1
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Guimond S, Mycroft-West CJ, Gandhi NS, Tree JA, Le TT, Spalluto CM, Humbert MV, Buttigieg KR, Coombes N, Elmore MJ, Wand M, Nyström K, Said J, Setoh YX, Amarilla AA, Modhiran N, Sng JDJ, Chhabra M, Young PR, Rawle DJ, Lima MA, Yates EA, Karlsson R, Miller RL, Chen YH, Bagdonaite I, Yang Z, Stewart J, Nguyen D, Laidlaw S, Hammond E, Dredge K, Wilkinson TMA, Watterson D, Khromykh AA, Suhrbier A, Carroll MW, Trybala E, Bergström T, Ferro V, Skidmore MA, Turnbull JE. Synthetic Heparan Sulfate Mimetic Pixatimod (PG545) Potently Inhibits SARS-CoV-2 by Disrupting the Spike-ACE2 Interaction. ACS CENTRAL SCIENCE 2022; 8:527-545. [PMID: 35647275 PMCID: PMC9136977 DOI: 10.1021/acscentsci.1c01293] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 25.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/21/2021] [Indexed: 05/03/2023]
Abstract
Heparan sulfate (HS) is a cell surface polysaccharide recently identified as a coreceptor with the ACE2 protein for the S1 spike protein on SARS-CoV-2 virus, providing a tractable new therapeutic target. Clinically used heparins demonstrate an inhibitory activity but have an anticoagulant activity and are supply-limited, necessitating alternative solutions. Here, we show that synthetic HS mimetic pixatimod (PG545), a cancer drug candidate, binds and destabilizes the SARS-CoV-2 spike protein receptor binding domain and directly inhibits its binding to ACE2, consistent with molecular modeling identification of multiple molecular contacts and overlapping pixatimod and ACE2 binding sites. Assays with multiple clinical isolates of SARS-CoV-2 virus show that pixatimod potently inhibits the infection of monkey Vero E6 cells and physiologically relevant human bronchial epithelial cells at safe therapeutic concentrations. Pixatimod also retained broad potency against variants of concern (VOC) including B.1.1.7 (Alpha), B.1.351 (Beta), B.1.617.2 (Delta), and B.1.1.529 (Omicron). Furthermore, in a K18-hACE2 mouse model, pixatimod significantly reduced SARS-CoV-2 viral titers in the upper respiratory tract and virus-induced weight loss. This demonstration of potent anti-SARS-CoV-2 activity tolerant to emerging mutations establishes proof-of-concept for targeting the HS-Spike protein-ACE2 axis with synthetic HS mimetics and provides a strong rationale for clinical investigation of pixatimod as a potential multimodal therapeutic for COVID-19.
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Affiliation(s)
- Scott
E. Guimond
- Centre
for Glycoscience, School of Life Sciences, Keele University, Newcastle-Under-Lyme, Staffordshire ST5 5BG, United Kingdom
| | - Courtney J. Mycroft-West
- Centre
for Glycoscience, School of Life Sciences, Keele University, Newcastle-Under-Lyme, Staffordshire ST5 5BG, United Kingdom
| | - Neha S. Gandhi
- School
of Chemistry and Physics, Centre for Genomics and Personalized Health, Queensland University of Technology, 2 George Street, Brisbane, Queensland 4000, Australia
| | - Julia A. Tree
- National
Infection Service, UK Health Security Agency, Porton Down, Salisbury, Wiltshire SP4
0JG, United Kingdom
| | - Thuy T. Le
- QIMR
Berghofer Medical Research Institute, Brisbane, Queensland 4029, Australia
| | - C. Mirella Spalluto
- School
of Clinical and Experimental Sciences, University
of Southampton Faculty of Medicine, Southampton SO17 1BJ, United Kingdom
| | - Maria V. Humbert
- School
of Clinical and Experimental Sciences, University
of Southampton Faculty of Medicine, Southampton SO17 1BJ, United Kingdom
| | - Karen R. Buttigieg
- National
Infection Service, UK Health Security Agency, Porton Down, Salisbury, Wiltshire SP4
0JG, United Kingdom
| | - Naomi Coombes
- National
Infection Service, UK Health Security Agency, Porton Down, Salisbury, Wiltshire SP4
0JG, United Kingdom
| | - Michael J. Elmore
- National
Infection Service, UK Health Security Agency, Porton Down, Salisbury, Wiltshire SP4
0JG, United Kingdom
| | - Matthew Wand
- National
Infection Service, UK Health Security Agency, Porton Down, Salisbury, Wiltshire SP4
0JG, United Kingdom
| | - Kristina Nyström
- Department
of Infectious Diseases, Institute of Biomedicine, University of Gothenburg, Guldhedsgatan 10B, S-413 46 Goteborg, Sweden
| | - Joanna Said
- Department
of Infectious Diseases, Institute of Biomedicine, University of Gothenburg, Guldhedsgatan 10B, S-413 46 Goteborg, Sweden
| | - Yin Xiang Setoh
- School
of Chemistry and Molecular Biosciences, University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland 4072, Australia
- Australian
Infectious Diseases Research Centre, GVN
Center of Excellence, Brisbane, Queensland 4072/4079, Australia
| | - Alberto A. Amarilla
- School
of Chemistry and Molecular Biosciences, University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland 4072, Australia
- Australian
Infectious Diseases Research Centre, GVN
Center of Excellence, Brisbane, Queensland 4072/4079, Australia
| | - Naphak Modhiran
- School
of Chemistry and Molecular Biosciences, University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland 4072, Australia
- Australian
Infectious Diseases Research Centre, GVN
Center of Excellence, Brisbane, Queensland 4072/4079, Australia
| | - Julian D. J. Sng
- School
of Chemistry and Molecular Biosciences, University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland 4072, Australia
- Australian
Infectious Diseases Research Centre, GVN
Center of Excellence, Brisbane, Queensland 4072/4079, Australia
| | - Mohit Chhabra
- School
of Chemistry and Molecular Biosciences, University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland 4072, Australia
- Australian
Infectious Diseases Research Centre, GVN
Center of Excellence, Brisbane, Queensland 4072/4079, Australia
| | - Paul R. Young
- School
of Chemistry and Molecular Biosciences, University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland 4072, Australia
- Australian
Infectious Diseases Research Centre, GVN
Center of Excellence, Brisbane, Queensland 4072/4079, Australia
| | - Daniel J. Rawle
- QIMR
Berghofer Medical Research Institute, Brisbane, Queensland 4029, Australia
| | - Marcelo A. Lima
- Centre
for Glycoscience, School of Life Sciences, Keele University, Newcastle-Under-Lyme, Staffordshire ST5 5BG, United Kingdom
| | - Edwin A. Yates
- Department
of Biochemistry and Systems Biology, Institute of Systems, Molecular
and Integrative Biology, University of Liverpool, Liverpool L69 7ZB, United Kingdom
| | - Richard Karlsson
- Copenhagen
Center for Glycomics, Department of Cellular & Molecular Medicine, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen N 2200, Denmark
| | - Rebecca L. Miller
- Copenhagen
Center for Glycomics, Department of Cellular & Molecular Medicine, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen N 2200, Denmark
| | - Yen-Hsi Chen
- Copenhagen
Center for Glycomics, Department of Cellular & Molecular Medicine, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen N 2200, Denmark
| | - Ieva Bagdonaite
- Copenhagen
Center for Glycomics, Department of Cellular & Molecular Medicine, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen N 2200, Denmark
| | - Zhang Yang
- Copenhagen
Center for Glycomics, Department of Cellular & Molecular Medicine, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen N 2200, Denmark
| | - James Stewart
- Department
of Infection Biology & Microbiomes, University of Liverpool, Liverpool L69 7ZB, United Kingdom
| | - Dung Nguyen
- Wellcome
Centre for Human Genetics, Nuffield Department of Medicine, Oxford University, Roosevelt Drive, Headington, Oxford OX3 7BN, United
Kingdom
| | - Stephen Laidlaw
- Wellcome
Centre for Human Genetics, Nuffield Department of Medicine, Oxford University, Roosevelt Drive, Headington, Oxford OX3 7BN, United
Kingdom
| | - Edward Hammond
- Zucero Therapeutics Ltd, 1 Westlink Court, Brisbane, Queensland 4076, Australia
| | - Keith Dredge
- Zucero Therapeutics Ltd, 1 Westlink Court, Brisbane, Queensland 4076, Australia
| | - Tom M. A. Wilkinson
- School
of Clinical and Experimental Sciences, University
of Southampton Faculty of Medicine, Southampton SO17 1BJ, United Kingdom
- NIHR
Southampton Biomedical Research Centre, University Hospital Southampton, Southampton SO16 6YD, United Kingdom
| | - Daniel Watterson
- School
of Chemistry and Molecular Biosciences, University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland 4072, Australia
- Australian
Infectious Diseases Research Centre, GVN
Center of Excellence, Brisbane, Queensland 4072/4079, Australia
| | - Alexander A. Khromykh
- School
of Chemistry and Molecular Biosciences, University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland 4072, Australia
- Australian
Infectious Diseases Research Centre, GVN
Center of Excellence, Brisbane, Queensland 4072/4079, Australia
| | - Andreas Suhrbier
- QIMR
Berghofer Medical Research Institute, Brisbane, Queensland 4029, Australia
| | - Miles W. Carroll
- National
Infection Service, UK Health Security Agency, Porton Down, Salisbury, Wiltshire SP4
0JG, United Kingdom
- Wellcome
Centre for Human Genetics, Nuffield Department of Medicine, Oxford University, Roosevelt Drive, Headington, Oxford OX3 7BN, United
Kingdom
| | - Edward Trybala
- Department
of Infectious Diseases, Institute of Biomedicine, University of Gothenburg, Guldhedsgatan 10B, S-413 46 Goteborg, Sweden
| | - Tomas Bergström
- Department
of Infectious Diseases, Institute of Biomedicine, University of Gothenburg, Guldhedsgatan 10B, S-413 46 Goteborg, Sweden
| | - Vito Ferro
- School
of Chemistry and Molecular Biosciences, University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland 4072, Australia
- Australian
Infectious Diseases Research Centre, GVN
Center of Excellence, Brisbane, Queensland 4072/4079, Australia
| | - Mark A. Skidmore
- Centre
for Glycoscience, School of Life Sciences, Keele University, Newcastle-Under-Lyme, Staffordshire ST5 5BG, United Kingdom
| | - Jeremy E. Turnbull
- Centre
