Regulatory factors for the assembly of thylakoid membrane protein complexes

RESISTANCE TO PHYTOPHTHORA1 promotes cytochrome b559 formation during early photosystem II biogenesis in Arabidopsis

As an essential intrinsic component of photosystem II (PSII) in all oxygenic photosynthetic organisms, heme-bridged heterodimer cytochrome b559 (Cyt b559) plays critical roles in the protection and assembly of PSII. However, the underlying mechanisms of Cyt b559 assembly are largely unclear. Here, we characterized the Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana) rph1 (resistance to Phytophthora1) mutant, which was previously shown to be susceptible to the oomycete pathogen Phytophthora brassicae. Loss of RPH1 leads to a drastic reduction in PSII accumulation, which can be primarily attributed to the defective formation of Cyt b559. Spectroscopic analyses showed that the heme level in PSII supercomplexes isolated from rph1 is significantly reduced, suggesting that RPH1 facilitates proper heme assembly in Cyt b559. Due to the loss of RPH1-mediated processes, a covalently bound PsbE-PsbF heterodimer is formed during the biogenesis of PSII. In addition, rph1 is highly photosensitive and accumulates elevated levels of reactive oxygen species under photoinhibitory-light conditions. RPH1 is a conserved intrinsic thylakoid protein present in green algae and terrestrial plants, but absent in Synechocystis, and it directly interacts with the subunits of Cyt b559. Thus, our data demonstrate that RPH1 represents a chloroplast acquisition specifically promoting the efficient assembly of Cyt b559, probably by mediating proper heme insertion into the apo-Cyt b559 during the initial phase of PSII biogenesis.

Hypothetical chloroplast reading frame 51 encodes a photosystem I assembly factor in cyanobacteria

Hypothetical chloroplast open reading frames (ycfs) are putative genes in the plastid genomes of photosynthetic eukaryotes. Many ycfs are also conserved in the genomes of cyanobacteria, the presumptive ancestors of present-day chloroplasts. The functions of many ycfs are still unknown. Here, we generated knock-out mutants for ycf51 (sll1702) in the cyanobacterium Synechocystis sp. PCC 6803. The mutants showed reduced photoautotrophic growth due to impaired electron transport between photosystem II (PSII) and PSI. This phenotype results from greatly reduced PSI content in the ycf51 mutant. The ycf51 disruption had little effect on the transcription of genes encoding photosynthetic complex components and the stabilization of the PSI complex. In vitro and in vivo analyses demonstrated that Ycf51 cooperates with PSI assembly factor Ycf3 to mediate PSI assembly. Furthermore, Ycf51 interacts with the PSI subunit PsaC. Together with its specific localization in the thylakoid membrane and the stromal exposure of its hydrophilic region, our data suggest that Ycf51 is involved in PSI complex assembly. Ycf51 is conserved in all sequenced cyanobacteria, including the earliest branching cyanobacteria of the Gloeobacter genus, and is also present in the plastid genomes of glaucophytes. However, Ycf51 has been lost from other photosynthetic eukaryotic lineages. Thus, Ycf51 is a PSI assembly factor that has been functionally replaced during the evolution of oxygenic photosynthetic eukaryotes.

The translocon protein FtsHi1 is an ATP-dependent DNA/RNA helicase that prevents R-loop accumulation in chloroplasts

R-loops, three-stranded nucleic acid structures consisting of a DNA: RNA hybrid and displaced single-stranded DNA, play critical roles in gene expression and genome stability. How R-loop homeostasis is integrated into chloroplast gene expression remains largely unknown. We found an unexpected function of FtsHi1, an inner envelope membrane-bound AAA-ATPase in chloroplast R-loop homeostasis of Arabidopsis thaliana. Previously, this protein was shown to function as a component of the import motor complex for nuclear-encoded chloroplast proteins. However, this study provides evidence that FtsHi1 is an ATP-dependent helicase that efficiently unwinds both DNA-DNA and DNA-RNA duplexes, thereby preventing R-loop accumulation. Over-accumulation of R-loops could impair chloroplast transcription but not necessarily genome integrity. The dual function of FtsHi1 in both protein import and chloroplast gene expression may be important to coordinate the biogenesis of nuclear- and chloroplast-encoded subunits of multi-protein photosynthetic complexes. This study suggests a mechanical link between protein import and R-loop homeostasis in chloroplasts of higher plants.

TurboID reveals the proxiomes of Chlamydomonas proteins involved in thylakoid biogenesis and stress response

In Chlamydomonas (Chlamydomonas reinhardtii), the VESICLE-INDUCING PROTEIN IN PLASTIDS 1 and 2 (VIPP1 and VIPP2) play roles in the sensing and coping with membrane stress and in thylakoid membrane biogenesis. To gain more insight into these processes, we aimed to identify proteins interacting with VIPP1/2 in the chloroplast and chose proximity labeling (PL) for this purpose. We used the transient interaction between the nucleotide exchange factor CHLOROPLAST GRPE HOMOLOG 1 (CGE1) and the stromal HEAT SHOCK PROTEIN 70B (HSP70B) as test system. While PL with APEX2 and BioID proved to be inefficient, TurboID resulted in substantial biotinylation in vivo. TurboID-mediated PL with VIPP1/2 as baits under ambient and H2O2 stress conditions confirmed known interactions of VIPP1 with VIPP2, HSP70B, and the CHLOROPLAST DNAJ HOMOLOG 2 (CDJ2). Proteins identified in the VIPP1/2 proxiomes can be grouped into proteins involved in the biogenesis of thylakoid membrane complexes and the regulation of photosynthetic electron transport, including PROTON GRADIENT REGULATION 5-LIKE 1 (PGRL1). A third group comprises 11 proteins of unknown function whose genes are upregulated under chloroplast stress conditions. We named them VIPP PROXIMITY LABELING (VPL). In reciprocal experiments, we confirmed VIPP1 in the proxiomes of VPL2 and PGRL1. Our results demonstrate the robustness of TurboID-mediated PL for studying protein interaction networks in the chloroplast of Chlamydomonas and pave the way for analyzing functions of VIPPs in thylakoid biogenesis and stress responses.

