaccharides (LPS) induces “immune tolerance” of the cells to subsequent stimulation. Herein we report that PP2A activity is upregulated in tolerized peritoneal macrophages, corresponding to decreased TNF-α secretion upon second LPS stimulation. We further examined the role of PP2A in the tolerance effect by using PP2ACαlox/lox;lyM-Cre conditional knockout macrophages. We found that PP2A phosphatase activity cannot be further increased by tolerance. TNF-α secretion from tolerized PP2ACαlox/lox;lyM-Cre macrophages is higher than tolerized control macrophages. Furthermore, we showed that the increased TNF-α secretion may be due to an epigenetic transcriptionally active signature on the promoter of TNF-α gene rather than regulation of the NFκB/IκB signaling pathway. These results suggest a role for increased PP2A activity in the regulation of immune tolerance.
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Kjaergaard AG, Nielsen JS, Tønnesen E, Krog J. Expression of NK cell and monocyte receptors in critically ill patients--potential biomarkers of sepsis. Scand J Immunol 2015; 81:249-58. [PMID: 25619264 DOI: 10.1111/sji.12272] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/06/2014] [Accepted: 01/13/2015] [Indexed: 01/14/2023]
Abstract
UNLABELLED Sepsis is characterized by activation of both the innate and adaptive immune systems as a response to infection. During sepsis, the expression of surface receptors expressed on immune competent cells, such as NKG2D and NKp30 on NK cells and TLR4 and CD14 on monocytes, is partly regulated by pro- and anti-inflammatory mediators. In this observational study, we aimed to explore whether the expression of these receptors could be used as diagnostic and/or prognostic biomarkers in sepsis. Patients with severe sepsis or septic shock (n = 21) were compared with critically ill non-septic patients (n = 15). Healthy volunteers (n = 15) served as controls. To elucidate variations over time, all patients were followed for 4 days. Cell surface expression of NKG2D, NKp30, TLR4 and CD14 and serum levels of IL-1β, IL-6, IFN-γ, TNF-α, IL-4 and IL-10 was estimated by flow cytometry. We found that NK cell expression of NKG2D and monocyte expression of CD14 were lower in the septic patients compared with the non-septic patients, both at ICU admission and during the observation period (P < 0.01 for all comparisons). Both at ICU admission, and during the observation period, levels of IL-6 and IL-10 were higher in the septic patients compared with the non-septic patients (P < 0.001 for all comparisons). CONCLUSION As both NKG2D and CD14 levels appear to distinguish between septic and non-septic patients, both NKG2D and CD14 may be considered potential diagnostic biomarkers of severe sepsis and septic shock.
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Affiliation(s)
- A G Kjaergaard
- Department of Anaesthesiology and Intensive Care, Aarhus University Hospital, Aarhus C, Denmark; Department of Anaesthesiology and Intensive Care, Randers Regional Hospital, Randers, Denmark
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Bode C, Muenster S, Diedrich B, Jahnert S, Weisheit C, Steinhagen F, Boehm O, Hoeft A, Meyer R, Baumgarten G. Linezolid, vancomycin and daptomycin modulate cytokine production, Toll-like receptors and phagocytosis in a human in vitro model of sepsis. J Antibiot (Tokyo) 2015; 68:485-90. [PMID: 25735844 PMCID: PMC4579589 DOI: 10.1038/ja.2015.18] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/07/2014] [Revised: 12/14/2014] [Accepted: 12/19/2014] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
Conventional antibiotics exhibit immunomodulatory properties beneficial in the treatment of sepsis. Antibiotic-resistant Gram-positive bacteria have become a problem in sepsis therapy, giving rise to increased use of last-resort antibiotics; for example, linezolid (LIN), vancomycin (VAN) and daptomycin (DAP). As the immunomodulatory properties of these antibiotics in treating sepsis are unknown, this study examined the effect of VAN, LIN and DAP on the immune response under sepsis-like conditions in vitro. Lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-activated THP-1 monocytes were incubated with LIN, VAN or DAP. Gene expression of cytokines (TNFα, IL-1β, IL-6, IL-10) and Toll-like receptors (TLR1, 2, 4, 6, 7 and 9) was monitored and phagocytosis was determined following coincubation with E. coli. The antibiotics differentially modulated the gene expression of the investigated cytokines. While LIN and VAN upregulated the expression of all TLRs, DAP downregulated mRNA levels of TLR1, TLR2 and TLR6, which recognize pathogen-associated molecular patterns from Gram-positive bacteria. In addition, LIN inhibited, whereas VAN promoted the phagocytic activity of monocytes. Our results suggest that LIN and VAN possess pro-inflammatory properties, whereas DAP might reduce the immune response to Gram-positive bacteria in sepsis. Furthermore, VAN might be beneficial in the prevention of Gram-negative infections by increasing the phagocytosis of E. coli.
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Mancilla-Herrera I, Alvarado-Moreno JA, Cérbulo-Vázquez A, Prieto-Chávez JL, Ferat-Osorio E, López-Macías C, Estrada-Parra S, Isibasi A, Arriaga-Pizano L. Activated endothelial cells limit inflammatory response, but increase chemoattractant potential and bacterial clearance by human monocytes. Cell Biol Int 2015; 39:721-32. [PMID: 25598193 DOI: 10.1002/cbin.10440] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/20/2014] [Accepted: 01/10/2015] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Inflammation is the normal immune response of vascularized tissues to damage and bacterial products, for which leukocyte transendothelial migration (TEM) is critical. The effects of cell-to-cell contact seen in both leukocyte and endothelial cells include cytoskeleton rearrangement, and dynamic expression of adhesion molecules and metalloproteinases. TEM induces expression of anti-apoptotic molecules, costimulatory molecules associated with antigen presentation, and pattern recognition receptors (PRR), such as TLR-4, in monocytes. However, little is known about how TLR-4 increment operates in monocytes during an inflammatory response. To understand it better, we used an in vitro model in which monocytes crossed a layer of IL-1β stimulated Human Umbilical Vein Endothelial Cells (HUVEC). After TEM, monocytes were tested for the secretion of inflammatory cytokines and chemokines, their phenotype (CD14, CD16, TLR-4 expression), and TLR-4 canonical [Nuclear Factor kappa B, (NF-κB) pathway] and non-canonical [p38, extracellular signal-regulated kinases (ERK) 1/2 pathway] signal transduction induced by lipopolysaccharide (LPS). Phagocytosis and bacterial clearance were also measured. There was diminished secretion of LPS-induced inflammatory cytokines (IL-1β, IL-6, and TNF-α) and higher secretion of chemokines (CXCL8/IL-8 and CCL2/MCP-1) in supernatant of TEM monocytes. These changes were accompanied by increases in TLR-4, CD14 (surfaces expression), p38, and ERK1/2 phosphorylated cytoplasmic forms, without affecting NF-κB activation. It also increased bacterial clearance after TEM by an O2 -independent mechanism. The data suggest that interaction between endothelial cells and monocytes fine-tunes the inflammatory response and promotes bacterial elimination.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ismael Mancilla-Herrera
- Graduate Program on Immunology, ENCB-IPN, Mexico City, Mexico.,Medical Research Unit on Immunochemistry, Specialties Hospital of the National Medical Centre "Siglo XXI" Mexican Social Security Institute (IMSS), Mexico City, Mexico
| | - José Antonio Alvarado-Moreno
- Medical Research Unit in Thrombosis, Hemostasis and Atherogenesis, Regional General Hospital Dr. Carlos MacGregor Sánchez Navarro, IMSS, Mexico City, Mexico
| | | | - Jessica L Prieto-Chávez
- Medical Research Unit on Immunochemistry, Specialties Hospital of the National Medical Centre "Siglo XXI" Mexican Social Security Institute (IMSS), Mexico City, Mexico.,Graduate Program on Chemical and Biological Sciences, ENCB-IPN, Mexico City, Mexico
| | - Eduardo Ferat-Osorio
- Gastrointestinal Surgery Service, Specialties Hospital of the National Medical Centre "Siglo XXI", IMSS, Mexico City, Mexico
| | - Constantino López-Macías
- Medical Research Unit on Immunochemistry, Specialties Hospital of the National Medical Centre "Siglo XXI" Mexican Social Security Institute (IMSS), Mexico City, Mexico
| | - Sergio Estrada-Parra
- Molecular Immunology Laboratory, Immunology Department, ENCB-IPN, Mexico City, Mexico
| | - Armando Isibasi
- Medical Research Unit on Immunochemistry, Specialties Hospital of the National Medical Centre "Siglo XXI" Mexican Social Security Institute (IMSS), Mexico City, Mexico
| | - Lourdes Arriaga-Pizano
- Medical Research Unit on Immunochemistry, Specialties Hospital of the National Medical Centre "Siglo XXI" Mexican Social Security Institute (IMSS), Mexico City, Mexico
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Wang L, Kantovitz KR, Cullinane AR, Nociti FH, Foster BL, Roney JC, Tran AB, Introne WJ, Somerman MJ. Skin fibroblasts from individuals with Chediak-Higashi Syndrome (CHS) exhibit hyposensitive immunogenic response. Orphanet J Rare Dis 2014; 9:212. [PMID: 25528552 PMCID: PMC4296684 DOI: 10.1186/s13023-014-0212-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/13/2014] [Accepted: 12/10/2014] [Indexed: 01/10/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Chediak-Higashi Syndrome (CHS) is a rare autosomal recessive disease characterized by immunodeficiency, oculocutaneous albinism, neurological dysfunction, and early death. Individuals with CHS present with increased susceptibility to infections of the skin, upper-respiratory tract, gastrointestinal tract, and oral tissues. Classical CHS is caused by mutations in the gene encoding lysosomal trafficking regulator (LYST). Although defects in cytotoxic T cell lytic secretory granule secretion and neutrophil phagocytosis are suggested to contribute to the immunodeficiency in CHS, the underlying molecular mechanisms are unknown. We hypothesized that skin fibroblasts from CHS subjects exhibit impaired immune response due to defective trafficking of inflammatory factors. Methods and results Primary skin fibroblasts from CHS subjects or healthy controls were assessed for genes encoding inflammatory response factors using PCR array. At baseline, we found CD14, IL1R1 and TLR-1 were down-regulated significantly (≥2 fold change) and the genes encoding TLR-3, IL-1β and IL-6 were up-regulated in CHS cells compared to control cells. When challenged with E. coli lipopolysaccharide (LPS), CHS cells were less responsive than control cells, with only 8 genes significantly up-regulated (3–68 fold change) compared to baseline values, whereas 28 genes in control cells were significantly up-regulated at a much higher magnitude (3–4,629 fold change). In addition, 50% of the genes significantly up-regulated in LPS-treated control cells were significantly lower in LPS-treated CHS cells. IL-6, a fibroblast-derived proinflammatory cytokine essential for fighting infections was significantly lower in culture media of CHS cells with or without LPS. Furthermore, Western blot and immunofluorescent staining revealed that TLR-2 and TLR-4 were diminished on cell membranes of CHS cells and dissociated from Rab11a. Conclusions For the first time, results from our study indicate defective trafficking of TLR-2 and TLR-4 contributes to the hyposensitive response of CHS skin fibroblasts to immunogenic challenge, providing a potential therapeutic target for clinical intervention in CHS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Le Wang
- NIH/NIAMS - National Institute of Arthritis and Musculoskeletal and Skin Diseases, Bethesda, MD, USA.