for Glycoscience, School of Life Sciences, Keele University, Newcastle-Under-Lyme, Staffordshire ST5 5BG, United Kingdom
- Department
of Biochemistry and Systems Biology, Institute of Systems, Molecular
and Integrative Biology, University of Liverpool, Liverpool L69 7ZB, United Kingdom
- Copenhagen
Center for Glycomics, Department of Cellular & Molecular Medicine, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen N 2200, Denmark
- ;
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2
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du Preez HN, Aldous C, Hayden MR, Kruger HG, Lin J. Pathogenesis of COVID-19 described through the lens of an undersulfated and degraded epithelial and endothelial glycocalyx. FASEB J 2021; 36:e22052. [PMID: 34862979 DOI: 10.1096/fj.202101100rr] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/08/2021] [Revised: 11/04/2021] [Accepted: 11/08/2021] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
The glycocalyx surrounds every eukaryotic cell and is a complex mesh of proteins and carbohydrates. It consists of proteoglycans with glycosaminoglycan side chains, which are highly sulfated under normal physiological conditions. The degree of sulfation and the position of the sulfate groups mainly determine biological function. The intact highly sulfated glycocalyx of the epithelium may repel severe acute respiratory syndrome-related coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) through electrostatic forces. However, if the glycocalyx is undersulfated and 3-O-sulfotransferase 3B (3OST-3B) is overexpressed, as is the case during chronic inflammatory conditions, SARS-CoV-2 entry may be facilitated by the glycocalyx. The degree of sulfation and position of the sulfate groups will also affect functions such as immune modulation, the inflammatory response, vascular permeability and tone, coagulation, mediation of sheer stress, and protection against oxidative stress. The rate-limiting factor to sulfation is the availability of inorganic sulfate. Various genetic and epigenetic factors will affect sulfur metabolism and inorganic sulfate availability, such as various dietary factors, and exposure to drugs, environmental toxins, and biotoxins, which will deplete inorganic sulfate. The role that undersulfation plays in the various comorbid conditions that predispose to coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), is also considered. The undersulfated glycocalyx may not only increase susceptibility to SARS-CoV-2 infection, but would also result in a hyperinflammatory response, vascular permeability, and shedding of the glycocalyx components, giving rise to a procoagulant and antifibrinolytic state and eventual multiple organ failure. These symptoms relate to a diagnosis of systemic septic shock seen in almost all COVID-19 deaths. The focus of prevention and treatment protocols proposed is the preservation of epithelial and endothelial glycocalyx integrity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Heidi N du Preez
- Catalysis and Peptide Research Unit, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, South Africa
| | - Colleen Aldous
- College of Health Sciences, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, South Africa
| | - Melvin R Hayden
- Division of Endocrinology Diabetes and Metabolism, Department of Internal Medicine, University of Missouri-Columbia School of Medicine, Columbia, Missouri, USA.,Diabetes and Cardiovascular Disease Center, University of Missouri-Columbia School of Medicine, Columbia, Missouri, USA
| | - Hendrik G Kruger
- Catalysis and Peptide Research Unit, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, South Africa
| | - Johnson Lin
- School of Life Sciences, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, South Africa
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3
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Müller WEG, Schröder HC, Neufurth M, Wang X. An unexpected biomaterial against SARS-CoV-2: Bio-polyphosphate blocks binding of the viral spike to the cell receptor. MATERIALS TODAY (KIDLINGTON, ENGLAND) 2021; 51:504-524. [PMID: 34366696 PMCID: PMC8326012 DOI: 10.1016/j.mattod.2021.07.029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/16/2021] [Revised: 06/22/2021] [Accepted: 07/26/2021] [Indexed: 05/15/2023]
Abstract
No other virus after the outbreak of the influenza pandemic of 1918 affected the world's population as hard as the coronavirus SARS-CoV-2. The identification of effective agents/materials to prevent or treat COVID-19 caused by SARS-CoV-2 is an urgent global need. This review aims to survey novel strategies based on inorganic polyphosphate (polyP), a biologically formed but also synthetically available polyanionic polymeric material, which has the potential of being a potent inhibitor of the SARS-CoV-2 virus-cell-docking machinery. This virus attaches to the host cell surface receptor ACE2 with its receptor binding domain (RBD), which is present at the tips of the viral envelope spike proteins. On the surface of the RBD an unusually conserved cationic groove is exposed, which is composed of basic amino acids (Arg, Lys, and His). This pattern of cationic amino acids, the cationic groove, matches spatially with the anionic polymeric material, with polyP, allowing an electrostatic interaction. In consequence, the interaction between the RBD and ACE2 is potently blocked. PolyP is a physiological inorganic polymer, synthesized by cells and especially enriched in the blood platelets, which releases metabolically useful energy through enzymatic degradation and coupled ADP/ATP formation. In addition, this material upregulates the steady-state-expression of the mucin genes in the epithelial cells. We propose that polyP, with its two antiviral properties (blocking the binding of the virus to the cells and reinforcing the defense barrier against infiltration of the virus) has the potential to be a novel protective/therapeutic anti-COVID-19 agent.
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Affiliation(s)
- Werner E G Müller
- ERC Advanced Investigator Grant Research Group at the Institute for Physiological Chemistry, University Medical Center of the Johannes Gutenberg University, Duesbergweg 6, 55128 Mainz, Germany
| | - Heinz C Schröder
- ERC Advanced Investigator Grant Research Group at the Institute for Physiological Chemistry, University Medical Center of the Johannes Gutenberg University, Duesbergweg 6, 55128 Mainz, Germany
| | - Meik Neufurth
- ERC Advanced Investigator Grant Research Group at the Institute for Physiological Chemistry, University Medical Center of the Johannes Gutenberg University, Duesbergweg 6, 55128 Mainz, Germany
| | - Xiaohong Wang
- ERC Advanced Investigator Grant Research Group at the Institute for Physiological Chemistry, University Medical Center of the Johannes Gutenberg University, Duesbergweg 6, 55128 Mainz, Germany
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4
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Rando HM, MacLean AL, Lee AJ, Lordan R, Ray S, Bansal V, Skelly AN, Sell E, Dziak JJ, Shinholster L, D’Agostino McGowan L, Ben Guebila M, Wellhausen N, Knyazev S, Boca SM, Capone S, Qi Y, Park Y, Mai D, Sun Y, Boerckel JD, Brueffer C, Byrd JB, Kamil JP, Wang J, Velazquez R, Szeto GL, Barton JP, Goel RR, Mangul S, Lubiana T, Gitter A, Greene CS. Pathogenesis, Symptomatology, and Transmission of SARS-CoV-2 through Analysis of Viral Genomics and Structure. mSystems 2021; 6:e0009521. [PMID: 34698547 PMCID: PMC8547481 DOI: 10.1128/msystems.00095-21] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 09/27/2021] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
The novel coronavirus SARS-CoV-2, which emerged in late 2019, has since spread around the world and infected hundreds of millions of people with coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). While this viral species was unknown prior to January 2020, its similarity to other coronaviruses that infect humans has allowed for rapid insight into the mechanisms that it uses to infect human hosts, as well as the ways in which the human immune system can respond. Here, we contextualize SARS-CoV-2 among other coronaviruses and identify what is known and what can be inferred about its behavior once inside a human host. Because the genomic content of coronaviruses, which specifies the virus's structure, is highly conserved, early genomic analysis provided a significant head start in predicting viral pathogenesis and in understanding potential differences among variants. The pathogenesis of the virus offers insights into symptomatology, transmission, and individual susceptibility. Additionally, prior research into interactions between the human immune system and coronaviruses has identified how these viruses can evade the immune system's protective mechanisms. We also explore systems-level research into the regulatory and proteomic effects of SARS-CoV-2 infection and the immune response. Understanding the structure and behavior of the virus serves to contextualize the many facets of the COVID-19 pandemic and can influence efforts to control the virus and treat the disease. IMPORTANCE COVID-19 involves a number of organ systems and can present with a wide range of symptoms. From how the virus infects cells to how it spreads between people, the available research suggests that these patterns are very similar to those seen in the closely related viruses SARS-CoV-1 and possibly Middle East respiratory syndrome-related CoV (MERS-CoV). Understanding the pathogenesis of the SARS-CoV-2 virus also contextualizes how the different biological systems affected by COVID-19 connect. Exploring the structure, phylogeny, and pathogenesis of the virus therefore helps to guide interpretation of the broader impacts of the virus on the human body and on human populations. For this reason, an in-depth exploration of viral mechanisms is critical to a robust understanding of SARS-CoV-2 and, potentially, future emergent human CoVs (HCoVs).