NADP+ supply adjusts the synthesis of photosystem I in Arabidopsis chloroplasts

In oxygenic photosynthesis, NADP+ acts as the final acceptor of the photosynthetic electron transport chain and receives electrons via the thylakoid membrane complex photosystem I (PSI) to synthesize NAPDH by the enzyme ferredoxin:NADP+ oxidoreductase. The NADP+/NADPH redox couple is essential for cellular metabolism and redox homeostasis. However, how the homeostasis of these two dinucleotides is integrated into chloroplast biogenesis remains largely unknown. Here, we demonstrate the important role of NADP+ supply for the biogenesis of PSI by examining the nad kinase 2 (nadk2) mutant in Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana), which demonstrates disrupted synthesis of NADP+ from NAD+ in chloroplasts. Although the nadk2 mutant is highly sensitive to light, the reaction center of photosystem II (PSII) is only mildly and likely only secondarily affected compared to the wild-type. Our studies revealed that the primary limitation of photosynthetic electron transport, even at low light intensities, occurs at PSI rather than at PSII in the nadk2 mutant. Remarkably, this primarily impairs the de novo synthesis of the two PSI core subunits PsaA and PsaB, leading to the deficiency of the PSI complex in the nadk2 mutant. This study reveals an unexpected molecular link between NADK activity and mRNA translation of psaA/B in chloroplasts that may mediate a feedback mechanism to adjust de novo biosynthesis of the PSI complex in response to a variable NADPH demand. This adjustment may be important to protect PSI from photoinhibition under conditions that favor acceptor side limitation.

De-etiolation-induced protein 1 (DEIP1) mediates assembly of the cytochrome b6f complex in Arabidopsis

The conversion of light energy to chemical energy by photosynthesis requires the concerted action of large protein complexes in the thylakoid membrane. Recent work has provided fundamental insights into the three-dimensional structure of these complexes, but how they are assembled from hundreds of parts remains poorly understood. Particularly little is known about the biogenesis of the cytochrome b₆f complex (Cytb₆f), the redox-coupling complex that interconnects the two photosystems. Here we report the identification of a factor that guides the assembly of Cytb₆f in thylakoids of chloroplasts. The protein, DE-ETIOLATION-INDUCED PROTEIN 1 (DEIP1), resides in the thylakoid membrane and is essential for photoautotrophic growth. Knock-out mutants show a specific loss of Cytb₆f, and are defective in complex assembly. We demonstrate that DEIP1 interacts with the two cytochrome subunits of the complex, PetA and PetB, and mediates the assembly of intermediates in Cytb₆f biogenesis. The identification of DEIP1 provides an entry point into the study of the assembly pathway of a crucial complex in photosynthetic electron transfer.

The Cytb6f complex is a multi-subunit enzyme that couples the two photosystems during the light reactions of photosynthesis. Here the authors show that the thylakoid-localized DEIP1 protein interacts with the PetA and PetB subunits, and is essential for Cytb6f complex assembly in Arabidopsis.

Chlorophyll deficiency delays but does not prevent melanogenesis in barley seed melanoplasts

Plant melanin is a dark polymerized polyphenolic substance that can by synthesized in seed tissues. Unlike well-defined enzymatic browning reaction leading to melanin synthesis in senescent and damaged plant tissues, melanin formation in intact tissues was not studied properly. Recently, melanin synthesis was demonstrated in chloroplast-derived melanoplasts in pericarp and husk cells of barley seeds. In barley, there are two independent genes, Blp1 and Alm1, affecting respectively the biosynthesis of melanin and chlorophyll in seeds. Even though different genetic systems are responsible for these traits, the localization of these biosynthetic pathways in the same organelle prompted us to conduct an in-depth study of the i:Bwalm1Blp1 line characterized by simultaneous chlorophyll deficiency caused by recessive allele alm1 and melanin accumulation controlled by dominant allele Blp1. This barley line and parental ones-Bowman, i:BwBlp1, and i:Bwalm1, which are characterized by different combinations of pigments chlorophyll and melanin in seeds-were subjected to a comparative cytological analysis. Three markers were analyzed: the presence of visible pigments, chlorophyll, and PsbA protein (a thylakoid membrane marker). Plastids of the barley pericarp and husk showed prominent differences among the lines, with internal structures that are more developed in husk cells. Although chlorophyll deficiency did not prevent melanogenesis in the spike of the hybrid line, a 7-day delay in melanization initiation and a decrease in its magnitude were observed in comparison with the melanin-and-chlorophyll-containing line. Thus, melanin biosynthesis is not related to photosynthetic processes directly but may be dependent on the presence of plastids with well-developed internal membranes.

Processing of D1 Protein: A Mysterious Process Carried Out in Thylakoid Lumen

In oxygenic photosynthetic organisms, D1 protein, a core subunit of photosystem II (PSII), displays a rapid turnover in the light, in which D1 proteins are distinctively damaged and immediately removed from the PSII. In parallel, as a repair process, D1 proteins are synthesized and simultaneously assembled into the PSII. On this flow, the D1 protein is synthesized as a precursor with a carboxyl-terminal extension, and the D1 processing is defined as a step for proteolytic removal of the extension by a specific protease, CtpA. The D1 processing plays a crucial role in appearance of water-oxidizing capacity of PSII, because the main chain carboxyl group at carboxyl-terminus of the D1 protein, exposed by the D1 processing, ligates a manganese and a calcium atom in the Mn4CaO5-cluster, a special equipment for water-oxidizing chemistry of PSII. This review focuses on the D1 processing and discusses it from four angles: (i) Discovery of the D1 processing and recognition of its importance: (ii) Enzyme involved in the D1 processing: (iii) Efforts for understanding significance of the D1 processing: (iv) Remaining mysteries in the D1 processing. Through the review, I summarize the current status of our knowledge on and around the D1 processing.