| | - Kamila Rosamilia Kantovitz
- NIH/NIAMS - National Institute of Arthritis and Musculoskeletal and Skin Diseases, Bethesda, MD, USA. .,University of Campinas - Piracicaba Dental School, Piracicaba, Sao Paulo, Brazil.
| | | | - Francisco Humberto Nociti
- NIH/NIAMS - National Institute of Arthritis and Musculoskeletal and Skin Diseases, Bethesda, MD, USA. .,University of Campinas - Piracicaba Dental School, Piracicaba, Sao Paulo, Brazil.
| | - Brian Lee Foster
- NIH/NIAMS - National Institute of Arthritis and Musculoskeletal and Skin Diseases, Bethesda, MD, USA.
| | | | - Anne Bich Tran
- NIH/NIAMS - National Institute of Arthritis and Musculoskeletal and Skin Diseases, Bethesda, MD, USA.
| | | | - Martha Joan Somerman
- NIH/NIAMS - National Institute of Arthritis and Musculoskeletal and Skin Diseases, Bethesda, MD, USA.
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Podvin S, Dang X, Meads M, Kurabi A, Costantini T, Eliceiri BP, Baird A, Coimbra R. Esophageal cancer-related gene-4 (ECRG4) interactions with the innate immunity receptor complex. Inflamm Res 2014; 64:107-18. [PMID: 25511108 DOI: 10.1007/s00011-014-0789-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/07/2014] [Accepted: 12/04/2014] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVE AND DESIGN The human c2orf40 gene encodes a tumor suppressor gene called esophageal cancer-related gene-4 (ECRG4) with pro- and anti-inflammatory activities that depend on cell surface processing. Here, we investigated its physical and functional association with the innate immunity receptor complex. METHODS Interactions between ECRG4 and the innate immunity receptor complex were assessed by flow cytometry, immunohistochemistry, confocal microscopy, and co-immunoprecipitation. Phage display was used for ligand targeting to cells that overexpress the TLR4-MD2-CD14. RESULTS Immunoprecipitation and immunohistochemical studies demonstrate a physical interaction between ECRG4 and TLR4-MD2-CD14 on human granulocytes. Flow cytometry shows ECRG4 on the cell surface of a subset of CD14(+) and CD16(+) leukocytes. In a cohort of trauma patients, the C-terminal 16 amino acid domain of ECRG4 (ECRG4(133-148)) appears to be processed and shed, presumably at a thrombin-like consensus sequence. Phage targeting this putative ligand shows that this peptide sequence internalizes into cells through the TLR4/CD14/MD2 complex, but modulates inflammation through non-canonical, NFκB signal transduction. CONCLUSIONS ECRG4 is present on the surface of human monocytes and granulocytes. Its interaction with the human innate immunity receptor complex supports a role for cell surface activation of ECRG4 during inflammation and implicates this receptor in its mechanism of action.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sonia Podvin
- Division of Trauma, Surgical Critical Care, Burns, and Acute Care Surgery, Department of Surgery, University of California, San Diego, San Diego, CA, USA
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Silva SC, Baggio-Zappia GL, Brunialti MKC, Assunçao MSC, Azevedo LCP, Machado FR, Salomao R. Evaluation of Toll-like, chemokine, and integrin receptors on monocytes and neutrophils from peripheral blood of septic patients and their correlation with clinical outcomes. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2014; 47:384-93. [PMID: 24728213 PMCID: PMC4075306 DOI: 10.1590/1414-431x20143190] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/25/2013] [Accepted: 02/10/2014] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Recognition of pathogens is performed by specific receptors in cells of the innate immune system, which may undergo modulation during the continuum of clinical manifestations of sepsis. Monocytes and neutrophils play a key role in host defense by sensing and destroying microorganisms. This study aimed to evaluate the expression of CD14 receptors on monocytes; CD66b and CXCR2 receptors on neutrophils; and TLR2, TLR4, TLR5, TLR9, and CD11b receptors on both cell types of septic patients. Seventy-seven septic patients (SP) and 40 healthy volunteers (HV) were included in the study, and blood samples were collected on day zero (D0) and after 7 days of therapy (D7). Evaluation of the cellular receptors was carried out by flow cytometry. Expression of CD14 on monocytes and of CD11b and CXCR2 on neutrophils from SP was lower than that from HV. Conversely, expression of TLR5 on monocytes and neutrophils was higher in SP compared with HV. Expression of TLR2 on the surface of neutrophils and that of TLR5 on monocytes and neutrophils of SP was lower at D7 than at D0. In addition, SP who survived showed reduced expression of TLR2 and TLR4 on the surface of neutrophils at D7 compared to D0. Expression of CXCR2 for surviving patients was higher at follow-up compared to baseline. We conclude that expression of recognition and cell signaling receptors is differentially regulated between SP and HV depending on the receptor being evaluated.
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Affiliation(s)
- S C Silva
- Disciplina de Infectologia, Departamento de Medicina, Hospital São Paulo, Escola Paulista de Medicina, Universidade Federal de São Paulo, São Paulo, SP, Brasil
| | - G L Baggio-Zappia
- Disciplina de Infectologia, Departamento de Medicina, Hospital São Paulo, Escola Paulista de Medicina, Universidade Federal de São Paulo, São Paulo, SP, Brasil
| | - M K C Brunialti
- Disciplina de Infectologia, Departamento de Medicina, Hospital São Paulo, Escola Paulista de Medicina, Universidade Federal de São Paulo, São Paulo, SP, Brasil
| | - M S C Assunçao
- Unidade de Terapia Intensiva, Hospital Israelita Albert Einstein, São Paulo, SP, Brasil
| | - L C P Azevedo
- Unidade de Terapia Intensiva, Hospital Sírio Libanês, São Paulo, SP, Brasil
| | - F R Machado
- Disciplina de Anestesiologia, Departamento de Cirurgia, Hospital São Paulo, Escola Paulista de Medicina, Universidade Federal de São Paulo, São Paulo, SP, Brasil
| | - R Salomao
- Disciplina de Infectologia, Departamento de Medicina, Hospital São Paulo, Escola Paulista de Medicina, Universidade Federal de São Paulo, São Paulo, SP, Brasil
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Chemonges S, Tung JP, Fraser JF. Proteogenomics of selective susceptibility to endotoxin using circulating acute phase biomarkers and bioassay development in sheep: a review. Proteome Sci 2014; 12:12. [PMID: 24580811 PMCID: PMC3946179 DOI: 10.1186/1477-5956-12-12] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/10/2013] [Accepted: 02/24/2014] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Scientists have injected endotoxin into animals to investigate and understand various pathologies and novel therapies for several decades. Recent observations have shown that there is selective susceptibility to Escherichia coli lipopolysaccharide (LPS) endotoxin in sheep, despite having similar breed characteristics. The reason behind this difference is unknown, and has prompted studies aiming to explain the variation by proteogenomic characterisation of circulating acute phase biomarkers. It is hypothesised that genetic trait, biochemical, immunological and inflammation marker patterns contribute in defining and predicting mammalian response to LPS. This review discusses the effects of endotoxin and host responses, genetic basis of innate defences, activation of the acute phase response (APR) following experimental LPS challenge, and the current approaches employed in detecting novel biomarkers including acute phase proteins (APP) and micro-ribonucleic acids (miRNAs) in serum or plasma. miRNAs are novel targets for elucidating molecular mechanisms of disease because of their differential expression during pathological, and in healthy states. Changes in miRNA profiles during a disease challenge may be reflected in plasma. Studies show that gel-based two-dimensional electrophoresis (2-DE) coupled with either matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionisation time-of-flight mass spectrometry (MALDI-TOF MS) or liquid chromatography–mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) are currently the most used methods for proteome characterisation. Further evidence suggests that proteomic investigations are preferentially shifting from 2-DE to non-gel based LC-MS/MS coupled with data extraction by sequential window acquisition of all theoretical fragment-ion spectra (SWATH) approaches that are able to identify a wider range of proteins. Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR), and most recently proteomic methods have been used to quantify low abundance proteins such as cytokines. qRT-PCR and next generation sequencing (NGS) are used for the characterisation of miRNA. Proteogenomic approaches for detecting APP and novel miRNA profiling are essential in understanding the selective resistance to endotoxin in sheep. The results of these methods could help in understanding similar pathology in humans. It might also be helpful in the development of physiological and diagnostic screening assays for determining experimental inclusion and endpoints, and in clinical trials in future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Saul Chemonges
- The Institute of Health and Biomedical Innovation (IHBI), Queensland University of Technology, Brisbane, QLD, Australia.