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Affiliation(s)
- Halie M. Rando
- Department of Systems Pharmacology and Translational Therapeutics, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Genetics, University of Colorado School of Medicine, Aurora, Colorado, USA
- Center for Health AI, University of Colorado School of Medicine, Aurora, Colorado, USA
| | - Adam L. MacLean
- Department of Quantitative and Computational Biology, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California, USA
| | - Alexandra J. Lee
- Department of Systems Pharmacology and Translational Therapeutics, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Ronan Lordan
- Institute for Translational Medicine and Therapeutics, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Sandipan Ray
- Department of Biotechnology, Indian Institute of Technology Hyderabad, Sangareddy, Telangana, India
| | - Vikas Bansal
- Biomedical Data Science and Machine Learning Group, German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Ashwin N. Skelly
- Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA
- Institute for Immunology, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Elizabeth Sell
- Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - John J. Dziak
- Edna Bennett Pierce Prevention Research Center, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania, USA
| | | | - Lucy D’Agostino McGowan
- Department of Mathematics and Statistics, Wake Forest University, Winston-Salem, North Carolina, USA
| | - Marouen Ben Guebila
- Department of Biostatistics, Harvard School of Public Health, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Nils Wellhausen
- Department of Systems Pharmacology and Translational Therapeutics, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA
| | | | - Simina M. Boca
- Innovation Center for Biomedical Informatics, Georgetown University Medical Center, Washington, DC, USA
| | - Stephen Capone
- St. George’s University School of Medicine, St. George’s, Grenada
| | - Yanjun Qi
- Department of Computer Science, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia, USA
| | - YoSon Park
- Department of Systems Pharmacology and Translational Therapeutics, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - David Mai
- Department of Bioengineering, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Yuchen Sun
- Department of Computer Science, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia, USA
| | - Joel D. Boerckel
- Department of Bioengineering, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA
| | | | - James Brian Byrd
- University of Michigan School of Medicine, Ann Arbor, Michigan, USA
| | - Jeremy P. Kamil
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Louisiana State University Health Sciences Center Shreveport, Shreveport, Louisiana, USA
| | - Jinhui Wang
- Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA
| | | | | | - John P. Barton
- Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of California-Riverside, Riverside, California, USA
| | - Rishi Raj Goel
- Institute for Immunology, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Serghei Mangul
- Department of Clinical Pharmacy, School of Pharmacy, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California, USA
| | - Tiago Lubiana
- Department of Clinical and Toxicological Analyses, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - COVID-19 Review Consortium
- Department of Systems Pharmacology and Translational Therapeutics, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Genetics, University of Colorado School of Medicine, Aurora, Colorado, USA
- Center for Health AI, University of Colorado School of Medicine, Aurora, Colorado, USA
- Department of Quantitative and Computational Biology, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California, USA
- Institute for Translational Medicine and Therapeutics, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA
- Department of Biotechnology, Indian Institute of Technology Hyderabad, Sangareddy, Telangana, India
- Biomedical Data Science and Machine Learning Group, German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases, Tübingen, Germany
- Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA
- Institute for Immunology, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA
- Edna Bennett Pierce Prevention Research Center, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania, USA
- Mercer University, Macon, Georgia, USA
- Department of Mathematics and Statistics, Wake Forest University, Winston-Salem, North Carolina, USA
- Department of Biostatistics, Harvard School of Public Health, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
- Georgia State University, Atlanta, Georgia, USA
- Innovation Center for Biomedical Informatics, Georgetown University Medical Center, Washington, DC, USA
- St. George’s University School of Medicine, St. George’s, Grenada
- Department of Computer Science, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia, USA
- Department of Bioengineering, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA
- Department of Clinical Sciences, Lund University, Lund, Sweden
- University of Michigan School of Medicine, Ann Arbor, Michigan, USA
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Louisiana State University Health Sciences Center Shreveport, Shreveport, Louisiana, USA
- Azimuth1, McLean, Virginia, USA
- Allen Institute for Immunology, Seattle, Washington, USA
- Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of California-Riverside, Riverside, California, USA
- Department of Clinical Pharmacy, School of Pharmacy, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California, USA
- Department of Clinical and Toxicological Analyses, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
- Department of Biostatistics and Medical Informatics, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, Wisconsin, USA
- Morgridge Institute for Research, Madison, Wisconsin, USA
- Childhood Cancer Data Lab, Alex’s Lemonade Stand Foundation, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Anthony Gitter
- Department of Biostatistics and Medical Informatics, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, Wisconsin, USA
- Morgridge Institute for Research, Madison, Wisconsin, USA
| | - Casey S. Greene
- Department of Systems Pharmacology and Translational Therapeutics, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Genetics, University of Colorado School of Medicine, Aurora, Colorado, USA
- Center for Health AI, University of Colorado School of Medicine, Aurora, Colorado, USA
- Childhood Cancer Data Lab, Alex’s Lemonade Stand Foundation, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA
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5
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Campione E, Lanna C, Cosio T, Rosa L, Conte MP, Iacovelli F, Romeo A, Falconi M, Del Vecchio C, Franchin E, Lia MS, Minieri M, Chiaramonte C, Ciotti M, Nuccetelli M, Terrinoni A, Iannuzzi I, Coppeta L, Magrini A, Bernardini S, Sabatini S, Rosapepe F, Bartoletti PL, Moricca N, Di Lorenzo A, Andreoni M, Sarmati L, Miani A, Piscitelli P, Squillaci E, Valenti P, Bianchi L. Lactoferrin as Antiviral Treatment in COVID-19 Management: Preliminary Evidence. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2021; 18:ijerph182010985. [PMID: 34682731 PMCID: PMC8535893 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph182010985] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/04/2021] [Revised: 10/04/2021] [Accepted: 10/13/2021] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
Lactoferrin (Lf), a multifunctional cationic glycoprotein synthesized by exocrine glands and neutrophils, possesses an in vitro antiviral activity against SARS-CoV-2. Thus, we conducted an in vivo preliminary study to investigate the antiviral effect of oral and intranasal liposomal bovine Lf (bLf) in asymptomatic and mild-to-moderate COVID-19 patients. From April 2020 to June 2020, a total of 92 mild-to-moderate (67/92) and asymptomatic (25/92) COVID-19 patients were recruited and divided into three groups. Thirty-two patients (14 hospitalized and 18 in home-based isolation) received only oral and intranasal liposomal bLf; 32 hospitalized patients were treated only with standard of care (SOC) treatment; and 28, in home-based isolation, did not take any medication. Furthermore, 32 COVID-19 negative, untreated, healthy subjects were added for ancillary analysis. Liposomal bLf-treated COVID-19 patients obtained an earlier and significant (p < 0.0001) SARS-CoV-2 RNA negative conversion compared to the SOC-treated and untreated COVID-19 patients (14.25 vs. 27.13 vs. 32.61 days, respectively). Liposomal bLf-treated COVID-19 patients showed fast clinical symptoms recovery compared to the SOC-treated COVID-19 patients. In bLf-treated patients, a significant decrease in serum ferritin, IL-6, and D-dimers levels was observed. No adverse events were reported. These observations led us to speculate a potential role of bLf in the management of mild-to-moderate and asymptomatic COVID-19 patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elena Campione
- Dermatology Unit, Department of Systems Medicine, Tor Vergata University Hospital, 00133 Rome, Italy; (C.L.); (T.C.); (L.B.)
- Correspondence:
| | - Caterina Lanna
- Dermatology Unit, Department of Systems Medicine, Tor Vergata University Hospital, 00133 Rome, Italy; (C.L.); (T.C.); (L.B.)
| | - Terenzio Cosio
- Dermatology Unit, Department of Systems Medicine, Tor Vergata University Hospital, 00133 Rome, Italy; (C.L.); (T.C.); (L.B.)
| | - Luigi Rosa
- Department of Public Health and Infectious Diseases, University of Rome “La Sapienza”, 00185 Rome, Italy; (L.R.); (M.P.C.); (P.V.)
| | - Maria Pia Conte
- Department of Public Health and Infectious Diseases, University of Rome “La Sapienza”, 00185 Rome, Italy; (L.R.); (M.P.C.); (P.V.)
| | - Federico Iacovelli
- Structural Bioinformatics Group, Department of Biology, University of Rome “Tor Vergata”, 00133 Rome, Italy; (F.I.); (A.R.); (M.F.)
| | - Alice Romeo
- Structural Bioinformatics Group, Department of Biology, University of Rome “Tor Vergata”, 00133 Rome, Italy; (F.I.); (A.R.); (M.F.)
| | - Mattia Falconi
- Structural Bioinformatics Group, Department of Biology, University of Rome “Tor Vergata”, 00133 Rome, Italy; (F.I.); (A.R.); (M.F.)
| | - Claudia Del Vecchio
- Department of Molecular Medicine, University of Padova, 35122 Padova, Italy; (C.D.V.); (E.F.)
| | - Elisa Franchin
- Department of Molecular Medicine, University of Padova, 35122 Padova, Italy; (C.D.V.); (E.F.)
| | - Maria Stella Lia
- Department of Experimental Medicine, Tor Vergata University Hospital, 00133 Rome, Italy; (M.S.L.); (M.M.); (A.T.)
| | - Marilena Minieri
- Department of Experimental Medicine, Tor Vergata University Hospital, 00133 Rome, Italy; (M.S.L.); (M.M.); (A.T.)
| | - Carlo Chiaramonte
- Department of Statistics, University of Rome Tor Vergata, 00133 Rome, Italy;
| | - Marco Ciotti
- Virology Unit, Tor Vergata University Hospital, 00133 Rome, Italy;
| | - Marzia Nuccetelli
- Laboratory Medicine, Department of Experimental Medicine and Surgery, Tor Vergata University Hospital, 00133 Rome, Italy; (M.N.); (S.B.)
| | - Alessandro Terrinoni
- Department of Experimental Medicine, Tor Vergata University Hospital, 00133 Rome, Italy; (M.S.L.); (M.M.); (A.T.)
| | - Ilaria Iannuzzi
- Occupational Medicine Department, University of Rome “Tor Vergata”, 00133 Rome, Italy; (I.I.); (L.C.); (A.M.)
| | - Luca Coppeta
- Occupational Medicine Department, University of Rome “Tor Vergata”, 00133 Rome, Italy; (I.I.); (L.C.); (A.M.)
| | - Andrea Magrini
- Occupational Medicine Department, University of Rome “Tor Vergata”, 00133 Rome, Italy; (I.I.); (L.C.); (A.M.)
| | - Sergio Bernardini
- Laboratory Medicine, Department of Experimental Medicine and Surgery, Tor Vergata University Hospital, 00133 Rome, Italy; (M.N.); (S.B.)
| | | | | | | | - Nicola Moricca
- Villa dei Pini Hospital, 00042 Anzio, Italy; (S.S.); (N.M.)
| | - Andrea Di Lorenzo
- Infectious Disease Unit, Tor Vergata University Hospital, 00133 Rome, Italy; (A.D.L.); (M.A.); (L.S.)
| | - Massimo Andreoni
- Infectious Disease Unit, Tor Vergata University Hospital, 00133 Rome, Italy; (A.D.L.); (M.A.); (L.S.)
| | - Loredana Sarmati
- Infectious Disease Unit, Tor Vergata University Hospital, 00133 Rome, Italy; (A.D.L.); (M.A.); (L.S.)
| | - Alessandro Miani
- Department of Environmental Sciences and Policy, University of Milan, 20133 Milan, Italy;
| | - Prisco Piscitelli
- UNESCO Chair on Health Education and Sustainable Development, University of Naples Federico II, 80131 Naples, Italy;
| | - Ettore Squillaci
- Department of Diagnostic and Molecular Imaging, Radiation Therapy and Interventional Radiology, University Hospital Tor Vergata, 00133 Rome, Italy;
| | - Piera Valenti
- Department of Public Health and Infectious Diseases, University of Rome “La Sapienza”, 00185 Rome, Italy; (L.R.); (M.P.C.); (P.V.)
| | - Luca Bianchi
- Dermatology Unit, Department of Systems Medicine, Tor Vergata University Hospital, 00133 Rome, Italy; (C.L.); (T.C.); (L.B.)