Complexome profiling on the Chlamydomonas lpa2 mutant reveals insights into PSII biogenesis and new PSII associated proteins

While the composition and function of the major thylakoid membrane complexes are well understood, comparatively little is known about their biogenesis. The goal of this work was to shed more light on the role of auxiliary factors in the biogenesis of photosystem II (PSII). Here we have identified the homolog of LOW PSII ACCUMULATION 2 (LPA2) in Chlamydomonas. A Chlamydomonas reinhardtii lpa2 mutant grew slower in low light, was hypersensitive to high light, and exhibited aberrant structures in thylakoid membrane stacks. Chlorophyll fluorescence (Fv/Fm) was reduced by 38%. Synthesis and stability of newly made PSII core subunits D1, D2, CP43, and CP47 were not impaired. However, complexome profiling revealed that in the mutant CP43 was reduced to ~23% and D1, D2, and CP47 to ~30% of wild type levels. Levels of PSI and the cytochrome b6f complex were unchanged, while levels of the ATP synthase were increased by ~29%. PSII supercomplexes, dimers, and monomers were reduced to ~7%, ~26%, and ~60% of wild type levels, while RC47 was increased ~6-fold and LHCII by ~27%. We propose that LPA2 catalyses a step during PSII assembly without which PSII monomers and further assemblies become unstable and prone to degradation. The LHCI antenna was more disconnected from PSI in the lpa2 mutant, presumably as an adaptive response to reduce excitation of PSI. From the co-migration profiles of 1734 membrane-associated proteins, we identified three novel putative PSII associated proteins with potential roles in regulating PSII complex dynamics, assembly, and chlorophyll breakdown.

LPA2 protein is involved in photosystem II assembly in Chlamydomonas reinhardtii

Photosynthetic eukaryotes require the proper assembly of photosystem II (PSII) in order to strip electrons from water and fuel carbon fixation reactions. In Arabidopsis thaliana, one of the PSII subunits (CP43/PsbC) was suggested to be assembled into the PSII complex via its interaction with an auxiliary protein called Low PSII Accumulation 2 (LPA2). However, the original articles describing the role of LPA2 in PSII assembly have been retracted. To investigate the function of LPA2 in the model organism for green algae, Chlamydomonas reinhardtii, we generated knockout lpa2 mutants by using the CRISPR-Cas9 target-specific genome editing system. Biochemical analyses revealed the thylakoidal localization of LPA2 protein in the wild type (WT), whereas lpa2 mutants were characterized by a drastic reduction in the levels of D1, D2, CP47 and CP43 proteins. Consequently, reduced PSII supercomplex accumulation, chlorophyll content per cell, PSII quantum yield and photosynthetic oxygen evolution were measured in the lpa2 mutants, leading to the almost complete impairment of photoautotrophic growth. Pulse-chase experiments demonstrated that the absence of LPA2 protein caused reduced PSII assembly and reduced PSII turnover. Taken together, our data indicate that, in C. reinhardtii, LPA2 is required for PSII assembly and proper function.

PhaeoNet: A Holistic RNAseq-Based Portrait of Transcriptional Coordination in the Model Diatom Phaeodactylum tricornutum

Transcriptional coordination is a fundamental component of prokaryotic and eukaryotic cell biology, underpinning the cell cycle, physiological transitions, and facilitating holistic responses to environmental stress, but its overall dynamics in eukaryotic algae remain poorly understood. Better understanding of transcriptional partitioning may provide key insights into the primary metabolism pathways of eukaryotic algae, which frequently depend on intricate metabolic associations between the chloroplasts and mitochondria that are not found in plants. Here, we exploit 187 publically available RNAseq datasets generated under varying nitrogen, iron and phosphate growth conditions to understand the co-regulatory principles underpinning transcription in the model diatom Phaeodactylum tricornutum. Using WGCNA (Weighted Gene Correlation Network Analysis), we identify 28 merged modules of co-expressed genes in the P. tricornutum genome, which show high connectivity and correlate well with previous microarray-based surveys of gene co-regulation in this species. We use combined functional, subcellular localization and evolutionary annotations to reveal the fundamental principles underpinning the transcriptional co-regulation of genes implicated in P. tricornutum chloroplast and mitochondrial metabolism, as well as the functions of diverse transcription factors underpinning this co-regulation. The resource is publically available as PhaeoNet, an advanced tool to understand diatom gene co-regulation.

GreenCut protein CPLD49 of Chlamydomonas reinhardtii associates with thylakoid membranes and is required for cytochrome b6 f complex accumulation

The GreenCut encompasses a suite of nucleus-encoded proteins with orthologs among green lineage organisms (plants, green algae), but that are absent or poorly conserved in non-photosynthetic/heterotrophic organisms. In Chlamydomonas reinhardtii, CPLD49 (Conserved in Plant Lineage and Diatoms49) is an uncharacterized GreenCut protein that is critical for maintaining normal photosynthetic function. We demonstrate that a cpld49 mutant has impaired photoautotrophic growth under high-light conditions. The mutant exhibits a nearly 90% reduction in the level of the cytochrome b₆ f complex (Cytb₆ f), which impacts linear and cyclic electron transport, but does not compromise the ability of the strain to perform state transitions. Furthermore, CPLD49 strongly associates with thylakoid membranes where it may be part of a membrane protein complex with another GreenCut protein, CPLD38; a mutant null for CPLD38 also impacts Cytb₆ f complex accumulation. We investigated several potential functions of CPLD49, with some suggested by protein homology. Our findings are congruent with the hypothesis that CPLD38 and CPLD49 are part of a novel thylakoid membrane complex that primarily modulates accumulation, but also impacts the activity of the Cytb₆ f complex. Based on motifs of CPLD49 and the activities of other CPLD49-like proteins, we suggest a role for this putative dehydrogenase in the synthesis of a lipophilic thylakoid membrane molecule or cofactor that influences the assembly and activity of Cytb₆ f.