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Cain DJ, Del Arroyo AG, Ackland GL. Uncontrolled sepsis: a systematic review of translational immunology studies in intensive care medicine. Intensive Care Med Exp 2014; 2:6. [PMID: 26266907 PMCID: PMC4513024 DOI: 10.1186/2197-425x-2-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/04/2013] [Accepted: 01/21/2014] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The design of clinical immunology studies in sepsis presents several fundamental challenges to improving the translational understanding of pathologic mechanisms. We undertook a systematic review of bed-to-benchside studies to test the hypothesis that variable clinical design methodologies used to investigate immunologic function in sepsis contribute to apparently conflicting laboratory data, and identify potential alternatives that overcome various obstacles to improve experimental design. METHODS We performed a systematic review of the design methodology employed to study neutrophil function (respiratory burst), monocyte endotoxin tolerance and lymphocyte apoptosis in the intensive care setting, over the past 15 years. We specifically focussed on how control samples were defined, taking into account age, gender, ethnicity, concomitant therapies, timing of sample collection and the criteria used to diagnose sepsis. RESULTS We identified 57 eligible studies, the majority of which (74%) used case-control methodology. Healthy volunteers represented the control population selected in 83% of studies. Comprehensive demographic data on age, gender and ethnicity were provided in ≤48% of case control studies. Documentation of diseases associated with immunosuppression, malignancy and immunomodulatory therapies was rare. Less than half (44%) of studies undertook independent adjudication for the diagnosis of sepsis while 68% provided microbiological data. The timing of sample collection was defined by highly variable clinical criteria. By contrast, surgical studies avoided many such confounders, although only one study in surgical patients monitored the study group for development of sepsis. CONCLUSIONS We found several important and common limitations in the clinical design of translational immunologic studies in human sepsis. Major elective surgery overcame many of these methodological limitations. The failure of adequate clinical design in mechanistic studies may contribute to the lack of translational therapeutic progress in intensive care medicine.
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Affiliation(s)
- David J Cain
- Clinical Physiology, Wolfson Institute for Biomedical Research, Department of Medicine, University College London, London, WC1E 6BT, UK,
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17
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Bode C, Diedrich B, Muenster S, Hentschel V, Weisheit C, Rommelsheim K, Hoeft A, Meyer R, Boehm O, Knuefermann P, Baumgarten G. Antibiotics regulate the immune response in both presence and absence of lipopolysaccharide through modulation of Toll-like receptors, cytokine production and phagocytosis in vitro. Int Immunopharmacol 2013; 18:27-34. [PMID: 24239744 DOI: 10.1016/j.intimp.2013.10.025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/20/2013] [Revised: 10/18/2013] [Accepted: 10/19/2013] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
The inflammatory response to pathogen-associated molecular patterns such as lipopolysaccharide (LPS) in sepsis is mediated via Toll-like receptors (TLRs). Since TLRs also trigger various immune functions, including phagocytosis, their modulation is a promising strategy in the treatment of sepsis. As antibiotics have immunomodulatory properties, this study examined the effect of commonly used classes of antibiotics on i) the expression of TLRs and cytokines and ii) the phagocytic activity under sepsis-like conditions in vitro. This was achieved by incubating THP-1 monocytes and peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) obtained from patients after open-heart surgery with the addition of LPS and six key antibiotics (piperacillin, doxycycline, erythromycin, moxifloxacin or gentamicin). After 24h, mRNA levels of both cytokines (IL-1β, IL-6) and TLRs (1, 2, 4, and 6) were monitored and phagocytosis was determined following coincubation with Escherichia coli. Each antibiotic differentially regulated the gene expression of the investigated TLRs and cytokines in monocytes. Erythromycin, moxifloxacin and doxycyclin displayed the strongest effects and changed mRNA-levels of the investigated genes up to 5.6-fold. Consistent with this, antibiotics and, in particular, moxifloxacin, regulated the TLR-and cytokine expression in activated PBMCs obtained from patients after open-heart surgery. Furthermore, piperacillin, doxycyclin and moxifloxacin inhibited the phagocytic activity of monocytes. Our results suggest that antibiotics regulate the immune response by modulating TLR- and cytokine expression as well as phagocytosis under septic conditions. Moxifloxacin, doxycycline and erythromycin were shown to possess the strongest immunomodulatory effects and these antibiotic classes should be considered for future immunomodulatory studies in sepsis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christian Bode
- Department of Anesthesiology and Intensive Care Medicine, University Hospital Bonn, Bonn, Germany.
| | - Britta Diedrich
- Department of Anesthesiology and Intensive Care Medicine, University Hospital Bonn, Bonn, Germany; Freiburg Institute for Advanced Studies-LifeNet, Albert-Ludwigs-University Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Stefan Muenster
- Department of Anesthesiology and Intensive Care Medicine, University Hospital Bonn, Bonn, Germany
| | - Viktoria Hentschel
- Department of Anesthesiology and Intensive Care Medicine, University Hospital Bonn, Bonn, Germany
| | - Christina Weisheit
- Department of Anesthesiology and Intensive Care Medicine, University Hospital Bonn, Bonn, Germany
| | - Kuno Rommelsheim
- Department of Anesthesiology and Intensive Care Medicine, University Hospital Bonn, Bonn, Germany
| | - Andreas Hoeft
- Department of Anesthesiology and Intensive Care Medicine, University Hospital Bonn, Bonn, Germany
| | - Rainer Meyer
- Institute of Physiology II, University of Bonn, Bonn, Germany
| | - Olaf Boehm
- Department of Anesthesiology and Intensive Care Medicine, University Hospital Bonn, Bonn, Germany
| | - Pascal Knuefermann
- Department of Anesthesiology and Intensive Care Medicine, University Hospital Bonn, Bonn, Germany
| | - Georg Baumgarten
- Department of Anesthesiology and Intensive Care Medicine, University Hospital Bonn, Bonn, Germany
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Laudański K, Nowak Z. Aberrant function and differentiation of monocytes in end stage renal disease. Arch Immunol Ther Exp (Warsz) 2012; 60:453-9. [PMID: 23080050 DOI: 10.1007/s00005-012-0191-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/19/2012] [Accepted: 07/23/2012] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Patients with end stage renal disease (ESRD) suffer from many disturbances of the immune system. These immunopathologies are related to the higher failure of vaccination, and increased prevalence of infections and neoplasms. In the presented article, we review the current data regarding the role of monocytes in immune dysfunctions which are observed in terminal renal failure. As monocytes play a pivotal role in regulating the function of the immune system, their dysfunction can have a profound effect on the immune system and may lead to accelerated arteriosclerosis and deteriorating overall health conditions. More specifically, we suggest that peripheral blood monocytes in patients with ESRD are chronically activated, and their functional and phenotypical features resemble those of inflammatory macrophages. This state of chronic inflammation is unfavorable for dendritic cells and consequently, the prevalence of dendritic cells is reduced. As these effects are consistent across different modes of dialysis, they are probably mediated by the uremia itself.
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Affiliation(s)
- Krzysztof Laudański
- Department of Anesthesiology and Critical Care, University of Pennsylvania, Dullas 6, 3400 Spruce Street, Philadelphia, PA, 19104, USA.