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6
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Kircheis R. Coagulopathies after Vaccination against SARS-CoV-2 May Be Derived from a Combined Effect of SARS-CoV-2 Spike Protein and Adenovirus Vector-Triggered Signaling Pathways. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:10791. [PMID: 34639132 PMCID: PMC8509779 DOI: 10.3390/ijms221910791] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/08/2021] [Revised: 09/24/2021] [Accepted: 10/04/2021] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Novel coronavirus SARS-CoV-2 has resulted in a global pandemic with worldwide 6-digit infection rates and thousands of death tolls daily. Enormous efforts are undertaken to achieve high coverage of immunization to reach herd immunity in order to stop the spread of SARS-CoV-2 infection. Several SARS-CoV-2 vaccines based on mRNA, viral vectors, or inactivated SARS-CoV-2 virus have been approved and are being applied worldwide. However, the recent increased numbers of normally very rare types of thromboses associated with thrombocytopenia have been reported, particularly in the context of the adenoviral vector vaccine ChAdOx1 nCoV-19 from Astra Zeneca. The statistical prevalence of these side effects seems to correlate with this particular vaccine type, i.e., adenoviral vector-based vaccines, but the exact molecular mechanisms are still not clear. The present review summarizes current data and hypotheses for molecular and cellular mechanisms into one integrated hypothesis indicating that coagulopathies, including thromboses, thrombocytopenia, and other related side effects, are correlated to an interplay of the two components in the vaccine, i.e., the spike antigen and the adenoviral vector, with the innate and immune systems, which under certain circumstances can imitate the picture of a limited COVID-19 pathological picture.
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7
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Ambulatory COVID-19 Patients Treated with Lactoferrin as a Supplementary Antiviral Agent: A Preliminary Study. J Clin Med 2021; 10:jcm10184276. [PMID: 34575388 PMCID: PMC8469309 DOI: 10.3390/jcm10184276] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/27/2021] [Revised: 09/08/2021] [Accepted: 09/17/2021] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
SARS-CoV-2, an enveloped, single-stranded RNA virus causing COVID-19, exerts morbidity and mortality especially in elderly, obese individuals and those suffering from chronic conditions. In addition to the availability of vaccines and the limited efficacy of the first dose of vaccine against SARS-CoV-2 variants, there is an urgent requirement for the discovery and development of supplementary antiviral agents. Lactoferrin (Lf), a pleiotropic cationic glycoprotein of innate immunity, has been proposed as a safe treatment combined with other therapies in COVID-19 patients. Here, we present a small retrospective study on asymptomatic, paucisymptomatic, and moderate symptomatic COVID-19 Lf-treated versus Lf-untreated patients. The time required to achieve SARS-CoV-2 RNA negativization in Lf-treated patients (n = 82) was significantly lower (p < 0.001) compared to that observed in Lf-untreated ones (n = 39) (15 versus 24 days). A link among reduction in symptoms, age, and Lf treatment was found. The Lf antiviral activity could be explained through the interaction with SARS-CoV-2 spike, the binding with heparan sulfate proteoglycans of cells, and the anti-inflammatory activity associated with the restoration of iron homeostasis disorders, which favor viral infection/replication. Lf could be an important supplementary treatment in counteracting SARS-CoV-2 infection, as it is also safe and well-tolerated by all treated patients.
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8
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Suryawanshi RK, Patil CD, Koganti R, Singh SK, Ames JM, Shukla D. Heparan Sulfate Binding Cationic Peptides Restrict SARS-CoV-2 Entry. Pathogens 2021; 10:pathogens10070803. [PMID: 34202835 PMCID: PMC8308704 DOI: 10.3390/pathogens10070803] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/26/2021] [Revised: 06/17/2021] [Accepted: 06/22/2021] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
A novel severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) has caused a global pandemic. While the world is striving for a treatment modality against SARS-CoV-2, our understanding about the virus entry mechanisms may help to design entry inhibitors, which may help to limit the virus spreading. Owing to the importance of cellular ACE2 and heparan sulfate in SARS-CoV-2 entry, we aimed to evaluate the efficacy of cationic G1 and G2 peptides in virus entry inhibition. In silico binding affinity studies revealed possible binding sites of G1 and G2 peptides on HS and ACE2, which are required for the spike–HS and spike–ACE2 interactions. Prophylactic treatment of G1 and G2 peptide was also proved to decrease the cell surface HS, an essential virus entry receptor. With these two mechanisms we confirm the possible use of cationic peptides to inhibit the entry of SARS-CoV-2.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rahul K. Suryawanshi
- Department of Ophthalmology and Visual Sciences, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL 60612, USA; (R.K.S.); (C.D.P.); (R.K.); (S.K.S.); (J.M.A.)
| | - Chandrashekhar D. Patil
- Department of Ophthalmology and Visual Sciences, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL 60612, USA; (R.K.S.); (C.D.P.); (R.K.); (S.K.S.); (J.M.A.)
| | - Raghuram Koganti
- Department of Ophthalmology and Visual Sciences, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL 60612, USA; (R.K.S.); (C.D.P.); (R.K.); (S.K.S.); (J.M.A.)
| | - Sudhanshu Kumar Singh
- Department of Ophthalmology and Visual Sciences, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL 60612, USA; (R.K.S.); (C.D.P.); (R.K.); (S.K.S.); (J.M.A.)
| | - Joshua M. Ames
- Department of Ophthalmology and Visual Sciences, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL 60612, USA; (R.K.S.); (C.D.P.); (R.K.); (S.K.S.); (J.M.A.)
| | - Deepak Shukla
- Department of Ophthalmology and Visual Sciences, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL 60612, USA; (R.K.S.); (C.D.P.); (R.K.); (S.K.S.); (J.M.A.)
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL 60612, USA
- Correspondence:
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9
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Heparan Sulfate Proteoglycans in Viral Infection and Treatment: A Special Focus on SARS-CoV-2. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:ijms22126574. [PMID: 34207476 PMCID: PMC8235362 DOI: 10.3390/ijms22126574] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/26/2021] [Revised: 06/14/2021] [Accepted: 06/16/2021] [Indexed: 01/27/2023] Open
Abstract
Heparan sulfate proteoglycans (HSPGs) encompass a group of glycoproteins composed of unbranched negatively charged heparan sulfate (HS) chains covalently attached to a core protein. The complex HSPG biosynthetic machinery generates an extraordinary structural variety of HS chains that enable them to bind a plethora of ligands, including growth factors, morphogens, cytokines, chemokines, enzymes, matrix proteins, and bacterial and viral pathogens. These interactions translate into key regulatory activity of HSPGs on a wide range of cellular processes such as receptor activation and signaling, cytoskeleton assembly, extracellular matrix remodeling, endocytosis, cell-cell crosstalk, and others. Due to their ubiquitous expression within tissues and their large functional repertoire, HSPGs are involved in many physiopathological processes; thus, they have emerged as valuable targets for the therapy of many human diseases. Among their functions, HSPGs assist many viruses in invading host cells at various steps of their life cycle. Viruses utilize HSPGs for the attachment to the host cell, internalization, intracellular trafficking, egress, and spread. Recently, HSPG involvement in the pathogenesis of SARS-CoV-2 infection has been established. Here, we summarize the current knowledge on the molecular mechanisms underlying HSPG/SARS-CoV-2 interaction and downstream effects, and we provide an overview of the HSPG-based therapeutic strategies that could be used to combat such a fearsome virus.