The OsPS1-F gene regulates growth and development in rice by modulating photosynthetic electron transport rate

Ds insertion in rice OsPS1-F gene results in semi-dwarf plants with reduced tiller number and grain yield, while genetic complementation with OsPS1-F rescued the mutant phenotype. Photosynthetic electron transport is regulated in the chloroplast thylakoid membrane by multi-protein complexes. Studies about photosynthetic machinery and its subunits in crop plants are necessary, because they could be crucial for yield enhancement in the long term. Here, we report the characterization of OsPS1-F (encoding Oryza sativa PHOTOSYSTEM 1-F subunit) using a single copy Ds insertion rice mutant line. The homozygous mutant (osps1-f) showed striking difference in growth and development compared to the wild type (WT), including, reduction in plant height, tiller number, grain yield as well as pale yellow leaf coloration. Chlorophyll concentration and electron transport rate were significantly reduced in the mutant compared to the WT. OsPS1-F gene was highly expressed in rice leaves compared to other tissues at different developmental stages tested. Upon complementation of the mutant with proUBI::OsPS1-F, the observed mutant phenotypes were rescued. Our results illustrate that OsPS1-F plays an important role in regulating proper growth and development of rice plants.

Chloroplast PetD protein: evidence for SRP/Alb3-dependent insertion into the thylakoid membrane

BACKGROUND

In thylakoid membrane, each monomer of the dimeric complex of cytochrome b 6 f is comprised of eight subunits that are both nucleus- and plastid-encoded. Proper cytochrome b 6 f complex integration into the thylakoid membrane requires numerous regulatory factors for coordinated transport, insertion and assembly of the subunits. Although, the chloroplast-encoded cytochrome b 6 f subunit IV (PetD) consists of three transmembrane helices, the signal and the mechanism of protein integration into the thylakoid membrane have not been identified.

RESULTS

Here, we demonstrate that the native PetD subunit cannot incorporate into the thylakoid membranes spontaneously, but that proper integration occurs through the post-translational signal recognition particle (SRP) pathway. Furthermore, we show that PetD insertion into thylakoid membrane involves the coordinated action of cpFTSY, cpSRP54 and ALB3 insertase.

CONCLUSIONS

PetD subunit integration into the thylakoid membrane is a post-translational and an SRP-dependent process that requires the formation of the cpSRP-cpFtsY-ALB3-PetD complex. This data provides a new insight into the molecular mechanisms by which membrane proteins integration into the thylakoid membrane is accomplished and is not limited to PetD.

Regulatory gateways for cell-specific gene expression in C4 leaves with Kranz anatomy

C₄ photosynthesis is a carbon-concentrating mechanism that increases delivery of carbon dioxide to RuBisCO and as a consequence reduces photorespiration. The C₄ pathway is therefore beneficial in environments that promote high photorespiration. This pathway has evolved many times, and involves restricting gene expression to either mesophyll or bundle sheath cells. Here we review the regulatory mechanisms that control cell-preferential expression of genes in the C₄ cycle. From this analysis, it is clear that the C₄ pathway has a complex regulatory framework, with control operating at epigenetic, transcriptional, post-transcriptional, translational, and post-translational levels. Some genes of the C₄ pathway are regulated at multiple levels, and we propose that this ensures robust expression in each cell type. Accumulating evidence suggests that multiple genes of the C₄ pathway may share the same regulatory mechanism. The control systems for C₄ photosynthesis gene expression appear to operate in C₃ plants, and so it appears that pre-existing mechanisms form the basis of C₄ photosynthesis gene expression.

ALB3 Insertase Mediates Cytochrome b6 Co-translational Import into the Thylakoid Membrane

The cytochrome b6 f complex occupies an electrochemically central position in the electron-transport chain bridging the photosynthetic reaction center of PS I and PS II. In plants, the subunits of these thylakoid membrane protein complexes are both chloroplast and nuclear encoded. How the chloroplast-encoded subunits of multi-spanning cytochrome b6 are targeted and inserted into the thylakoid membrane is not fully understood. Experimental approaches to evaluate the cytochrome b6 import mechanism in vivo have been limited to bacterial membranes and were not a part of the chloroplast environment. To evaluate the mechanism governing cytochrome b6 integration in vivo, we performed a comparative analysis of both native and synthetic cytochrome b6 insertion into purified thylakoids. Using biophysical and biochemical methods, we show that cytochrome b6 insertion into the thylakoid membrane is a non-spontaneous co-translational process that involves ALB3 insertase. Furthermore, we provided evidence that CSP41 (chloroplast stem-loop-binding protein of 41 kDa) interacts with RNC-cytochrome b6 complexes, and may be involved in cytochrome b6 (petB) transcript stabilization or processing.

A Nucleus-Encoded Chloroplast Protein YL1 Is Involved in Chloroplast Development and Efficient Biogenesis of Chloroplast ATP Synthase in Rice

Chloroplast ATP synthase (cpATPase) is an importance thylakoid membrane-associated photosynthetic complex involved in the light-dependent reactions of photosynthesis. In this study, we isolated and characterized a rice (Oryza sativa) mutant yellow leaf 1 (yl1), which exhibits chlorotic leaves throughout developmental stages. The YL1 mutation showed reduced chlorophyll contents, abnormal chloroplast morphology, and decreased photochemical efficiency. Moreover, YL1 deficiency disrupts the expression of genes associated with chloroplast development and photosynthesis. Molecular and genetic analyses revealed that YL1 is a nucleus-encoded protein with a predicted transmembrane domain in its carboxyl-terminus that is conserved in the higher plant kingdom. YL1 localizes to chloroplasts and is preferentially expressed in green tissues containing chloroplasts. Immunoblot analyses showed that inactivation of YL1 leads to drastically reduced accumulation of AtpA (α) and AtpB (β), two core subunits of CF₁αβ subcomplex of cpATPase, meanwhile, a severe decrease (ca. 41.7%) in cpATPase activity was observed in the yl1-1 mutant compared with the wild type. Furthermore, yeast two-hybrid and bimolecular fluorescence complementation assays revealed a specific interaction between YL1 and AtpB subunit of cpATPase. Taken together, our results suggest that YL1 is a plant lineage-specific auxiliary factor involved in the biogenesis of the cpATPase complex, possibly via interacting with the β-subunit.