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Abstract
Genetic variations, in part, determine individual susceptibility to sepsis and pneumonia. Advances in genetic sequence analysis as well as high throughput platform analysis of gene expression has allowed for a better understanding of immunopathogenesis during sepsis. Differences in genes can also modulate immune and inflammatory response during sepsis thereby translating to differences in clinical outcomes. An increasing number of candidate genes have been implicated to play a role in sepsis susceptibility, most of which are controversial with few exceptions. This does not refute the significance of genetic polymorphisms in sepsis, but rather highlights the difficulties and pitfalls related to genetic association studies. These difficulties include differences in study design such as heterogeneous patient cohorts and differences in pathogenic organisms, linkage disequilibrium, and lack of power for detailed haplotype analysis or examination of gene-gene interactions. There is extensive diversity in the pathways of inflammation and immune response during sepsis making it even harder to prove the functional and clinical significance of one single genetic polymorphism which could be easily masqueraded or compensated by other upstream or downstream events of the pathway involved. The majority of studies have analysed candidate genes in isolation from other possible polymorphisms. It is likely that susceptibility to sepsis is the result of polymorphisms from multiple genes rather than one single mutation. Future studies should aim for multi-centered collaborative approach looking at genome wide association or gene profiling to provide a more complete appraisal of the key genetic players in determining genetic susceptibility to sepsis. This review paper will summarise the prominent candidate gene polymorphisms with known functional changes or those with haplotype data. In addition, a summary of the expanding research in the field of epigenetics and post-sepsis immunosuppression will be discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Li Ping Chung
- School of Medicine and Pharmacology, University of Western Australia, Perth, Western Australia
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Sivaram G, Tiwari SK, Bardia A, Anjum F, Vishnupriya S, Habeeb A, Khan AA. Macrophage migration inhibitory factor, Toll-like receptor 4, and CD14 polymorphisms with altered expression levels in patients with ulcerative colitis. Hum Immunol 2011; 73:201-5. [PMID: 22192785 DOI: 10.1016/j.humimm.2011.12.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/02/2011] [Revised: 11/06/2011] [Accepted: 12/01/2011] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Ulcerative colitis is a multifactorial disease in which genetic factors play a major role. Functional mutations in the genes related to innate immune response exacerbate mucosal damage coupled with persistent inflammation. The cytokine macrophage migration inhibitory factor (MIF), CD14, and Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) are the central players with clearly defined roles in inflammation. The aim of this study was to investigate the association between MIF-173G > C, CD14-159C > T, and TLR4-299A > G polymorphisms and mononuclear cell expression in patients with ulcerative colitis (UC). Genotyping of MIF-173G > C, CD14-159C > T, and TLR4-299A > G polymorphisms was performed by amplification refractory mutation system-polymerase chain reaction and allele-specific amplification in 139 and 176 patients with UC and controls, respectively. Simultaneously, the expression levels of intracellular MIF, mCD14, and mTLR4 were determined in mononuclear cells using a flow cytometer. Polymorphisms in CD14-159C > T and TLR4-299A > G significantly affected mCD14 and mTLR4 expression levels and also increased susceptibility to UC. Although intracellular MIF expression levels differed among patient and control groups, the polymorphism in MIF 173G > C was not observed to be associated with a risk of UC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gunisetty Sivaram
- Centre for Liver Research and Diagnostics, Deccan College of Medical Sciences, Kanchanbagh, Hyderabad 500 058, Andhra Pradesh, India
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LY96, UPKIB mutations and TLR4, CD14, MBL polymorphisms in children with urinary tract infection. Indian J Pediatr 2011; 78:1229-33. [PMID: 21390520 DOI: 10.1007/s12098-011-0399-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/27/2010] [Accepted: 02/18/2011] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To evaluate genetic variations of innate immune system such as mannose binding lectin (MBL), Toll like receptor 4 (TLR4), CD14, LY96 (MD2) and Uroplakin 1B (UPK1B) genes in children with recurrent urinary tract infection (UTI). METHODS The study included 30 children with recurrent UTI and 30 healthy controls. Blood was drawn and analysed for genetic polymorphisms of MBL, TLR4 and CD14 genes by the PCR-RFLP method. Direct DNA sequencing analysis was performed for LY96 and UPK 1B gene mutation in 10 children from UTI group and 5 children from control group. RESULTS TLR4 gene Thr399Ile polymorphism was not observed in any child. Genotype distribution and allele frequency of Asp299Gly polymorphism was similar in both groups (p = 0.55). Codon 54 polymorphism of the MBL gene was similar in UTI and control groups (p = 0.49). -159 CC/CT/TT genotypes of CD14 gene was similar between the two groups (p = 0.14). UPK1B and LY96 gene DNA sequence analysis was similar in UTI and control groups. CONCLUSIONS This study is the first study in which different parts of the innate immune system were evaluated in UTI etiopathogenesis in Turkish children. The results did not point out a significant role of any of the genes evaluated in this study.
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Preoperative Toll-like receptor expression in monocytes is associated with host immunological responses following gastrointestinal surgery. World J Surg 2010; 35:365-71. [PMID: 21046380 DOI: 10.1007/s00268-010-0839-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 09/29/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The present study was designed to evaluate the relationship between preoperative Toll-like receptor (TLR) expression in peripheral blood monocytes (PBMC) and the postoperative inflammatory cytokine secretion from PBMC, as well as the postoperative infectious complications in patients with gastrointestinal cancer. METHODS Peripheral blood monocytes were isolated from 26 patients on the preoperative day and on postoperative day 1 (POD1). The monocytes were stained for CD14, TLR2, and TLR4 surface expression and stimulated ex vivo with lipopolysaccharide (LPS), after which the culture supernatant tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNFα), interleukin (IL)-1β, and interferon gamma (IFNγ) concentrations were measured in the culture supernatant. Postoperative clinical courses were monitored. RESULTS There was a significant positive correlation between preoperative TLR4 expression and clinical stage in patients with gastrointestinal cancer. A significant negative correlation between preoperative TLR2 or TLR4 expression and the preoperative TNFα and IL-1β production was found. Furthermore, there was a significant negative correlation between preoperative TLR2 or TLR4 expression and postoperative inflammatory cytokine production. CONCLUSIONS Preoperative high expression of TLR on monocytes reduces the capacity for LPS-induced inflammatory cytokine production from monocytes. An analysis of preoperative TLR expression may therefore help to elucidate the systemic immunological response and the clinical course following gastrointestinal surgery.
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Fallavena PRV, Borges TJ, Paskulin DD, Paludo FJO, Goetze TB, de Oliveira JR, Nóbrega OT, Dias FS, Alho CS. The Influences of CD14 −260C>T Polymorphism on Survival in ICU Critically Ill Patients. Immunol Invest 2009; 38:797-811. [DOI: 10.3109/08820130903258818] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
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Haruta Y, Koarada S, Tada Y, Mitamura M, Ohta A, Fukuoka M, Hayashi S, Nagasawa K. High expression of Toll-like receptor 4 on CD14+ monocytes in acute infectious diseases. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2009; 39:577-83. [PMID: 17577821 DOI: 10.1080/00365540601139938] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) recognizes lipopolysaccharide (LPS) and other exogenous and endogenous molecules, and is thought to contribute to defense mechanisms against infections. Our objective was to elucidate the clinical significance of TLR4 in acute infectious diseases by analyzing its sequential expression on CD14+ monocytes. Peripheral blood samples were obtained from 36 patients with acute infectious diseases on admission and after treatment within certain intervals. The TLR4 expression on CD14+ monocytes was analyzed using flow cytometry and was presented as a mean fluorescence intensity (MFI). TLR4 expression during the acute phase of infection was highly enhanced compared to that of normal subjects (MFI: 22.1 vs 8.5). TLR4 expression was promptly reduced to normal levels in parallel with the disease improvement. In patients who died despite treatment, the enhancement of TLR4 expression during the acute phase was less prominent compared to those who survived (MFI: 14.6 vs 23.5) and its sequential change was also subtle. These results indicate that monocytes respond to acute infections by the induction of TLR4 expression and that a poor response may be associated with a poor prognosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yoshio Haruta
- Department of Internal Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, Saga University, Nabeshima, Japan.
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Frede S, Stockmann C, Winning S, Freitag P, Fandrey J. Hypoxia-inducible factor (HIF) 1alpha accumulation and HIF target gene expression are impaired after induction of endotoxin tolerance. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2009; 182:6470-6. [PMID: 19414801 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.0802378] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
The oxygen-sensitive transcription factor hypoxia-inducible factor 1 (HIF-1) is known as the key regulator of hypoxia-induced gene expression. In addition to hypoxia, endotoxins such as bacterial LPS as well as proinflammatory cytokines have been shown to induce HIF-1, suggesting an integrative role for HIF-1 in conditions of hypoxia and inflammation. Cells can become tolerant to endotoxins by repetitive exposure to LPS. Herein, we studied the effect of endotoxin tolerance on HIF-1alpha accumulation and expression of HIF target genes in human monocytic cells and primary mouse peritoneal macrophages. Tolerant cells had reduced levels of HIF-1alpha under hypoxia, which was due to lowered levels of HIF-1alpha mRNA. HIF-1alpha expression is under control of NF-kappaB and increased DNA binding of the p52 subunit of NF-kappaB was found in tolerant cells. Knock down of p52 abolished the effects of endotoxin tolerance on HIF-1alpha expression, which suggest a negative regulatory role of p52 on HIF-1alpha transcription during endotoxin tolerance. Endotoxin tolerant cells showed diminished expression of the HIF target genes phosphoglycerate kinase 1 and adrenomedullin and reduced viability under hypoxic conditions, as well as a significantly reduced invasion. Peritoneal macrophages from endotoxin-tolerant mice made showed significantly reduced HIF-1alpha protein accumulation and subsequent HIF target gene expression. We conclude that endotoxin tolerance impairs HIF-1alpha induction which reduces the ability of monocytic cells to survive and function under hypoxic conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stilla Frede
- Institut für Physiologie, Universität Duisburg-Essen, Essen, Germany
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Insulin regulates cytokines and intercellular adhesion molecule-1 gene expression through nuclear factor-kappaB activation in LPS-induced acute lung injury in rats. Shock 2009; 31:404-9. [PMID: 18791499 DOI: 10.1097/shk.0b013e318186275e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Diabetic patients have increased susceptibility to infection, which may be related to impaired inflammatory response observed in experimental models of diabetes, and restored by insulin treatment. The goal of this study was to investigate whether insulin regulates transcription of cytokines and intercellular adhesion molecule 1 (ICAM-1) via nuclear factor-kappaB (NF-kappaB) signaling pathway in Escherichia coli LPS-induced lung inflammation. Diabetic male Wistar rats (alloxan, 42 mg/kg, i.v., 10 days) and controls were instilled intratracheally with saline containing LPS (750 microg/0.4 mL) or saline only. Some diabetic rats were given neutral protamine Hagedorn insulin (4 IU, s.c.) 2 h before LPS. Analyses performed 6 h after LPS included: (a) lung and mesenteric lymph node IL-1 beta, TNF-alpha, IL-10, and ICAM-1 messenger RNA (mRNA) were quantified by real-time reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction; (b) number of neutrophils in the bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL) fluid, and concentrations of IL-1 beta, TNF-alpha, and IL-10 in the BAL were determined by the enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay; and (c) activation of NF-kappaB p65 subunit and phosphorylation of I-kappaB alpha were quantified by Western blot analysis. Relative to controls, diabetic rats exhibited a reduction in lung and mesenteric lymph node IL-1 beta (40%), TNF-alpha (approximately 30%), and IL-10 (approximately 40%) mRNA levels and reduced concentrations of IL-1 beta (52%), TNF-alpha (62%), IL-10 (43%), and neutrophil counts (72%) in the BAL. Activation of NF-kappaB p65 subunit and phosphorylation of I-kappaB alpha were almost suppressed in diabetic rats. Treatment of diabetic rats with insulin completely restored mRNA and protein levels of these cytokines and potentiated lung ICAM-1 mRNA levels (30%) and number of neutrophils (72%) in the BAL. Activation of NF-kappaB p65 subunit and phosphorylation of I-kappaB alpha were partially restored by insulin treatment. In conclusion, data presented suggest that insulin regulates transcription of proinflammatory (IL-1 beta, TNF-alpha) and anti-inflammatory (IL-10) cytokines, and expression of ICAM-1 via the NF-kappaB signaling pathway.