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10
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Yue J, Jin W, Yang H, Faulkner J, Song X, Qiu H, Teng M, Azadi P, Zhang F, Linhardt RJ, Wang L. Heparan Sulfate Facilitates Spike Protein-Mediated SARS-CoV-2 Host Cell Invasion and Contributes to Increased Infection of SARS-CoV-2 G614 Mutant and in Lung Cancer. Front Mol Biosci 2021; 8:649575. [PMID: 34179075 PMCID: PMC8231436 DOI: 10.3389/fmolb.2021.649575] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/05/2021] [Accepted: 04/06/2021] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
The severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS)-like coronavirus disease (COVID-19) is caused by SARS-CoV-2 and has been a serious threat to global public health with limited treatment. Cellular heparan sulfate (HS) has been found to bind SARS-CoV-2 spike protein (SV2-S) and co-operate with cell surface receptor angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) to mediate SARS-CoV-2 infection of host cells. In this study, we determined that host cell surface SV2-S binding depends on and correlates with host cell surface HS expression. This binding is required for SARS-Cov-2 virus to infect host cells and can be blocked by heparin lyase, HS antagonist surfen, heparin, and heparin derivatives. The binding of heparin/HS to SV2-S is mainly determined by its overall sulfation with potential, minor contribution of specific SV2-S binding motifs. The higher binding affinity of SV2-S G614 mutant to heparin and upregulated HS expression may be one of the mechanisms underlying the higher infectivity of the SARS-CoV-2 G614 variant and the high vulnerability of lung cancer patients to SARS-CoV-2 infection, respectively. The higher host cell infection by SARS-CoV-2 G614 variant pseudovirus and the increased infection caused by upregulated HS expression both can be effectively blocked by heparin lyase and heparin, and possibly surfen and heparin derivatives too. Our findings support blocking HS-SV2-S interaction may provide one addition to achieve effective prevention and/treatment of COVID-19.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jingwen Yue
- Department of Molecular Pharmacology and Physiology, Morsani College of Medicine, University of South Florida Health, Tampa, FL, United States
- Complex Carbohydrate Research Center, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, United States
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, United States
| | - Weihua Jin
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Center for Biotechnology and Interdisciplinary Studies, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy, NY, United States
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, Center for Biotechnology and Interdisciplinary Studies, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy, NY, United States
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Center for Biotechnology and Interdisciplinary Studies, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy, NY, United States
| | - Hua Yang
- Department of Molecular Pharmacology and Physiology, Morsani College of Medicine, University of South Florida Health, Tampa, FL, United States
| | - John Faulkner
- Department of Molecular Pharmacology and Physiology, Morsani College of Medicine, University of South Florida Health, Tampa, FL, United States
| | - Xuehong Song
- Department of Molecular Pharmacology and Physiology, Morsani College of Medicine, University of South Florida Health, Tampa, FL, United States
| | - Hong Qiu
- Shanghai Institute of Materia Medica, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, China
| | - Michael Teng
- Division of Allergy and Immunology, Department of Internal Medicine, Morsani College of Medicine, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL, United States
| | - Parastoo Azadi
- Complex Carbohydrate Research Center, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, United States
| | - Fuming Zhang
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Center for Biotechnology and Interdisciplinary Studies, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy, NY, United States
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, Center for Biotechnology and Interdisciplinary Studies, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy, NY, United States
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Center for Biotechnology and Interdisciplinary Studies, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy, NY, United States
| | - Robert J. Linhardt
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Center for Biotechnology and Interdisciplinary Studies, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy, NY, United States
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, Center for Biotechnology and Interdisciplinary Studies, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy, NY, United States
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Center for Biotechnology and Interdisciplinary Studies, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy, NY, United States
| | - Lianchun Wang
- Department of Molecular Pharmacology and Physiology, Morsani College of Medicine, University of South Florida Health, Tampa, FL, United States
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11
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Targosz-Korecka M, Kubisiak A, Kloska D, Kopacz A, Grochot-Przeczek A, Szymonski M. Endothelial glycocalyx shields the interaction of SARS-CoV-2 spike protein with ACE2 receptors. Sci Rep 2021; 11:12157. [PMID: 34108510 PMCID: PMC8190434 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-021-91231-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/09/2021] [Accepted: 05/21/2021] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Endothelial cells (ECs) play a crucial role in the development and propagation of the severe COVID-19 stage as well as multiorgan dysfunction. It remains, however, controversial whether COVID-19-induced endothelial injury is caused directly by the infection of ECs with SARS-CoV-2 or via indirect mechanisms. One of the major concerns is raised by the contradictory data supporting or denying the presence of ACE2, the SARS-CoV-2 binding receptor, on the EC surface. Here, we show that primary human pulmonary artery ECs possess ACE2 capable of interaction with the viral Spike protein (S-protein) and demonstrate the crucial role of the endothelial glycocalyx in the regulation of the S-protein binding to ACE2 on ECs. Using force spectroscopy method, we directly measured ACE2- and glycocalyx-dependent adhesive forces between S-protein and ECs and characterized the nanomechanical parameters of the cells exposed to S-protein. We revealed that the intact glycocalyx strongly binds S-protein but screens its interaction with ACE2. Reduction of glycocalyx layer exposes ACE2 receptors and promotes their interaction with S-protein. These results indicate that the susceptibility of ECs to COVID-19 infection may depend on the glycocalyx condition.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marta Targosz-Korecka
- Department of Physics of Nanostructures and Nanotechnology, Faculty of Physics, Astronomy and Applied Computer Science, Jagiellonian University, Kraków, Poland.
| | - Agata Kubisiak
- Department of Physics of Nanostructures and Nanotechnology, Faculty of Physics, Astronomy and Applied Computer Science, Jagiellonian University, Kraków, Poland
| | - Damian Kloska
- Department of Medical Biotechnology, Faculty of Biochemistry, Biophysics and Biotechnology, Jagiellonian University, Kraków, Poland
| | - Aleksandra Kopacz
- Department of Medical Biotechnology, Faculty of Biochemistry, Biophysics and Biotechnology, Jagiellonian University, Kraków, Poland
| | - Anna Grochot-Przeczek
- Department of Medical Biotechnology, Faculty of Biochemistry, Biophysics and Biotechnology, Jagiellonian University, Kraków, Poland
| | - Marek Szymonski
- Department of Physics of Nanostructures and Nanotechnology, Faculty of Physics, Astronomy and Applied Computer Science, Jagiellonian University, Kraków, Poland
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12
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Partridge LJ, Urwin L, Nicklin MJH, James DC, Green LR, Monk PN. ACE2-Independent Interaction of SARS-CoV-2 Spike Protein with Human Epithelial Cells Is Inhibited by Unfractionated Heparin. Cells 2021; 10:cells10061419. [PMID: 34200372 DOI: 10.1101/2020.05.21.107870] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/15/2021] [Revised: 05/26/2021] [Accepted: 06/04/2021] [Indexed: 05/23/2023] Open
Abstract
Coronaviruses such as SARS-CoV-2, which is responsible for COVID-19, depend on virus spike protein binding to host cell receptors to cause infection. The SARS-CoV-2 spike protein binds primarily to ACE2 on target cells and is then processed by membrane proteases, including TMPRSS2, leading to viral internalisation or fusion with the plasma membrane. It has been suggested, however, that receptors other than ACE2 may be involved in virus binding. We have investigated the interactions of recombinant versions of the spike protein with human epithelial cell lines that express low/very low levels of ACE2 and TMPRSS2 in a proxy assay for interaction with host cells. A tagged form of the spike protein containing the S1 and S2 regions bound in a temperature-dependent manner to all cell lines, whereas the S1 region alone and the receptor-binding domain (RBD) interacted only weakly. Spike protein associated with cells independently of ACE2 and TMPRSS2, while RBD required the presence of high levels of ACE2 for interaction. As the spike protein has previously been shown to bind heparin, a soluble glycosaminoglycan, we tested the effects of various heparins on ACE2-independent spike protein interaction with cells. Unfractionated heparin inhibited spike protein interaction with an IC50 value of <0.05 U/mL, whereas two low-molecular-weight heparins were less effective. A mutant form of the spike protein, lacking the arginine-rich putative furin cleavage site, interacted only weakly with cells and had a lower affinity for unfractionated and low-molecular-weight heparin than the wild-type spike protein. This suggests that the furin cleavage site might also be a heparin-binding site and potentially important for interactions with host cells. The glycosaminoglycans heparan sulphate and dermatan sulphate, but not chondroitin sulphate, also inhibited the binding of spike protein, indicating that it might bind to one or both of these glycosaminoglycans on the surface of target cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lynda J Partridge
- Department of Molecular Biology and Biotechnology, The University of Sheffield, Sheffield S10 2TN, UK
| | - Lucy Urwin
- Department of Infection, Immunity and Cardiovascular Disease, The University of Sheffield, Sheffield S10 2RX, UK
| | - Martin J H Nicklin
- Department of Infection, Immunity and Cardiovascular Disease, The University of Sheffield, Sheffield S10 2RX, UK
| | - David C James
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, The University of Sheffield, Sheffield S1 4NL, UK
| | - Luke R Green
- Department of Infection, Immunity and Cardiovascular Disease, The University of Sheffield, Sheffield S10 2RX, UK
| | - Peter N Monk
- Department of Infection, Immunity and Cardiovascular Disease, The University of Sheffield, Sheffield S10 2RX, UK
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13
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Partridge LJ, Urwin L, Nicklin MJH, James DC, Green LR, Monk PN. ACE2-Independent Interaction of SARS-CoV-2 Spike Protein with Human Epithelial Cells Is Inhibited by Unfractionated Heparin. Cells 2021; 10:1419. [PMID: 34200372 PMCID: PMC8229176 DOI: 10.3390/cells10061419] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/15/2021] [Revised: 05/26/2021] [Accepted: 06/04/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Coronaviruses such as SARS-CoV-2, which is responsible for COVID-19, depend on virus spike protein binding to host cell receptors to cause infection. The SARS-CoV-2 spike protein binds primarily to ACE2 on target cells and is then processed by membrane proteases, including TMPRSS2, leading to viral internalisation or fusion with the plasma membrane. It has been suggested, however, that receptors other than ACE2 may be involved in virus binding. We have investigated the interactions of recombinant versions of the spike protein with human epithelial cell lines that express low/very low levels of ACE2 and TMPRSS2 in a proxy assay for interaction with host cells. A tagged form of the spike protein containing the S1 and S2 regions bound in a temperature-dependent manner to all cell lines, whereas the S1 region alone and the receptor-binding domain (RBD) interacted only weakly. Spike protein associated with cells independently of ACE2 and TMPRSS2, while RBD required the presence of high levels of ACE2 for interaction. As the spike protein has previously been shown to bind heparin, a soluble glycosaminoglycan, we tested the effects of various heparins on ACE2-independent spike protein interaction with cells. Unfractionated heparin inhibited spike protein interaction with an IC50 value of <0.05 U/mL, whereas two low-molecular-weight heparins were less effective. A mutant form of the spike protein, lacking the arginine-rich putative furin cleavage site, interacted only weakly with cells and had a lower affinity for unfractionated and low-molecular-weight heparin than the wild-type spike protein. This suggests that the furin cleavage site might also be a heparin-binding site and potentially important for interactions with host cells. The glycosaminoglycans heparan sulphate and dermatan sulphate, but not chondroitin sulphate, also inhibited the binding of spike protein, indicating that it might bind to one or both of these glycosaminoglycans on the surface of target cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lynda J. Partridge
- Department of Molecular Biology and Biotechnology, The University of Sheffield, Sheffield S10 2TN, UK;
| | - Lucy Urwin
- Department of Infection, Immunity and Cardiovascular Disease, The University of Sheffield, Sheffield S10 2RX, UK; (L.U.); (M.J.H.N.); (L.R.G.)
| | - Martin J. H. Nicklin
- Department of Infection, Immunity and Cardiovascular Disease, The University of Sheffield, Sheffield S10 2RX, UK; (L.U.); (M.J.H.N.); (L.R.G.)
| | - David C. James
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, The University of Sheffield, Sheffield S1 4NL, UK;
| | - Luke R. Green
- Department of Infection, Immunity and Cardiovascular Disease, The University of Sheffield, Sheffield S10 2RX, UK; (L.U.); (M.J.H.N.); (L.R.G.)
| | - Peter N. Monk
- Department of Infection, Immunity and Cardiovascular Disease, The University of Sheffield, Sheffield S10 2RX, UK; (L.U.); (M.J.H.N.); (L.R.G.)