A Novel Redoxin in the Thylakoid Membrane Regulates the Titer of Photosystem I

In photosynthetic organisms like cyanobacteria and plants, the main engines of oxygenic photosynthesis are the pigment-protein complexes photosystem I (PSI) and photosystem II (PSII) located in the thylakoid membrane. In the cyanobacterium Synechocystis sp. PCC 6803, the slr1796 gene encodes a single cysteine thioredoxin-like protein, orthologs of which are found in multiple cyanobacterial strains as well as chloroplasts of higher plants. Targeted inactivation of slr1796 in Synechocystis 6803 resulted in compromised photoautotrophic growth. The mutant displayed decreased chlorophyll a content. These changes correlated with a decrease in the PSI titer of the mutant cells, whereas the PSII content was unaffected. In the mutant, the transcript levels of genes for PSI structural and accessory proteins remained unaffected, whereas the levels of PSI structural proteins were severely diminished, indicating that Slr1796 acts at a posttranscriptional level. Biochemical analysis indicated that Slr1796 is an integral thylakoid membrane protein. We conclude that Slr1796 is a novel regulatory factor that modulates PSI titer.

Thylakoid-Bound FtsH Proteins Facilitate Proper Biosynthesis of Photosystem I

Thylakoid membrane-bound FtsH proteases have a well-characterized role in degradation of the photosystem II (PSII) reaction center protein D1 upon repair of photodamaged PSII. Here, we show that the Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana) var1 and var2 mutants, devoid of the FtsH5 and FtsH2 proteins, respectively, are capable of normal D1 protein turnover under moderate growth light intensity. Instead, they both demonstrate a significant scarcity of PSI complexes. It is further shown that the reduced level of PSI does not result from accelerated photodamage of the PSI centers in var1 or var2 under moderate growth light intensity. On the contrary, radiolabeling experiments revealed impaired synthesis of the PsaA/B reaction center proteins of PSI, which was accompanied by the accumulation of PSI-specific assembly factors. psaA/B transcript accumulation and translation initiation, however, occurred in var1 and var2 mutants as in wild-type Arabidopsis, suggesting problems in later stages of PsaA/B protein expression in the two var mutants. Presumably, the thylakoid membrane-bound FtsH5 and FtsH2 have dual functions in the maintenance of photosynthetic complexes. In addition to their function as a protease in the degradation of the photodamaged D1 protein, they also are required, either directly or indirectly, for early assembly of the PSI complexes.

The Evolutionarily Conserved Protein PHOTOSYNTHESIS AFFECTED MUTANT71 Is Required for Efficient Manganese Uptake at the Thylakoid Membrane in Arabidopsis

In plants, algae, and cyanobacteria, photosystem II (PSII) catalyzes the light-driven oxidation of water. The oxygen-evolving complex of PSII is a Mn4CaO5 cluster embedded in a well-defined protein environment in the thylakoid membrane. However, transport of manganese and calcium into the thylakoid lumen remains poorly understood. Here, we show that Arabidopsis thaliana PHOTOSYNTHESIS AFFECTED MUTANT71 (PAM71) is an integral thylakoid membrane protein involved in Mn(2+) and Ca(2+) homeostasis in chloroplasts. This protein is required for normal operation of the oxygen-evolving complex (as evidenced by oxygen evolution rates) and for manganese incorporation. Manganese binding to PSII was severely reduced in pam71 thylakoids, particularly in PSII supercomplexes. In cation partitioning assays with intact chloroplasts, Mn(2+) and Ca(2+) ions were differently sequestered in pam71, with Ca(2+) enriched in pam71 thylakoids relative to the wild type. The changes in Ca(2+) homeostasis were accompanied by an increased contribution of the transmembrane electrical potential to the proton motive force across the thylakoid membrane. PSII activity in pam71 plants and the corresponding Chlamydomonas reinhardtii mutant cgld1 was restored by supplementation with Mn(2+), but not Ca(2+) Furthermore, PAM71 suppressed the Mn(2+)-sensitive phenotype of the yeast mutant Δpmr1 Therefore, PAM71 presumably functions in Mn(2+) uptake into thylakoids to ensure optimal PSII performance.

A land plant-specific thylakoid membrane protein contributes to photosystem II maintenance in Arabidopsis thaliana

The structure and function of photosystem II (PSII) are highly susceptible to photo-oxidative damage induced by high-fluence or fluctuating light. However, many of the mechanistic details of how PSII homeostasis is maintained under photoinhibitory light remain to be determined. We describe an analysis of the Arabidopsis thaliana gene At5g07020, which encodes an unannotated integral thylakoid membrane protein. Loss of the protein causes altered PSII function under high-irradiance light, and hence it is named 'Maintenance of PSII under High light 1' (MPH1). The MPH1 protein co-purifies with PSII core complexes and co-immunoprecipitates core proteins. Consistent with a role in PSII structure, PSII complexes (supercomplexes, dimers and monomers) of the mph1 mutant are less stable in plants subjected to photoinhibitory light. Accumulation of PSII core proteins is compromised under these conditions in the presence of translational inhibitors. This is consistent with the hypothesis that the mutant has enhanced PSII protein damage rather than defective repair. These data are consistent with the distribution of the MPH1 protein in grana and stroma thylakoids, and its interaction with PSII core complexes. Taken together, these results strongly suggest a role for MPH1 in the protection and/or stabilization of PSII under high-light stress in land plants.

Large-scale genetic analysis of chloroplast biogenesis in maize

BACKGROUND

Chloroplast biogenesis involves a collaboration between several thousand nuclear genes and ~100 genes in the chloroplast. Many of the nuclear genes are of cyanobacterial ancestry and continue to perform their ancestral function. However, many others evolved subsequently and comprise a diverse set of proteins found specifically in photosynthetic eucaryotes. Genetic approaches have been key to the discovery of nuclear genes that participate in chloroplast biogenesis, especially those lacking close homologs outside the plant kingdom.

SCOPE OF REVIEW

This article summarizes contributions from a genetic resource in maize, the Photosynthetic Mutant Library (PML). The PML collection consists of ~2000 non-photosynthetic mutants induced by Mu transposons. We include a summary of mutant phenotypes for 20 previously unstudied maize genes, including genes encoding chloroplast ribosomal proteins, a PPR protein, tRNA synthetases, proteins involved in plastid transcription, a putative ribosome assembly factor, a chaperonin 60 isoform, and a NifU-domain protein required for Photosystem I biogenesis.