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de Aguiar BB, Girardi I, Paskulin DD, de Franca E, Dornelles C, Dias FS, Bonorino C, Alho CS. CD14 expression in the first 24h of sepsis: effect of -260C>T CD14 SNP. Immunol Invest 2009; 37:752-69. [PMID: 18991094 DOI: 10.1080/08820130802403242] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
Sepsis is defined as systemic inflammation caused by infection. The membrane bound CD14 (mCD14) or the soluble form (sCD14) play a crucial role facing Gram-negative and Gram-positive sepsis since they are pattern recognition receptors of the innate immune response enabling cells to produce inflammatory cytokines against bacterial infections. A -260C>T single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) was detected in the promoter modulating the CD14 gene expression. We hypothesized that the CD14 expression depends of the genetic inheritance of -260C>T CD14 SNP and it is modulated by sepsis condition. We investigated human CD14 expression on early sepsis diagnosis (in vivo) and after LPS stimulation (in vitro), and determined the -260C>T CD14 SNP. We found that TT homozygotes showed higher mCD14 density (p = 0.0207), but not different sCD14 levels when compared to the CT+CC genotypes. Monocyte mCD14 density and sCD14 serum levels in our sample of early 14 septic patients were significantly higher than normal 30 controls (p<0.0001). Our results suggest that the -260TT CD14 genotype is associated with higher monocyte mCD14, but not sCD14 expression, and that in the first 24 h after sepsis diagnosis, both monocyte mCD14 density and sCD14 levels are elevated, similarly to what is observed in vitro upon challenge with LPS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bibiana Butkus de Aguiar
- Faculdade de Biociências and Hospital São Lucas (HSL), Pontifícia Universidade Católica do Rio Grande do Sul (PUCRS), Brazil
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Simone R, Floriani A, Saverino D. Stimulation of human CD4⁺ T lymphocytes via TLR3, TLR5 and TLR7/8 up-regulates expression of costimulatory and modulates proliferation. Open Microbiol J 2009; 3:1-8. [PMID: 19294011 PMCID: PMC2656776 DOI: 10.2174/1874285800903010001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/28/2008] [Revised: 12/05/2008] [Accepted: 12/30/2008] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
The cells of innate and adaptive immunity, although activated by different ligands, engage in cross talk to ensure a successful immune outcome. Toll-like receptors (TLRs) are key components of the innate immune system and have the ability to detect microbial infection and trigger host defence responses. Otherwise, human T lymphocytes are able to produce most TLRs. Thus, we analyze the capability of some TLR ligands to modulate the function of highly-purified CD4+ T cells. We found that agents acting via TLRs (poly I:C, a TLR3 ligand; flagellin, a TLR5 ligand; and R848, a TLR7/8 ligand) are able to regulate the expression of costimulatory molecules both on purified antigen presenting cells and on purified T lymphocytes. Moreover, the activation mediated by TLRs determines a kinetic expression of B7-family members such as through an inhibition of T lymphocytes delayed proliferation. These findings suggest a functional role of some invading microorganisms in regulating acquired immunity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rita Simone
- Department of Experimental Medicine, Section of Human Anatomy, University of Genova, Via De Toni 14, 16132 Genova
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Li Y, Howell EA, Lagoo AS, Kuchibhatla M, Pan H, Cohen HJ, Lagoo SA. DIFFERENTIAL GENE EXPRESSION OF INTERLEUKIN-1 RECEPTOR ASSOCIATED KINASE-1 AND INTERLEUKIN-1 RECEPTOR ASSOCIATED KINASE-M IN PERIPHERAL BLOOD MONONUCLEAR CELLS OF YOUNG AND AGED RATS FOLLOWING PRECONDITIONING WITH ENDOTOXIN. Shock 2009; 31:55-63. [DOI: 10.1097/shk.0b013e3181778ab2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
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Abstract
The production and deployment of phagocytes are central functions of the hematopoietic system. In the 1950s, radioisotopic studies demonstrated the high production rate and short lifespan of neutrophils and allowed researchers to follow the monocytes as they moved from the marrow through the blood to become tissue macrophages, histiocytes, and dendritic cells. Subsequently, the discovery of the colony-stimulating factors greatly improved understanding the regulation of phagocyte production. The discovery of the microbicidal myeloperoxidase-H2O2-halide system and the importance of NADPH oxidase to the generation of H2O2 also stimulated intense interest in phagocyte disorders. More recent research has focused on membrane receptors and the dynamics of the responses of phagocytes to external factors including immunoglobulins, complement proteins, cytokines, chemokines, integrins, and selectins. Phagocytes express toll-like receptors that aid in the clearance of a wide range of microbial pathogens and their products. Phagocytes are also important sources of pro- and anti-inflammatory cytokines, thus participating in host defenses through a variety of mechanisms. Over the last 50 years, many genetic and molecular disorders of phagocytes have been identified, leading to improved diagnosis and treatment of conditions which predispose patients to the risk of recurrent fevers and infectious diseases.
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Abstract
The outcome of sepsis and septic shock has not significantly improved in recent decades despite the development of numerous drugs and supportive care therapies. To reduce sepsis-related mortality, a better understanding of molecular mechanism(s) associated with the development of sepsis and sepsis-related organ injury is essential. There is increasing evidence that Toll-like receptors (TLRs) play a key role in the mediation of systemic responses to invading pathogens during sepsis. However, the role of TLRs in the development of sepsis and in sepsis-related organ injury remains debatable. In this review, we focus on the biological significance of TLRs during sepsis. Medline was searched for pertinent publications relating to TLRs, with emphasis on their clinical and pathophysiological importance in sepsis. In addition, a summary of the authors' own experimental data from this field was set in the context of current knowledge regarding TLRs. In both animal models and human sepsis, TLRs are highly expressed on monocytes/macrophages, and this TLR expression may not simply be a ligand-specific response in such an environment. The fact that TLR signaling enables TLRs to recognize harmful mediators induced by invading pathogens may be associated with a positive feedback loop for the inflammatory response among different cell populations. This mechanism(s) may contribute to the organ dysfunction and mortality that occurs in sepsis. A better understanding of TLR biology may unveil novel therapeutic approaches for sepsis.
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Abstract
OBJECTIVE Examination of the interaction between gram-positive bacterial superantigens and toll-like receptor 2 (TLR2) in health and critical illness. DESIGN Laboratory ex vivo model and prospective clinical, cohort study. SETTING Two research laboratories in university hospitals and two intensive care units. SUBJECTS/PATIENTS Laboratory study was performed in transfected HeLa cells and primary human monocytes from healthy volunteers. Clinical study used cells from 20 healthy controls and 45 critically ill patients with circulatory shock. INTERVENTIONS HeLa cells and purified monocytes were exposed to purified superantigens or isogenic bacterial supernatants and readout obtained by cytokine enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay, flow cytometry, and quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction. Peripheral blood mononuclear cells from patients with circulatory shock were compared with controls using flow cytometry and measurement of cytokines after ligand exposure. MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS Superantigens were unable to signal through ligation by TLR2. However, TLR2 was up-regulated on the surface of primary human monocytes, without detectable TLR2 messenger RNA neosynthesis, by a range of superantigens and superantigen-containing Streptococcus pyogenes supernatants, although not by isogenic superantigen-negative strains. Superantigen mutant constructs with disrupted major histocompatibility complex class II-binding sites did not support TLR2 up-regulation. TLR2 up-regulation was associated with an increase in the proinflammatory response to TLR2 ligands only at high ligand concentrations. TLR2 was up-regulated in a small subset of patients with severe S. pyogenes sepsis but not in patients with any other category of septic or circulatory shock; responses to TLR2 ligands were reduced in all categories of critically ill patient, however. CONCLUSIONS Superantigens up-regulate monocyte surface TLR2 expression through major histocompatibility complex class II signaling. Enhanced surface TLR2 expression may be a specific feature of patients with S. pyogenes-induced shock. Importantly, intensity of TLR2 signaling is not necessarily coupled to TLR2 expression when ligand concentrations are low or after onset of critical illness.