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14
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Yang X, Liu L, Hao Y, So E, Emami SS, Zhang D, Gong Y, Sheth PM, Wang Y. A Bioluminescent Biosensor for Quantifying the Interaction of SARS-CoV-2 and Its Receptor ACE2 in Cells and In Vitro. Viruses 2021; 13:v13061055. [PMID: 34199601 PMCID: PMC8227885 DOI: 10.3390/v13061055] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2021] [Revised: 05/28/2021] [Accepted: 05/30/2021] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
The severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2) is currently spreading and mutating with increasing speed worldwide. Therefore, there is an urgent need for a simple, sensitive, and high-throughput (HTP) assay to quantify virus–host interactions in order to quickly evaluate the infectious ability of mutant viruses and to develop or validate virus-inhibiting drugs. Here, we developed an ultrasensitive bioluminescent biosensor to evaluate virus–cell interactions by quantifying the interaction between the SARS-CoV-2 receptor binding domain (RBD) and its cellular receptor angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) both in living cells and in vitro. We have successfully used this novel biosensor to analyze SARS-CoV-2 RBD mutants and evaluated candidate small molecules (SMs), antibodies, and peptides that may block RBD:ACE2 interaction. This simple, rapid, and HTP biosensor tool will significantly expedite the detection of viral mutants and the anti-COVID-19 drug discovery process.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaolong Yang
- Department of Pathology and Molecular Medicine, Queen’s University, Kingston, ON K7L 3N6, Canada; (Y.H.); (S.S.E.); (D.Z.); (Y.G.); (P.M.S.)
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +1-613-533-6000 (ext. 75998)
| | - Lidong Liu
- DM Center for Brain Health and Department of Neurology, Faculty of Medicine, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z3, Canada; (L.L.); (E.S.); (Y.W.)
| | - Yawei Hao
- Department of Pathology and Molecular Medicine, Queen’s University, Kingston, ON K7L 3N6, Canada; (Y.H.); (S.S.E.); (D.Z.); (Y.G.); (P.M.S.)
| | - Eva So
- DM Center for Brain Health and Department of Neurology, Faculty of Medicine, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z3, Canada; (L.L.); (E.S.); (Y.W.)
| | - Sahar Sarmasti Emami
- Department of Pathology and Molecular Medicine, Queen’s University, Kingston, ON K7L 3N6, Canada; (Y.H.); (S.S.E.); (D.Z.); (Y.G.); (P.M.S.)
| | - Derek Zhang
- Department of Pathology and Molecular Medicine, Queen’s University, Kingston, ON K7L 3N6, Canada; (Y.H.); (S.S.E.); (D.Z.); (Y.G.); (P.M.S.)
| | - Yanping Gong
- Department of Pathology and Molecular Medicine, Queen’s University, Kingston, ON K7L 3N6, Canada; (Y.H.); (S.S.E.); (D.Z.); (Y.G.); (P.M.S.)
| | - Prameet M. Sheth
- Department of Pathology and Molecular Medicine, Queen’s University, Kingston, ON K7L 3N6, Canada; (Y.H.); (S.S.E.); (D.Z.); (Y.G.); (P.M.S.)
- Gastrointestinal Disease Research Unit (GIDRU), Faculty of Health Science, Queen’s University, Kingston, ON K7L 3N6, Canada
| | - Yutian Wang
- DM Center for Brain Health and Department of Neurology, Faculty of Medicine, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z3, Canada; (L.L.); (E.S.); (Y.W.)
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15
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Schuurs ZP, Hammond E, Elli S, Rudd TR, Mycroft-West CJ, Lima MA, Skidmore MA, Karlsson R, Chen YH, Bagdonaite I, Yang Z, Ahmed YA, Richard DJ, Turnbull J, Ferro V, Coombe DR, Gandhi NS. Evidence of a putative glycosaminoglycan binding site on the glycosylated SARS-CoV-2 spike protein N-terminal domain. Comput Struct Biotechnol J 2021; 19:2806-2818. [PMID: 33968333 PMCID: PMC8093007 DOI: 10.1016/j.csbj.2021.05.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/25/2021] [Revised: 05/01/2021] [Accepted: 05/01/2021] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
SARS-CoV-2 has rapidly spread throughout the world's population since its initial discovery in 2019. The virus infects cells via a glycosylated spike protein located on its surface. The protein primarily binds to the angiotensin-converting enzyme-2 (ACE2) receptor, using glycosaminoglycans (GAGs) as co-receptors. Here, we performed bioinformatics and molecular dynamics simulations of the spike protein to investigate the existence of additional GAG binding sites on the receptor-binding domain (RBD), separate from previously reported heparin-binding sites. A putative GAG binding site in the N-terminal domain (NTD) of the protein was identified, encompassing residues 245-246. We hypothesized that GAGs of a sufficient length might bridge the gap between this site and the PRRARS furin cleavage site, including the mutation S247R. Docking studies using GlycoTorch Vina and subsequent MD simulations of the spike trimer in the presence of dodecasaccharides of the GAGs heparin and heparan sulfate supported this possibility. The heparan sulfate chain bridged the gap, binding the furin cleavage site and S247R. In contrast, the heparin chain bound the furin cleavage site and surrounding glycosylation structures, but not S247R. These findings identify a site in the spike protein that favors heparan sulfate binding that may be particularly pertinent for a better understanding of the recent UK and South African strains. This will also assist in future targeted therapy programs that could include repurposing clinical heparan sulfate mimetics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zachariah P. Schuurs
- QUT, Centre for Genomics and Personalised Health, Cancer and Ageing Research Program, School of Chemistry and Physics, Faculty of Science and Engineering, Institute of Health and Biomedical Innovation, 2 George Street, Brisbane, QLD 4000, Australia
| | - Edward Hammond
- Zucero Therapeutics Ltd, 1 Westlink Court, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
| | - Stefano Elli
- Istituto di Ricerche Chimiche e Biochimiche “G.Ronzoni”, via Giuseppe Colombo 81, 20133 Milano, Italy
| | - Timothy R. Rudd
- National Institute for Biological Standards and Control, Analytical and Biological Sciences Division, Blanche Lane, South Mimms, Potters Bar, Hertfordshire EN6 3QG, UK
| | - Courtney J. Mycroft-West
- Molecular & Structural Biosciences, School of Life Sciences, Keele University, Newcastle-Under-Lyme, Staffordshire ST5 5BG, UK
| | - Marcelo A. Lima
- Molecular & Structural Biosciences, School of Life Sciences, Keele University, Newcastle-Under-Lyme, Staffordshire ST5 5BG, UK
| | - Mark A. Skidmore
- Molecular & Structural Biosciences, School of Life Sciences, Keele University, Newcastle-Under-Lyme, Staffordshire ST5 5BG, UK
| | - Richard Karlsson
- Copenhagen Center for Glycomics, Department of Cellular & Molecular Medicine, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen N 2200, Denmark
| | - Yen-Hsi Chen
- Copenhagen Center for Glycomics, Department of Cellular & Molecular Medicine, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen N 2200, Denmark
| | - Ieva Bagdonaite
- Copenhagen Center for Glycomics, Department of Cellular & Molecular Medicine, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen N 2200, Denmark
| | - Zhang Yang
- Copenhagen Center for Glycomics, Department of Cellular & Molecular Medicine, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen N 2200, Denmark
| | - Yassir A. Ahmed
- Department of Biochemistry and Systems Biology, Institute of Systems, Molecular and Integrative Biology, University of Liverpool, Liverpool L69 7ZB, UK
| | - Derek J. Richard
- QUT, Centre for Genomics and Personalised Health, Cancer & Ageing Research Program, Institute of Health and Biomedical Innovation at the Translational Research Institute (TRI), 37 Kent Street, Woolloongabba, Queensland 4102, Australia
| | - Jeremy Turnbull
- Copenhagen Center for Glycomics, Department of Cellular & Molecular Medicine, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen N 2200, Denmark
- Department of Biochemistry and Systems Biology, Institute of Systems, Molecular and Integrative Biology, University of Liverpool, Liverpool L69 7ZB, UK
| | - Vito Ferro
- School of Chemistry and Molecular Biosciences, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD 4072, Australia
- Australian Infectious Diseases Research Centre, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD 4072, Australia
| | - Deirdre R. Coombe
- Australian Infectious Diseases Research Centre, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD 4072, Australia
| | - Neha S. Gandhi
- QUT, Centre for Genomics and Personalised Health, Cancer and Ageing Research Program, School of Chemistry and Physics, Faculty of Science and Engineering, Institute of Health and Biomedical Innovation, 2 George Street, Brisbane, QLD 4000, Australia
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16
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Zhao X, Chen H, Wang H. Glycans of SARS-CoV-2 Spike Protein in Virus Infection and Antibody Production. Front Mol Biosci 2021; 8:629873. [PMID: 33928117 PMCID: PMC8076860 DOI: 10.3389/fmolb.2021.629873] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/16/2020] [Accepted: 01/22/2021] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Viral protein glycosylation represents a successful strategy employed by the parasite to take advantage of host-cell machinery for modification of its own proteins. The resulting glycans have unneglectable roles in viral infection and immune response. The spike (S) protein of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), which presents on the surface of matured virion and mediates viral entry into the host, also undergoes extensive glycosylation to shield it from the human defense system. It is believed that the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic with more than 90,000,000 infections and 1,900,000 deaths is partly due to its successful glycosylation strategy. On the other hand, while glycan patches on S protein have been reported to shield the host immune response by masking "nonself" viral peptides with "self-glycans," the epitopes are also important in eliciting neutralizing antibodies. In this review, we will summarize the roles of S protein glycans in mediating virus-receptor interactions, and in antibody production, as well as indications for vaccine development.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Hongliang Wang
- Department of Pathogen Biology and Immunology, Xi’an Jiaotong University Health Science Center, Xi’an, China
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17
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Synowiec A, Szczepański A, Barreto-Duran E, Lie LK, Pyrc K. Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2): a Systemic Infection. Clin Microbiol Rev 2021; 34:e00133-20. [PMID: 33441314 PMCID: PMC7849242 DOI: 10.1128/cmr.00133-20] [Citation(s) in RCA: 128] [Impact Index Per Article: 42.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
Abstract