MAJOR CONCLUSIONS

Insertions in 94 maize genes have been linked thus far to visible and molecular phenotypes with the PML collection. The spectrum of chloroplast biogenesis genes that have been genetically characterized in maize is discussed in the context of related efforts in other organisms. This comparison shows how distinct organismal attributes facilitate the discovery of different gene classes, and reveals examples of functional divergence between monocot and dicot plants.

GENERAL SIGNIFICANCE

These findings elucidate the biology of an organelle whose activities are fundamental to agriculture and the biosphere. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled: Chloroplast Biogenesis.

Biogenesis of thylakoid membranes

Thylakoids mediate photosynthetic electron transfer and represent one of the most elaborate energy-transducing membrane systems. Despite our detailed knowledge of its structure and function, much remains to be learned about how the machinery is put together. The concerted synthesis and assembly of lipids, proteins and low-molecular-weight cofactors like pigments and transition metal ions require a high level of spatiotemporal coordination. While increasing numbers of assembly factors are being functionally characterized, the principles that govern how thylakoid membrane maturation is organized in space are just starting to emerge. In both cyanobacteria and chloroplasts, distinct production lines for the fabrication of photosynthetic complexes, in particular photosystem II, have been identified. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled: Chloroplast Biogenesis.

Molecular mechanism of photosystem I assembly in oxygenic organisms

Photosystem I, an integral membrane and multi-subunit complex, catalyzes the oxidation of plastocyanin and the reduction of ferredoxin by absorbed light energy. Photosystem I participates in photosynthetic acclimation processes by being involved in cyclic electron transfer and state transitions for sustaining efficient photosynthesis. The photosystem I complex is highly conserved from cyanobacteria to higher plants and contains the light-harvesting complex and the reaction center complex. The assembly of the photosystem I complex is highly complicated and involves the concerted assembly of multiple subunits and hundreds of cofactors. A suite of regulatory factors for the assembly of photosystem I subunits and cofactors have been identified that constitute an integrative network regulating PSI accumulation. This review aims to discuss recent findings in the field relating to how the photosystem I complex is assembled in oxygenic organisms. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled: Chloroplast Biogenesis.

MET1 is a thylakoid-associated TPR protein involved in photosystem II supercomplex formation and repair in Arabidopsis

Photosystem II (PSII) requires constant disassembly and reassembly to accommodate replacement of the D1 protein. Here, we characterize Arabidopsis thaliana MET1, a PSII assembly factor with PDZ and TPR domains. The maize (Zea mays) MET1 homolog is enriched in mesophyll chloroplasts compared with bundle sheath chloroplasts, and MET1 mRNA and protein levels increase during leaf development concomitant with the thylakoid machinery. MET1 is conserved in C3 and C4 plants and green algae but is not found in prokaryotes. Arabidopsis MET1 is a peripheral thylakoid protein enriched in stroma lamellae and is also present in grana. Split-ubiquitin assays and coimmunoprecipitations showed interaction of MET1 with stromal loops of PSII core components CP43 and CP47. From native gels, we inferred that MET1 associates with PSII subcomplexes formed during the PSII repair cycle. When grown under fluctuating light intensities, the Arabidopsis MET1 null mutant (met1) showed conditional reduced growth, near complete blockage in PSII supercomplex formation, and concomitant increase of unassembled CP43. Growth of met1 in high light resulted in loss of PSII supercomplexes and accelerated D1 degradation. We propose that MET1 functions as a CP43/CP47 chaperone on the stromal side of the membrane during PSII assembly and repair. This function is consistent with the observed differential MET1 accumulation across dimorphic maize chloroplasts.

A thylakoid membrane protein harboring a DnaJ-type zinc finger domain is required for photosystem I accumulation in plants

Photosystem I (PSI) is a large pigment-protein complex and one of the two photosystems that drive electron transfer in oxygenic photosynthesis. We identified a nuclear gene required specifically for the accumulation of PSI in a forward genetic analysis of chloroplast biogenesis in maize. This gene, designated psa2, belongs to the "GreenCut" gene set, a group of genes found in green algae and plants but not in non-photosynthetic organisms. Disruption of the psa2 ortholog in Arabidopsis likewise resulted in the specific loss of PSI proteins. PSA2 harbors a conserved domain found in DnaJ chaperones where it has been shown to form a zinc finger and to have protein-disulfide isomerase activity. Accordingly, PSA2 exhibited protein-disulfide reductase activity in vitro. PSA2 localized to the thylakoid lumen and was found in a ∼250-kDa complex harboring the peripheral PSI protein PsaG but lacking several core PSI subunits. PSA2 mRNA is coexpressed with mRNAs encoding various proteins involved in the biogenesis of the photosynthetic apparatus with peak expression preceding that of genes encoding structural components. PSA2 protein abundance was not decreased in the absence of PSI but was reduced in the absence of the PSI assembly factor Ycf3. These findings suggest that a complex harboring PSA2 and PsaG mediates thiol transactions in the thylakoid lumen that are important for the assembly of PSI.

Structure and function of the hydrophilic Photosystem II assembly proteins: Psb27, Psb28 and Ycf48

Photosystem II (PS II) is a macromolecular complex responsible for light-driven oxidation of water and reduction of plastoquinone as part of the photosynthetic electron transport chain found in thylakoid membranes. Each PS II complex is composed of at least 20 protein subunits and over 80 cofactors. The biogenesis of PS II requires further hydrophilic and membrane-spanning proteins which are not part of the active holoenzyme. Many of these biogenesis proteins make transient interactions with specific PS II assembly intermediates: sometimes these are essential for biogenesis while in other examples they are required for optimizing assembly of the mature complex. In this review the function and structure of the Psb27, Psb28 and Ycf48 hydrophilic assembly factors is discussed by combining structural, biochemical and physiological information. Each of these assembly factors has homologues in all oxygenic photosynthetic organisms. We provide a simple overview for the roles of these protein factors in cyanobacterial PS II assembly emphasizing their participation in both photosystem biogenesis and recovery from photodamage.