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Toll-like receptor 2 and 4 expression after severe injury is not involved in the dysregulation of the innate immune system. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2008; 63:740-6. [PMID: 18089999 DOI: 10.1097/01.ta.0000240451.42238.d1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Severe injury after trauma is associated with a diminished production of different proinflammatory cytokines after stimulation with bacterial cell wall components. The cellular mechanisms, leading to a decreased responsiveness especially of monocytes after multiple injuries have not yet been elucidated in detail. The expression of Toll-like receptors (TLR) on leukocytes is essential for recognition of bacterial components. We investigated the expression of TLR2 and 4 in correlation with gram-negative and gram-positive stimuli-dependent cytokine liberation after severe injury in comparison with that in healthy volunteers. METHODS In a prospective clinical experimental study, 12 trauma patients with an Injury Severity Score above 21 points and 14 healthy volunteers were analyzed. Heparinized whole blood samples of patients were collected within 48 hours after trauma and incubated in vitro with or without lipopolysaccharide (LPS) and peptidoglycan (PGN). TLR2 and TLR4 expression on monocytes was analyzed by flow cytometry. LPS- and PGN-induced tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNFalpha) and interleukin-8 production was measured by means of enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. RESULTS Both LPS- and PGN-induced TNFalpha liberation were significantly reduced in severely injured patients. The surface expression of TLR2 was also significantly decreased on monocytes collected from trauma patients, whereas the expression of TLR4 remained unchanged. There was only a negative correlation between TLR2 expression and the liberation of TNFalpha after stimulation with LPS or PGN. CONCLUSIONS We conclude that diminished cytokine production after trauma cannot be explained simply by changes in TLR2 or TLR4 expression and that subsequent signaling cascades or additional receptors are involved in the blunted cytokine response after trauma.
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Koch A, Boehm O, Zacharowski PA, Loer SA, Weimann J, Rensing H, Foster SJ, Schmidt R, Berkels R, Reingruber S, Zacharowski K. Inducible nitric oxide synthase and heme oxygenase-1 in the lung during lipopolysaccharide tolerance and cross tolerance. Crit Care Med 2007; 35:2775-84. [PMID: 17901834 DOI: 10.1097/01.ccm.0000288122.24212.40] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Pretreatment with low-dose lipopolysaccharide protects cells/organs against a subsequent lethal Gram-negative (lipopolysaccharide tolerance) or Gram-positive (cross tolerance) stimulus. We determined whether this occurs in the rat lung. The involvement of inducible nitric oxide synthase and heme oxygenase-1 was evaluated. DESIGN Laboratory study. SETTING University hospital laboratory. SUBJECTS Anesthetized male Wistar rats. INTERVENTIONS To test the hypothesis, rats received saline or lipopolysaccharide (1 mg/kg). At 2, 4, 8, 16, or 24 hrs later, blood samples and lung tissue were taken to determine messenger RNA, protein concentration, and activity of inducible nitric oxide synthase and heme oxygenase-1. In additional experiments, rats were challenged with lipopolysaccharide (1 mg/kg) and subjected to Gram-negative (lipopolysaccharide) or Gram-positive (lipoteichoic acid and peptidoglycan) shock 24 hrs later. These studies were carried out in the presence and absence of inducible nitric oxide synthase or heme oxygenase-1 inhibitors (1400W or tin protoporphyrin IX). Following 6 hrs of shock, lung tissue was taken to determine lung damage and heme oxygenase-1 concentration and activity. MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS In the rat lung, lipopolysaccharide (1 mg/kg) induced a significant increase in inducible nitric oxide synthase protein at 8 hrs with a corresponding increase in plasma nitrate/nitrite at 8-16 hrs. Simultaneously, heme oxygenase-1 messenger RNA transcripts were observed at 8-16 hrs, and maximal expression of the protein followed (24 hrs). Pretreatment with low-dose lipopolysaccharide reduced myeloperoxidase activity (neutrophil infiltration) and wet-dry ratio (pulmonary edema) in the lungs of animals subjected to Gram-negative or Gram-positive shock, demonstrating tolerance. Pretreatment with low-dose lipopolysaccharide and the selective inducible nitric oxide synthase inhibitor 1400W reduced heme oxygenase-1 protein expression, and lung protection was abolished. Tin protoporphyrin IX did not affect heme oxygenase-1 expression, but heme oxygenase activity and lung protection were significantly reduced. CONCLUSIONS We propose that nitric oxide (most likely inducible nitric oxide synthase derived) regulates the induction of heme oxygenase-1 in the lung, which in turn plays an important part in pulmonary protection during lipopolysaccharide tolerance and cross tolerance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexander Koch
- Molecular Cardioprotection and Inflammation Group, Department of Anesthesia, Bristol University, Bristol, UK
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Inducible nitric oxide synthase and heme oxygenase-1 in the lung during lipopolysaccharide tolerance and cross tolerance. Crit Care Med 2007. [DOI: 10.1097/00003246-200712000-00016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/31/2023]
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Biswas SK, Bist P, Dhillon MK, Kajiji T, Del Fresno C, Yamamoto M, Lopez-Collazo E, Akira S, Tergaonkar V. Role for MyD88-independent, TRIF pathway in lipid A/TLR4-induced endotoxin tolerance. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2007; 179:4083-92. [PMID: 17785847 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.179.6.4083] [Citation(s) in RCA: 84] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Repeated exposure to low doses of endotoxin results in progressive hyporesponsiveness to subsequent endotoxin challenge, a phenomenon known as endotoxin tolerance. In spite of its clinical significance in sepsis and characterization of the TLR4 signaling pathway as the principal endotoxin detection mechanism, the molecular determinants that induce tolerance remain obscure. We investigated the role of the TRIF/IFN-beta pathway in TLR4-induced endotoxin tolerance. Lipid A-induced homotolerance was characterized by the down-regulation of MyD88-dependent proinflammatory cytokines TNF-alpha and CCL3, but up-regulation of TRIF-dependent cytokine IFN-beta. This correlated with a molecular phenotype of defective NF-kappaB activation but a functional TRIF-dependent STAT1 signaling. Tolerance-induced suppression of TNF-alpha and CCL3 expression was significantly relieved by TRIF and IFN regulatory factor 3 deficiency, suggesting the involvement of the TRIF pathway in tolerance. Alternatively, selective activation of TRIF by poly(I:C)-induced tolerance to lipid A. Furthermore, pretreatment with rIFN-beta also induced tolerance, whereas addition of IFN-beta-neutralizing Ab during the tolerization partially alleviated tolerance to lipid A but not TLR2-induced endotoxin homo- or heterotolerance. Furthermore, IFNAR1-/- murine embryonal fibroblast and bone-marrow derived macrophages failed to induce tolerance. Together, these observations constitute evidence for a role of the TRIF/IFN-beta pathway in the regulation of lipid A/TLR4-mediated endotoxin homotolerance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Subhra K Biswas
- Singapore Immunology Network, Biomedical Sciences Institutes, Agency for Science, Technology and Research, Immunos.
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Upregulated functional expression of Toll like receptor 4 in mesenchymal stem cells induced by lipopolysaccharide. Chin Med J (Engl) 2007. [DOI: 10.1097/00029330-200710010-00008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/14/2023] Open
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Schoneveld AH, Hoefer I, Sluijter JPG, Laman JD, de Kleijn DPV, Pasterkamp G. Atherosclerotic lesion development and Toll like receptor 2 and 4 responsiveness. Atherosclerosis 2007; 197:95-104. [PMID: 17888930 DOI: 10.1016/j.atherosclerosis.2007.08.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 103] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/17/2007] [Revised: 06/22/2007] [Accepted: 08/02/2007] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Toll like receptors (TLR) have been recognized for their role in atherosclerotic lesion development and progression. Endogenous TLR ligands that are also expressed in atherosclerotic tissues have been shown to promote atherosclerosis in mice. Since repetitive stimulation of TLR induces an attenuated inflammatory response, we hypothesized that the TLR response is altered during atherosclerosis development, due to chronic exposure to endogenous ligands. METHODS AND RESULTS We examined five groups of both ApoE-/- and C57Bl/6 mice aged 5, 10, 15, 25 and 40 weeks. In ApoE-/- mice with advanced stages of atherosclerosis, levels of mRNA encoding TLR2 and TLR4, the endogenous TLR ligands EDA and hsp60 as well as intracellular TLR-regulating mediators, like IRAK-M, were increased. Systemic TLR cell surface expression on circulating monocytes and EDA plasma levels were significantly increased in ApoE-/- mice with advanced atherosclerosis. We also observed that the endogenous TLR ligand EDA was capable of activating the TLR-signaling pathway in white blood cells. During the plaque progression stage however, stimulation of TLR2 and TLR4 in blood samples attenuated MIP-1 alpha and RANTES release in atherosclerotic mice. CONCLUSION During atherosclerotic lesion development, TLR2 and TLR4 expression increases in atherosclerotic plaques and on circulating blood cells. However, with advanced stages of atherosclerotic disease, circulating blood cells become less responsive to TLR ligation, which may be due to chronic TLR engagement by endogenous EDA.