To date, seven identified coronaviruses (CoVs) have been found to infect humans; of these, three highly pathogenic variants have emerged in the 21st century. The newest member of this group, severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), was first detected at the end of 2019 in Hubei province, China. Since then, this novel coronavirus has spread worldwide, causing a pandemic; the respiratory disease caused by the virus is called coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). The clinical presentation ranges from asymptomatic to mild respiratory tract infections and influenza-like illness to severe disease with accompanying lung injury, multiorgan failure, and death. Although the lungs are believed to be the site at which SARS-CoV-2 replicates, infected patients often report other symptoms, suggesting the involvement of the gastrointestinal tract, heart, cardiovascular system, kidneys, and other organs; therefore, the following question arises: is COVID-19 a respiratory or systemic disease? This review aims to summarize existing data on the replication of SARS-CoV-2 in different tissues in both patients and ex vivo models.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aleksandra Synowiec
- Virogenetics Laboratory of Virology, Malopolska Centre of Biotechnology, Jagiellonian University, Krakow, Poland
| | - Artur Szczepański
- Virogenetics Laboratory of Virology, Malopolska Centre of Biotechnology, Jagiellonian University, Krakow, Poland
- Microbiology Department, Faculty of Biochemistry, Biophysics and Biotechnology, Jagiellonian University, Krakow, Poland
| | - Emilia Barreto-Duran
- Virogenetics Laboratory of Virology, Malopolska Centre of Biotechnology, Jagiellonian University, Krakow, Poland
| | - Laurensius Kevin Lie
- Virogenetics Laboratory of Virology, Malopolska Centre of Biotechnology, Jagiellonian University, Krakow, Poland
| | - Krzysztof Pyrc
- Virogenetics Laboratory of Virology, Malopolska Centre of Biotechnology, Jagiellonian University, Krakow, Poland
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18
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Kathiravan MK, Radhakrishnan S, Namasivayam V, Palaniappan S. An Overview of Spike Surface Glycoprotein in Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome-Coronavirus. Front Mol Biosci 2021; 8:637550. [PMID: 33898518 PMCID: PMC8058706 DOI: 10.3389/fmolb.2021.637550] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/03/2020] [Accepted: 01/22/2021] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
The novel coronavirus originated in December 2019 in Hubei, China. This contagious disease named as COVID-19 resulted in a massive expansion within 6 months by spreading to more than 213 countries. Despite the availability of antiviral drugs for the treatment of various viral infections, it was concluded by the WHO that there is no medicine to treat novel CoV, SARS-CoV-2. It has been confirmed that SARS-COV-2 is the most highly virulent human coronavirus and occupies the third position following SARS and MERS with the highest mortality rate. The genetic assembly of SARS-CoV-2 is segmented into structural and non-structural proteins, of which two-thirds of the viral genome encodes non-structural proteins and the remaining genome encodes structural proteins. The most predominant structural proteins that make up SARS-CoV-2 include spike surface glycoproteins (S), membrane proteins (M), envelope proteins (E), and nucleocapsid proteins (N). This review will focus on one of the four major structural proteins in the CoV assembly, the spike, which is involved in host cell recognition and the fusion process. The monomer disintegrates into S1 and S2 subunits with the S1 domain necessitating binding of the virus to its host cell receptor and the S2 domain mediating the viral fusion. On viral infection by the host, the S protein is further cleaved by the protease enzyme to two major subdomains S1/S2. Spike is proven to be an interesting target for developing vaccines and in particular, the RBD-single chain dimer has shown initial success. The availability of small molecules and peptidic inhibitors for host cell receptors is briefly discussed. The development of new molecules and therapeutic druggable targets for SARS-CoV-2 is of global importance. Attacking the virus employing multiple targets and strategies is the best way to inhibit the virus. This article will appeal to researchers in understanding the structural and biological aspects of the S protein in the field of drug design and discovery.
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Affiliation(s)
- Muthu Kumaradoss Kathiravan
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, SRM College of Pharmacy, SRMIST, Tamil Nadu, India
- Dr. APJ Abdul Kalam Research Lab, SRM College of Pharmacy, SRMIST, Tamil Nadu, India
| | - Srimathi Radhakrishnan
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, SRM College of Pharmacy, SRMIST, Tamil Nadu, India
- Dr. APJ Abdul Kalam Research Lab, SRM College of Pharmacy, SRMIST, Tamil Nadu, India
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19
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Miotto M, Di Rienzo L, Bò L, Boffi A, Ruocco G, Milanetti E. Molecular Mechanisms Behind Anti SARS-CoV-2 Action of Lactoferrin. Front Mol Biosci 2021; 8:607443. [PMID: 33659275 PMCID: PMC7917183 DOI: 10.3389/fmolb.2021.607443] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/17/2020] [Accepted: 01/11/2021] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Despite the huge effort to contain the infection, the novel SARS-CoV-2 coronavirus has rapidly become pandemic, mainly due to its extremely high human-to-human transmission capability, and a surprisingly high viral charge of symptom-less people. While the seek for a vaccine is still ongoing, promising results have been obtained with antiviral compounds. In particular, lactoferrin is regarded to have beneficial effects both in preventing and soothing the infection. Here, we explore the possible molecular mechanisms with which lactoferrin interferes with SARS-CoV-2 cell invasion, preventing attachment and/or entry of the virus. To this aim, we search for possible interactions lactoferrin may have with virus structural proteins and host receptors. Representing the molecular iso-electron surface of proteins in terms of 2D-Zernike descriptors, we 1) identified putative regions on the lactoferrin surface able to bind sialic acid present on the host cell membrane, sheltering the cell from the virus attachment; 2) showed that no significant shape complementarity is present between lactoferrin and the ACE2 receptor, while 3) two high complementarity regions are found on the N- and C-terminal domains of the SARS-CoV-2 spike protein, hinting at a possible competition between lactoferrin and ACE2 for the binding to the spike protein.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mattia Miotto
- Department of Physics, University of Rome `La Sapienza', Rome, Italy
- Istituto Italiano di Tecnologia (IIT), Center for Life Nano Science, Rome, Italy
| | - Lorenzo Di Rienzo
- Istituto Italiano di Tecnologia (IIT), Center for Life Nano Science, Rome, Italy
| | - Leonardo Bò
- Istituto Italiano di Tecnologia (IIT), Center for Life Nano Science, Rome, Italy
| | - Alberto Boffi
- Istituto Italiano di Tecnologia (IIT), Center for Life Nano Science, Rome, Italy
- Department of Biochemical Sciences “A. Rossi Fanelli” Sapienza University, Rome, Italy
| | - Giancarlo Ruocco
- Department of Physics, University of Rome `La Sapienza', Rome, Italy
- Istituto Italiano di Tecnologia (IIT), Center for Life Nano Science, Rome, Italy
| | - Edoardo Milanetti
- Department of Physics, University of Rome `La Sapienza', Rome, Italy
- Istituto Italiano di Tecnologia (IIT), Center for Life Nano Science, Rome, Italy
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20
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Tree JA, Turnbull JE, Buttigieg KR, Elmore MJ, Coombes N, Hogwood J, Mycroft-West CJ, Lima MA, Skidmore MA, Karlsson R, Chen YH, Yang Z, Spalluto CM, Staples KJ, Yates EA, Gray E, Singh D, Wilkinson T, Page CP, Carroll MW. Unfractionated heparin inhibits live wild type SARS-CoV-2 cell infectivity at therapeutically relevant concentrations. Br J Pharmacol 2021. [PMID: 33125711 DOI: 10.1111/bph.v178.310.1111/bph.15304] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/07/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE Currently, there are no licensed vaccines and limited antivirals for the treatment of COVID-19. Heparin (delivered systemically) is currently used to treat anticoagulant anomalies in COVID-19 patients. Additionally, in the United Kingdom, Brazil and Australia, nebulised unfractionated heparin (UFH) is being trialled in COVID-19 patients as a potential treatment. A systematic comparison of the potential antiviral effect of various heparin preparations on live wild type SARS-CoV-2, in vitro, is needed. EXPERIMENTAL APPROACH Seven different heparin preparations including UFH and low MW heparins (LMWH) of porcine or bovine origin were screened for antiviral activity against live SARS-CoV-2 (Australia/VIC01/2020) using a plaque inhibition assay with Vero E6 cells. Interaction of heparin with spike protein RBD was studied using differential scanning fluorimetry and the inhibition of RBD binding to human ACE2 protein using elisa assays was examined. KEY RESULTS All the UFH preparations had potent antiviral effects, with IC50 values ranging between 25 and 41 μg·ml-1 , whereas LMWHs were less inhibitory by ~150-fold (IC50 range 3.4-7.8 mg·ml-1 ). Mechanistically, we observed that heparin binds and destabilizes the RBD protein and furthermore, we show heparin directly inhibits the binding of RBD to the human ACE2 protein receptor. CONCLUSION AND IMPLICATIONS This comparison of clinically relevant heparins shows that UFH has significantly stronger SARS-CoV-2 antiviral activity compared to LMWHs. UFH acts to directly inhibit binding of spike protein to the human ACE2 protein receptor. Overall, the data strongly support further clinical investigation of UFH as a potential treatment for patients with COVID-19.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julia A Tree
- National Infection Service, Public Health England, Porton Down, Salisbury, UK
| | - Jeremy E Turnbull
- Department of Biochemistry and Systems Biology, Institute of Systems, Molecular & Integrative Biology, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, UK
- Copenhagen Center for Glycomics, Department of Cellular & Molecular Medicine, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Karen R Buttigieg
- National Infection Service, Public Health England, Porton Down, Salisbury, UK
| | - Michael J Elmore
- National Infection Service, Public Health England, Porton Down, Salisbury, UK
| | - Naomi Coombes
- National Infection Service, Public Health England, Porton Down, Salisbury, UK
| | - John Hogwood
- Haemostasis Section, Biotherapeutics, National Institute for Biological Standards and Control (NIBSC), Potters Bar, UK
| | - Courtney J Mycroft-West
- Molecular & Structural Biosciences, School of Life Sciences, Keele University, Newcastle-Under-Lyme, UK