Chloroplast evolution, structure and functions

In this review, we consider a selection of recent advances in chloroplast biology. These include new findings concerning chloroplast evolution, such as the identification of Chlamydiae as a third partner in primary endosymbiosis, a second instance of primary endosymbiosis represented by the chromatophores found in amoebae of the genus Paulinella, and a new explanation for the longevity of captured chloroplasts (kleptoplasts) in sacoglossan sea slugs. The controversy surrounding the three-dimensional structure of grana, its recent resolution by tomographic analyses, and the role of the CURVATURE THYLAKOID1 (CURT1) proteins in supporting grana formation are also discussed. We also present an updated inventory of photosynthetic proteins and the factors involved in the assembly of thylakoid multiprotein complexes, and evaluate findings that reveal that cyclic electron flow involves NADPH dehydrogenase (NDH)- and PGRL1/PGR5-dependent pathways, both of which receive electrons from ferredoxin. Other topics covered in this review include new protein components of nucleoids, an updated inventory of the chloroplast proteome, new enzymes in chlorophyll biosynthesis and new candidate messengers in retrograde signaling. Finally, we discuss the first successful synthetic biology approaches that resulted in chloroplasts in which electrons from the photosynthetic light reactions are fed to enzymes derived from secondary metabolism.

The Arabidopsis Tellurite resistance C protein together with ALB3 is involved in photosystem II protein synthesis

Assembly of photosystem II (PSII) occurs sequentially and requires several auxiliary proteins, such as ALB3 (ALBINO3). Here, we describe the role of the Arabidopsis thaliana thylakoid membrane protein Tellurite resistance C (AtTerC) in this process. Knockout of AtTerC was previously shown to be seedling-lethal. This phenotype was rescued by expressing TerC fused C-terminally to GFP in the terc-1 background, and the resulting terc-1TerC- GFP line and an artificial miRNA-based knockdown allele (amiR-TerC) were used to analyze the TerC function. The alterations in chlorophyll fluorescence and thylakoid ultrastructure observed in amiR-TerC plants and terc-1TerC- GFP were attributed to defects in PSII. We show that this phenotype resulted from a reduction in the rate of de novo synthesis of PSII core proteins, but later steps in PSII biogenesis appeared to be less affected. Yeast two-hybrid assays showed that TerC interacts with PSII proteins. In particular, its interaction with the PSII assembly factor ALB3 has been demonstrated by co-immunoprecipitation. ALB3 is thought to assist in incorporation of CP43 into PSII via interaction with Low PSII Accumulation2 (LPA2) Low PSII Accumulation3 (LPA3). Homozygous lpa2 mutants expressing amiR-TerC displayed markedly exacerbated phenotypes, leading to seedling lethality, indicating an additive effect. We propose a model in which TerC, together with ALB3, facilitates de novo synthesis of thylakoid membrane proteins, for instance CP43, at the membrane insertion step.

PsbN is required for assembly of the photosystem II reaction center in Nicotiana tabacum

The chloroplast-encoded low molecular weight protein PsbN is annotated as a photosystem II (PSII) subunit. To elucidate the localization and function of PsbN, encoded on the opposite strand to the psbB gene cluster, we raised antibodies and inserted a resistance cassette into PsbN in both directions. Both homoplastomic tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum) mutants psbN-F and psbN-R show essentially the same PSII deficiencies. The mutants are extremely light sensitive and failed to recover from photoinhibition. Although synthesis of PSII proteins was not altered significantly, both mutants accumulated only ∼25% of PSII proteins compared with the wild type. Assembly of PSII precomplexes occurred at normal rates, but heterodimeric PSII reaction centers (RCs) and higher order PSII assemblies were not formed efficiently in the mutants. The psbN-R mutant was complemented by allotopic expression of the PsbN gene fused to the sequence of a chloroplast transit peptide in the nuclear genome. PsbN represents a bitopic trans-membrane peptide localized in stroma lamellae with its highly conserved C terminus exposed to the stroma. Significant amounts of PsbN were already present in dark-grown seedling. Our data prove that PsbN is not a constituent subunit of PSII but is required for repair from photoinhibition and efficient assembly of the PSII RC.

HYPERSENSITIVE TO HIGH LIGHT1 interacts with LOW QUANTUM YIELD OF PHOTOSYSTEM II1 and functions in protection of photosystem II from photodamage in Arabidopsis

Under high-irradiance conditions, plants must efficiently protect photosystem II (PSII) from damage. In this study, we demonstrate that the chloroplast protein HYPERSENSITIVE TO HIGH LIGHT1 (HHL1) is expressed in response to high light and functions in protecting PSII against photodamage. Arabidopsis thaliana hhl1 mutants show hypersensitivity to high light, drastically decreased PSII photosynthetic activity, higher nonphotochemical quenching activity, a faster xanthophyll cycle, and increased accumulation of reactive oxygen species following high-light exposure. Moreover, HHL1 deficiency accelerated the degradation of PSII core subunits under high light, decreasing the accumulation of PSII core subunits and PSII-light-harvesting complex II supercomplex. HHL1 primarily localizes in the stroma-exposed thylakoid membranes and associates with the PSII core monomer complex through direct interaction with PSII core proteins CP43 and CP47. Interestingly, HHL1 also directly interacts, in vivo and in vitro, with LOW QUANTUM YIELD OF PHOTOSYSTEM II1 (LQY1), which functions in the repair and reassembly of PSII. Furthermore, the hhl1 lqy1 double mutants show increased photosensitivity compared with single mutants. Taken together, these results suggest that HHL1 forms a complex with LQY1 and participates in photodamage repair of PSII under high light.