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Affiliation(s)
- A H Schoneveld
- Department of Cardiology, Experimental Cardiology Laboratory, UMC, Utrecht, The Netherlands
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McCall MBB, Netea MG, Hermsen CC, Jansen T, Jacobs L, Golenbock D, van der Ven AJAM, Sauerwein RW. Plasmodium falciparum infection causes proinflammatory priming of human TLR responses. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2007; 179:162-71. [PMID: 17579034 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.179.1.162] [Citation(s) in RCA: 92] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
TLRs are a major group of pattern recognition receptors that are crucial in initiating innate immune responses and are capable of recognizing Plasmodium ligands. We have investigated TLR responses during acute experimental P. falciparum (P.f.) infection in 15 malaria-naive volunteers. TLR-4 responses in whole blood ex vivo stimulations were characterized by significantly (p < 0.01) up-regulated proinflammatory cytokine production during infection compared with baseline, whereas TLR-2/TLR-1 responses demonstrated increases in both proinflammatory and anti-inflammatory cytokine production. Responses through other TLRs were less obviously modified by malaria infection. The degree to which proinflammatory TLR responses were boosted early in infection was partially prognostic of clinical inflammatory parameters during the subsequent clinical course. Although simultaneous costimulation of human PBMC with P.f. lysate and specific TLR stimuli in vitro did not induce synergistic effects on cytokine synthesis, PBMC started to respond to subsequent TLR-4 and TLR-2 stimulation with significantly (p < 0.05) increased TNF-alpha and reduced IL-10 production following increasing periods of preincubation with P.f. Ag. In contrast, preincubation with preparations derived from other parasitic, bacterial, and fungal pathogens strongly suppressed subsequent TLR responses. Taken together, P.f. primes human TLR responses toward a more proinflammatory cytokine profile both in vitro and in vivo, a characteristic exceptional among microorganisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthew B B McCall
- Department of Medical Microbiology, Radboud University Nijmegen Medical Center, 6500 HB Nijmegen, The Netherlands
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Faivre V, Lukaszewicz AC, Alves A, Charron D, Payen D, Haziot A. Accelerated in vitro differentiation of blood monocytes into dendritic cells in human sepsis. Clin Exp Immunol 2007; 147:426-39. [PMID: 17302891 PMCID: PMC1810505 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2249.2006.03287.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Summary Sepsis-induced immune depression is characterized by infection susceptibility and monocyte early deactivation. Because monocytes are precursors for dendritic cells (DC), alterations in their differentiation into DC may contribute to defective immune responses in septic patients. We therefore investigated the ability of monocytes to differentiate into functional DC in vitro in patients undergoing surgery for peritonitis. Monocytes from 20 patients collected immediately after surgery (D0), at week 1 and at weeks 3-4 and from 11 control donors were differentiated into immature DC. We determined the phenotype of monocytes and derived DC, and analysed the ability of DC to respond to microbial products and to elicit T cell responses in a mixed leucocyte reaction (MLR). We show that, although monocytes from septic patients were deactivated with decreased responses to lipopolysaccharide (LPS) and peptidoglycan and low human leucocyte antigen D-related (HLA-DR) expression, they expressed the co-stimulatory molecule CD80, CD40 and CCR7. Monocytes collected from patients at D0 and week 1 differentiated faster into DC with early loss of CD14 expression. Expression of HLA-DR increased dramatically in culture to reach control levels, as did responses of DC to LPS and peptidoglycan. However, although patient and control immature DC had similar abilities to induce T cell proliferation in MLR, maturation of DC derived from patients did not increase T cell responses. These results show that circulating monocytes from septic patients express markers of activation and/or differentiation despite functional deactivation, and differentiate rapidly into phenotypically normal DC. These DC fail, however, to increase their T cell activation abilities upon maturation.
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Brun P, Castagliuolo I, Di Leo V, Buda A, Pinzani M, Palù G, Martines D. Increased intestinal permeability in obese mice: new evidence in the pathogenesis of nonalcoholic steatohepatitis. Am J Physiol Gastrointest Liver Physiol 2007; 292:G518-25. [PMID: 17023554 DOI: 10.1152/ajpgi.00024.2006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 622] [Impact Index Per Article: 36.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/31/2023]
Abstract
A small percentage of pathologically obese subjects with fatty livers develop histological signs of necroinflammation and fibrosis, suggesting a variety of cofactors in the pathogenesis of obesity-related liver diseases including nonalcoholic steatohepatitis. Since several observations have linked bacterial endotoxins to liver damage, the aim of this study was to determine the effect of obesity on intestinal mucosal integrity and portal blood endotoxemia in two strains of obese mice: leptin-deficient (ob/ob) and hyperleptinemic (db/db) mice. Murine intestinal mucosal barrier function was assessed using a Ussing chamber, whereas ileum tight junction proteins were analyzed by immunocytochemistry and Western blot analysis. Circulating proinflammatory cytokines and portal blood endotoxin levels were measured by ELISA and the limulus test, respectively. The inflammatory and fibrogenic phenotype of murine hepatic stellate cells (HSCs) was determined by ELISA and quantitative RT-PCR. Ob/ob and db/db mice showed lower intestinal resistance, profoundly modified distribution of occludin and zonula occludens-1 in the intestinal mucosa, and higher circulating levels of inflammatory cytokines and portal endotoxemia compared with lean control mice. Moreover, HSCs isolated from ob/ob and db/db mice showed higher membrane CD14 mRNA levels and more pronounced lipopolysaccharide-induced proinflammatory and fibrogenic responses than HSCs from lean animals. In conclusion, genetically obese mice display enhanced intestinal permeability leading to increased portal endotoxemia that makes HSCs more sensitive to bacterial endotoxins. We suggest that in metabolic syndrome, patients may likewise have a greater intestinal mucosa permeability and increased lipopolysaccharide levels in portal blood that can contribute to the liver inflammatory damage.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paola Brun
- Department of Histology, Univ of Padua, Via Gabelli 63, Padova, Italy
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Biswas SK, Tergaonkar V. Myeloid differentiation factor 88-independent Toll-like receptor pathway: Sustaining inflammation or promoting tolerance? Int J Biochem Cell Biol 2007; 39:1582-92. [PMID: 17572133 DOI: 10.1016/j.biocel.2007.04.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/17/2007] [Revised: 03/22/2007] [Accepted: 04/20/2007] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
Toll-like receptor signaling represents a principal molecular pathway for host innate immunity. Mechanistically, it can be segregated into two distinct cascades: the myeloid differentiation factor 88-dependent and myeloid differentiation factor 88-independent (or Toll receptor-associated activator of interferon-mediated) cascades. Myeloid differentiation factor 88-dependent signaling is common to all the Toll-like receptors, except Toll-like receptor 3, which exclusively utilizes the myeloid differentiation factor 88-independent pathway. Based on recent evidences, a possible role for myeloid differentiation factor 88-independent pathway not only in sustaining inflammatory responses during Gram-negative infection but also in protective responses like endotoxin tolerance is proposed in this review. We hypothesize that the delayed kinetics of activation of the myeloid differentiation factor 88-independent pathway might be functionally aimed at tuning-down inflammatory reactions through promotion of cellular tolerization and possibly protecting hosts from inflammation-induced injury. Future studies will be needed to experimentally validate this idea and the crucial relevance of the myeloid differentiation factor 88-independent pathway.
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Affiliation(s)
- Subhra K Biswas
- Bioinformatics Institute (A*STAR), Matrix, Biopolis Street, Singapore 138671, Singapore.
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Fehrenbach E, Schneider ME. Trauma-induced systemic inflammatory response versus exercise-induced immunomodulatory effects. Sports Med 2006; 36:373-84. [PMID: 16646626 DOI: 10.2165/00007256-200636050-00001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 63] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
Abstract
Accidental trauma and heavy endurance exercise, both induce a kind of systemic inflammatory response, also called systemic inflammatory response syndrome (SIRS). Exercise-related SIRS is conditioned by hyperthermia and concomitant heat shock responses, whereas trauma-induced SIRS manifests concomitantly with tissue necrosis and immune activation, secondarily followed by fever. Inflammatory cytokines are common denominators in both trauma and exercise, although there are marked quantitative differences. Different anti-inflammatory cytokines may be involved in the control of inflammation in trauma- and exercise-induced stress. Exercise leads to a balanced equilibrium between inflammatory and anti-inflammatory responses. Intermittent states of rest, as well as anti-oxidant capacity, are lacking or minor in trauma but are high in exercising individuals. Regular training may enhance immune competence, whereas trauma-induced SIRS often paves the way for infectious complications, such as sepsis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elvira Fehrenbach
- Institute of Clinical and Experimental Transfusion Medicine, University of Tuebingen, Tuebingen, Germany.
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Cuschieri J, Billigren J, Maier RV. Endotoxin tolerance attenuates LPS-induced TLR4 mobilization to lipid rafts: a condition reversed by PKC activation. J Leukoc Biol 2006; 80:1289-97. [PMID: 16959900 DOI: 10.1189/jlb.0106053] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Endotoxin tolerance is characterized by attenuated macrophage activation to subsequent LPS challenge and can be reversed through nonspecific protein kinase C (PKC) activation, and activation by LPS within naïve cells requires the activation of the cell surface receptors CD14 and TLR4 on lipid rafts. The effect of PKC activation and endotoxin tolerance on lipid raft receptor complex assembly is unknown and the focus of this study. Tolerance was induced in THP-1 cells through LPS pre-exposure. Naïve and tolerant cells were stimulated with LPS, with or without PMA pretreatment to activate PKC. TLR4 surface expression and LPS binding were determined by flow cytometry and immunohistochemistry. Cellular and lipid raft protein was analyzed for the presence and activation of the TLR4 complex components. Harvested supernatants were examined for TNF-alpha production. Total TLR4 surface expression and LPS binding were not affected by tolerance induction. LPS stimulation of naïve cells resulted in TLR4 and heat shock protein (HSP)70 lipid raft mobilization, MAPK activation, and TNF-alpha production. LPS stimulation of tolerant cells was associated with attenuation of all of these cellular events. Although PKC activation by PMA had no effect on naïve cells, it did result in reversal in tolerance-induced suppression of TLR4 and HSP70 lipid raft mobilization, MAPK activation, and TNF-alpha production. In addition, the effects associated with PMA were reversed with exposure to a myristoylated PKC-zeta pseudosubstrate. Thus, endotoxin tolerance appears to be induced through attenuated TLR4 formation following LPS stimulation. This complex formation appears to be PKC-dependent, and restoration of PKC activity reverses tolerance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joseph Cuschieri
- University of Washington, Harborview Medical Center, 325 9th Avenue, Box 359796, Seattle, WA 98104, USA.
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Brunialti MKC, Martins PS, Barbosa de Carvalho H, Machado FR, Barbosa LM, Salomao R. TLR2, TLR4, CD14, CD11B, AND CD11C EXPRESSIONS ON MONOCYTES SURFACE AND CYTOKINE PRODUCTION IN PATIENTS WITH SEPSIS, SEVERE SEPSIS, AND SEPTIC SHOCK. Shock 2006; 25:351-7. [PMID: 16670636 DOI: 10.1097/01.shk.0000217815.57727.29] [Citation(s) in RCA: 87] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/31/2023]
Abstract
Bacterial recognition and induced cellular activation are fundamental for the host control of infection, yet the limit between protective and harmful response is still inexact. Forty-one patients were enrolled in this study: 14 with sepsis, 12 with severe sepsis, and 15 with septic shock. Seventeen healthy volunteers (HV) were included as control. The expression of TLR2, TLR4, CD14, CD11b, and CD11c was analyzed on monocytes surface in whole blood. sCD14 was measured in serum, and TNF-alpha, IL-6, and IL-10 cytokine levels were measured in PBMC supernatants after LPS, IL-1beta, and TNF-alpha stimuli by ELISA. An increase in sCD14 and a decreased mCD14 were found in patients as compared with HV (P < 0.001). However, no differences in the expression of TLR2, TLR4, and CD11c were found among the groups. A trend toward differential expression of CD11b was observed, with higher values found in patients with sepsis as compared with HV. A negative regulation of the inflammatory cytokine production was observed in patients with severe sepsis and shock septic in relation to sepsis and HV, regardless of the stimulus. No significant difference in IL-10 production was found among the groups. In this study, we show that the inflammatory response is associated with the continuum of clinical manifestations of sepsis, with a strong inflammatory response in the early phase (sepsis) and a refractory picture in the late phases (severe sepsis and septic shock). Correlation between cell surface receptors and cytokine production after IL-1beta and TNF-alpha stimuli and the observation of a single and same standard response with the different stimulus suggest a pattern of immunology response that is not dependent only on the expression of the evaluated receptors and that is likely to have a regulation in the intracellular signaling pathways.
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Tsujimoto H, Ono S, Majima T, Efron PA, Kinoshita M, Hiraide H, Moldawer LL, Mochizuki H. Differential toll-like receptor expression after ex vivo lipopolysaccharide exposure in patients with sepsis and following surgical stress. Clin Immunol 2006; 119:180-7. [PMID: 16517212 DOI: 10.1016/j.clim.2006.01.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/23/2005] [Revised: 12/15/2005] [Accepted: 01/17/2006] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Monocytes from septic patients have a reduced capacity to respond to lipopolysaccharide (LPS). We examined whether the same response occurred after surgical injury, and whether this reduced activity was associated with differential monocyte toll-like receptor (TLR) expression. MATERIALS AND METHODS Peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) were isolated from septic patients, patients undergoing surgery, and healthy volunteers. Cells were stimulated ex vivo with LPS (1 microg/ml) and stained for CD14, CD16, TLR-2, TLR-4, and HLA-DR surface expression. RESULTS TLR-2 and -4 expressions were significantly increased in monocytes from both septic and surgical patients. While ex vivo LPS-stimulation significantly increased TNFalpha and IL-1beta production in PBMCs from surgical patients, LPS-stimulation decreased IL-1beta production from septic patients as compared to surgical and control patients. Ex vivo LPS-stimulation induced TLR-4 upregulation in monocytes from both surgical and control patients, but not from septic patients. HLA-DR expression in CD14+CD16+ monocytes was reduced only in septic patients. CONCLUSIONS PBMCs from septic patients, but not following surgical injury, have a reduced capacity to respond to a secondary inflammatory signal, but this defect is not associated with reduced TLR-4 or CD14 expression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hironori Tsujimoto
- Department of Surgery I, National Defense Medical College, 3-2 Namiki, Tokorozawa, Saitama 359-8513, Japan.
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Slotta JE, Scheuer C, Menger MD, Vollmar B. Immunostimulatory CpG-oligodeoxynucleotides (CpG-ODN) induce early hepatic injury, but provide a late window for protection against endotoxin-mediated liver damage. J Hepatol 2006; 44:576-85. [PMID: 16310279 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhep.2005.08.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/16/2005] [Revised: 08/19/2005] [Accepted: 08/23/2005] [Indexed: 12/04/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND/AIMS An impaired immunologic response to infection has been recognized as a major defect in the pathogenesis of sepsis and multi-organ failure. Sepsis-associated liver dysfunction and damage are main determinants for the course of the disease. CpG-motif-containing DNA-sequences (CpG-ODN) were previously shown to confer protection in models of infection by stimulating both innate and specific immune responses. Herein, we studied the effect of CpG-ODN in lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-associated hepatotoxicity. METHODS Sprague Dawley rats pre-treated at day 6 with either CpG-ODN or inert DNA were challenged with E. coli LPS and subsequently studied for liver injury at 6 and 16 h using in vivo fluorescence microscopy and immunohistochemistry. Western blot protein analysis served for assessment of expression of TLR4, TNF receptor-associated factor 6 (TRAF6), NFkappaB and caspase-3. To evaluate CpG-ODN effects during non-septic conditions, additional animals were solely exposed to CpG-ODN and studied after 1 and 6 days. RESULTS CpG-ODN application induced marked hepatic microcirculatory deterioration and liver dysfunction at day 1, however, with almost complete recovery to normal at day 6. Interestingly, CpG-ODN pre-treatment decreased LPS-induced leukocyte-endothelial cell interaction, sinusoidal perfusion failure and caspase-3-dependent apoptotic cell death. Although Kupffer cell phagocytic activity was not affected, CpG-ODN pre-treatment in LPS-challenged animals attenuated hepatic protein expression of TRAF6 and NFkappaB and increased TLR4 by almost 100%. CONCLUSIONS CpG-containing DNA-sequences induce early hepatic injury, but mediate long-term protection against LPS hepatotoxicity. The mechanism of protection is based on the induction of cross-tolerance, probably via inhibition of the downstream TRAF6-NFkappaB signaling pathway and upregulation of the TLR4 surface receptor.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jan E Slotta
- Institute for Clinical and Experimental Surgery, University of Saarland, 66421 Homburg/Saar, Germany
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de Oliveira Martins J, Meyer-Pflug AR, Alba-Loureiro TC, Melbostad H, Costa da Cruz JWM, Coimbra R, Curi R, Sannomiya P. MODULATION OF LIPOPOLYSACCHARIDE-INDUCED ACUTE LUNG INFLAMMATION. Shock 2006; 25:260-6. [PMID: 16552358 DOI: 10.1097/01.shk.0000194042.18699.b4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
Abstract
The present study was undertaken to investigate the influence of insulin on lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced acute lung injury. Diabetic male Wistar rats (alloxan, 42 mg/kg, i.v., 30 days) and controls were instilled with saline containing LPS (750 microg/0.4 mL) or saline alone. The following analyses were performed 6 h there after: (a) total and differential cell counts in bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL) fluid, (b) quantification of tumor necrosis factor alpha, interleukin (IL) 1beta, IL-10, and cytokine-induced neutrophil chemoattractant 1 in the BAL (enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay), (c)immunohistochemistry for intercellular adhesion molecule 1 and E-selectin on lung vessels, and (d) quantification of metalloproteinases (MMP) 2 and 9 in the BAL (zymography). Relative to controls, diabetic rats exhibited a reduction in the number of neutrophils (80%) and reduced concentrations of tumor necrosis factor alpha (56%), IL-1beta (66%), and IL-10 (35%) after LPS instillation. Cytokine-induced neutrophil chemoattractant 1 levels did not differ between groups. Increased levels of MMP-2 (90%) and MMP-9 (500%) were observed in diabetic rats compared with controls. Treatment of diabetic rats with neutral protamine Hagedorn insulin (4 IU, s.c.), 2 h before LPS instillation, completely restored the number of neutrophils and concentrations of cytokines in the BAL fluid. Despite no significant differences between diabetic and control groups, there was a remarkable increase in intercellular adhesion molecule 1 and E-selectin expression on lung vessels after insulin treatment. Levels of MMP-2 and MMP-9 did not change after treatment with insulin. Levels of corticosterone were equivalent among groups. Data presented suggest that insulin modulates the production/release of cytokines and the expression of adhesion molecules controlling, therefore, neutrophil migration during the course of LPS-induced acute lung inflammation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joilson de Oliveira Martins
- Research Division, Heart Institute (InCor), LIM-11, University of São Paulo Medical School, São Paulo, SP, Brazil
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