Discovery of a chlorophyll binding protein complex involved in the early steps of photosystem II assembly in Synechocystis

Efficient assembly and repair of the oxygen-evolving photosystem II (PSII) complex is vital for maintaining photosynthetic activity in plants, algae, and cyanobacteria. How chlorophyll is delivered to PSII during assembly and how vulnerable assembly complexes are protected from photodamage are unknown. Here, we identify a chlorophyll and β-carotene binding protein complex in the cyanobacterium Synechocystis PCC 6803 important for formation of the D1/D2 reaction center assembly complex. It is composed of putative short-chain dehydrogenase/reductase Ycf39, encoded by the slr0399 gene, and two members of the high-light-inducible protein (Hlip) family, HliC and HliD, which are small membrane proteins related to the light-harvesting chlorophyll binding complexes found in plants. Perturbed chlorophyll recycling in a Ycf39-null mutant and copurification of chlorophyll synthase and unassembled D1 with the Ycf39-Hlip complex indicate a role in the delivery of chlorophyll to newly synthesized D1. Sequence similarities suggest the presence of a related complex in chloroplasts.

Dark-adapted spinach thylakoid protein heterogeneity offers insights into the photosystem II repair cycle

In higher plants, thylakoid membrane protein complexes show lateral heterogeneity in their distribution: photosystem (PS) II complexes are mostly located in grana stacks, whereas PSI and adenosine triphosphate (ATP) synthase are mostly found in the stroma-exposed thylakoids. However, recent research has revealed strong dynamics in distribution of photosystems and their light harvesting antenna along the thylakoid membrane. Here, the dark-adapted spinach (Spinacia oleracea L.) thylakoid network was mechanically fragmented and the composition of distinct PSII-related proteins in various thylakoid subdomains was analyzed in order to get more insights into the composition and localization of various PSII subcomplexes and auxiliary proteins during the PSII repair cycle. Most of the PSII subunits followed rather equal distribution with roughly 70% of the proteins located collectively in the grana thylakoids and grana margins; however, the low molecular mass subunits PsbW and PsbX as well as the PsbS proteins were found to be more exclusively located in grana thylakoids. The auxiliary proteins assisting in repair cycle of PSII were mostly located in stroma-exposed thylakoids, with the exception of THYLAKOID LUMEN PROTEIN OF 18.3 (TLP18.3), which was more evenly distributed between the grana and stroma thylakoids. The TL29 protein was present exclusively in grana thylakoids. Intriguingly, PROTON GRADIENT REGULATION5 (PGR5) was found to be distributed quite evenly between grana and stroma thylakoids, whereas PGR5-LIKE PHOTOSYNTHETIC PHENOTYPE1 (PGRL1) was highly enriched in the stroma thylakoids and practically missing from the grana cores. This article is part of a special issue entitled: photosynthesis research for sustainability: keys to produce clean energy.

Crystal structure of the Psb28 accessory factor of Thermosynechococcus elongatus photosystem II at 2.3 Å

Members of the Psb28 family of proteins are accessory factors implicated in the assembly and repair of the photosystem II complex. We present here the crystal structure of the Psb28 protein (Tlr0493) found in the thermophilic cyanobacterium Thermosynechococcus elongatus at a resolution of 2.3 Å. Overall the crystal structure of the Psb28 monomer is similar to the solution structures of C-terminally His-tagged Psb28-1 from Synechocystis sp. PCC 6803 obtained previously by nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy. One new aspect is that Escherichia coli-expressed T. elongatus Psb28 is able to form dimers in solution and packs as a dimer of dimers in the crystal. Analysis of wild type and mutant strains of Synechocystis 6803 by blue native-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis suggests that Psb28-1, the closest homologue to T. elongatus Psb28 in this organism, also exists as an oligomer in vivo, most likely a dimer. In line with the prediction based on the crystal structure of T. elongatus Psb28, the addition of a 3× Flag-tag to the C-terminus of Synechocystis 6803 Psb28-1 interferes with the accumulation of the Psb28-1 oligomer in vivo. In contrast, the more distantly related Psb28-2 protein found in Synechocystis 6803 lacks the residues that stabilize dimer formation in the T. elongatus Psb28 crystal and is detected as a monomer in vivo. Overall our data suggest that the dimer interface in the Psb28 crystal might be physiologically relevant.

Photosynthetic gene expression in higher plants

Within the chloroplasts of higher plants and algae, photosynthesis converts light into biological energy, fueling the assimilation of atmospheric carbon dioxide into biologically useful molecules. Two major steps, photosynthetic electron transport and the Calvin-Benson cycle, require many gene products encoded from chloroplast as well as nuclear genomes. The expression of genes in both cellular compartments is highly dynamic and influenced by a diverse range of factors. Light is the primary environmental determinant of photosynthetic gene expression. Working through photoreceptors such as phytochrome, light regulates photosynthetic genes at transcriptional and posttranscriptional levels. Other processes that affect photosynthetic gene expression include photosynthetic activity, development, and biotic and abiotic stress. Anterograde (from nucleus to chloroplast) and retrograde (from chloroplast to nucleus) signaling insures the highly coordinated expression of the many photosynthetic genes between these different compartments. Anterograde signaling incorporates nuclear-encoded transcriptional and posttranscriptional regulators, such as sigma factors and RNA-binding proteins, respectively. Retrograde signaling utilizes photosynthetic processes such as photosynthetic electron transport and redox signaling to influence the expression of photosynthetic genes in the nucleus. The basic C3 photosynthetic pathway serves as the default form used by most of the plant species on earth. High temperature and water stress associated with arid environments have led to the development of specialized C4 and CAM photosynthesis, which evolved as modifications of the basic default expression program. The goal of this article is to explain and summarize the many gene expression and regulatory processes that work together to support photosynthetic function in plants.

Structural, functional and auxiliary proteins of photosystem II

Photosystem II (PSII) is the water-splitting enzyme complex of photosynthesis and consists of a large number of protein subunits. Most of these proteins have been structurally and functionally characterized, although there are differences between PSII of plants, algae and cyanobacteria. Here we catalogue all known PSII proteins giving a brief description, where possible of their genetic origin, physical properties, structural relationships and functions. We have also included details of auxiliary proteins known at present to be involved in the in vivo assembly, maintenance and turnover of PSII and which transiently bind to the reaction centre core complex. Finally, we briefly give details of the proteins which form the outer light-harvesting systems of PSII in different types of organisms.