| | - Marcelo A Lima
- Molecular & Structural Biosciences, School of Life Sciences, Keele University, Newcastle-Under-Lyme, UK
| | - Mark A Skidmore
- Molecular & Structural Biosciences, School of Life Sciences, Keele University, Newcastle-Under-Lyme, UK
| | - Richard Karlsson
- Copenhagen Center for Glycomics, Department of Cellular & Molecular Medicine, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Yen-Hsi Chen
- Copenhagen Center for Glycomics, Department of Cellular & Molecular Medicine, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Zhang Yang
- Copenhagen Center for Glycomics, Department of Cellular & Molecular Medicine, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | | | - Karl J Staples
- Department of Respiratory Medicine, University of Southampton, Southampton, UK
| | - Edwin A Yates
- Department of Biochemistry and Systems Biology, Institute of Systems, Molecular & Integrative Biology, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, UK
| | - Elaine Gray
- Haemostasis Section, Biotherapeutics, National Institute for Biological Standards and Control (NIBSC), Potters Bar, UK
- Sackler Institute of Pulmonary Pharmacology, King's College London, London, UK
| | - Dave Singh
- Medicines Evaluation Unit, University of Manchester, Manchester University Hospital NHS Foundation Trust, Manchester, UK
| | - Tom Wilkinson
- Department of Respiratory Medicine, University of Southampton, Southampton, UK
| | - Clive P Page
- Sackler Institute of Pulmonary Pharmacology, King's College London, London, UK
| | - Miles W Carroll
- National Infection Service, Public Health England, Porton Down, Salisbury, UK
- Nuffield Department of Medicine, Wellcome Trust Centre for Human Genetics, Oxford University, Oxford, UK
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21
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Romeo I, Mesiti F, Lupia A, Alcaro S. Current Updates on Naturally Occurring Compounds Recognizing SARS-CoV-2 Druggable Targets. Molecules 2021; 26:632. [PMID: 33530467 PMCID: PMC7865633 DOI: 10.3390/molecules26030632] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/31/2020] [Revised: 01/20/2021] [Accepted: 01/21/2021] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
The severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) has been identified in China as the etiologic agent of the recent COVID-19 pandemic outbreak. Due to its high transmissibility, this virus quickly spread throughout the world, causing considerable health issues. The scientific community exerted noteworthy efforts to obtain therapeutic solutions for COVID-19, and new scientific networks were constituted. No certified drugs to efficiently inhibit the virus were identified, and the development of de-novo medicines requires approximately ten years of research. Therefore, the repurposing of natural products could be an effective strategy to handle SARS-CoV-2 infection. This review aims to update on current status of the natural occurring compounds recognizing SARS-CoV-2 druggable targets. Among the clinical trials actually recruited, some natural compounds are ongoing to examine their potential role to prevent and to treat the COVID-19 infection. Many natural scaffolds, including alkaloids, terpenes, flavonoids, and benzoquinones, were investigated by in-silico, in-vitro, and in-vivo approaches. Despite the large data set obtained by a computational approach, experimental evidences in most cases are not available. To fill this gap, further efforts to validate these results are required. We believe that an accurate investigation of naturally occurring compounds may provide insights for the potential treatment of COVID-19 patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Isabella Romeo
- Dipartimento di Scienze della Salute, Università “Magna Græcia” di Catanzaro, Campus “S. Venuta”, Viale Europa, 88100 Catanzaro, Italy;
- Net4Science Academic Spin-Off, Università “Magna Græcia” di Catanzaro, Campus “S. Venuta”, Viale Europa, 88100 Catanzaro, Italy; (F.M.); (A.L.)
| | - Francesco Mesiti
- Net4Science Academic Spin-Off, Università “Magna Græcia” di Catanzaro, Campus “S. Venuta”, Viale Europa, 88100 Catanzaro, Italy; (F.M.); (A.L.)
| | - Antonio Lupia
- Net4Science Academic Spin-Off, Università “Magna Græcia” di Catanzaro, Campus “S. Venuta”, Viale Europa, 88100 Catanzaro, Italy; (F.M.); (A.L.)
| | - Stefano Alcaro
- Dipartimento di Scienze della Salute, Università “Magna Græcia” di Catanzaro, Campus “S. Venuta”, Viale Europa, 88100 Catanzaro, Italy;
- Net4Science Academic Spin-Off, Università “Magna Græcia” di Catanzaro, Campus “S. Venuta”, Viale Europa, 88100 Catanzaro, Italy; (F.M.); (A.L.)
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22
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Yu M, Zhang T, Zhang W, Sun Q, Li H, Li JP. Elucidating the Interactions Between Heparin/Heparan Sulfate and SARS-CoV-2-Related Proteins-An Important Strategy for Developing Novel Therapeutics for the COVID-19 Pandemic. Front Mol Biosci 2021; 7:628551. [PMID: 33569392 PMCID: PMC7868326 DOI: 10.3389/fmolb.2020.628551] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/12/2020] [Accepted: 12/16/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Owing to the high mortality and the spread rate, the infectious disease caused by SARS-CoV-2 has become a major threat to public health and social economy, leading to over 70 million infections and 1. 6 million deaths to date. Since there are currently no effective therapeutic or widely available vaccines, it is of urgent need to look for new strategies for the treatment of SARS-CoV-2 infection diseases. Binding of a viral protein onto cell surface heparan sulfate (HS) is generally the first step in a cascade of interaction that is required for viral entry and the initiation of infection. Meanwhile, interactions of selectins and cytokines (e.g., IL-6 and TNF-α) with HS expressed on endothelial cells are crucial in controlling the recruitment of immune cells during inflammation. Thus, structurally defined heparin/HS and their mimetics might serve as potential drugs by competing with cell surface HS for the prevention of viral adhesion and modulation of inflammatory reaction. In this review, we will elaborate coronavirus invasion mechanisms and summarize the latest advances in HS-protein interactions, especially proteins relevant to the process of coronavirus infection and subsequent inflammation. Experimental and computational techniques involved will be emphasized.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mingjia Yu
- Beijing Advanced Innovation Center for Soft Matter Science and Engineering, Beijing University of Chemical Technology, Beijing, China
| | - Tianji Zhang
- Division of Chemistry and Analytical Science, National Institute of Metrology, Beijing, China
| | - Wei Zhang
- Division of Chemistry and Analytical Science, National Institute of Metrology, Beijing, China
| | - Qianyun Sun
- Division of Chemistry, Shandong Institute of Metrology, Jinan, China
| | - Hongmei Li
- Division of Chemistry and Analytical Science, National Institute of Metrology, Beijing, China
| | - Jin-ping Li
- Beijing Advanced Innovation Center for Soft Matter Science and Engineering, Beijing University of Chemical Technology, Beijing, China
- Department of Medical Biochemistry and Microbiology, University of Uppsala, Uppsala, Sweden
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23
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Oommen A, Cunningham S, Joshi L. Transcriptomic Analysis of Respiratory Tissue and Cell Line Models to Examine Glycosylation Machinery during SARS-CoV-2 Infection. Viruses 2021; 13:v13010082. [PMID: 33435561 PMCID: PMC7827443 DOI: 10.3390/v13010082] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/20/2020] [Revised: 12/28/2020] [Accepted: 01/04/2021] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Glycosylation, being the most abundant post-translational modification, plays a profound role affecting expression, localization and function of proteins and macromolecules in immune response to infection. Presented are the findings of a transcriptomic analysis performed using high-throughput functional genomics data from public repository to examine the altered transcription of the human glycosylation machinery in response to SARS-CoV-2 stimulus and infection. In addition to the conventional in silico functional enrichment analysis methods we also present results from the manual analysis of biomedical literature databases to bring about the biological significance of glycans and glycan-binding proteins in modulating the host immune response during SARS-CoV-2 infection. Our analysis revealed key immunomodulatory lectins, proteoglycans and glycan epitopes implicated in exerting both negative and positive downstream inflammatory signaling pathways, in addition to its vital role as adhesion receptors for SARS-CoV-2 pathogen. A hypothetical correlation of the differentially expressed human glycogenes with the altered host inflammatory response and the cytokine storm-generated in response to SARS-CoV-2 pathogen is proposed. These markers can provide novel insights into the diverse roles and functioning of glycosylation pathways modulated by SARS-CoV-2, provide avenues of stratification, treatment, and targeted approaches for COVID-19 immunity and other viral infectious agents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anup Oommen
- Advanced Glycoscience Research Cluster (AGRC), National University of Ireland Galway, H91 TK33 Galway, Ireland; (A.O.); (S.C.)
- Centre for Research in Medical Devices (CURAM), National University of Ireland Galway, H91 TK33 Galway, Ireland
| | - Stephen Cunningham
- Advanced Glycoscience Research Cluster (AGRC), National University of Ireland Galway, H91 TK33 Galway, Ireland; (A.O.); (S.C.)
- Centre for Research in Medical Devices (CURAM), National University of Ireland Galway, H91 TK33 Galway, Ireland
| | - Lokesh Joshi
- Advanced Glycoscience Research Cluster (AGRC), National University of Ireland Galway, H91 TK33 Galway, Ireland; (A.O.); (S.C.)
- Centre for Research in Medical Devices (CURAM), National University of Ireland Galway, H91 TK33 Galway, Ireland
- Correspondence:
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24
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Song Y, Zhang F, Linhardt RJ. Glycosaminoglycans. ADVANCES IN EXPERIMENTAL MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY 2021; 1325:103-116. [PMID: 34495531 DOI: 10.1007/978-3-030-70115-4_4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Glycosaminoglycans (GAGs) are important constituents of human glycome. They are negatively charged unbranched polysaccharides that are usually covalently attached to proteins, forming glycan-protein conjugates, called proteoglycans. Glycosaminoglycans play critical roles in numerous biological processes throughout individual development and are also involved in the pathological processes of various diseases. Based on their remarkable bioactivities and their universal involvement in disease progression, GAGs are applied as therapeutics or are being targeted or used in treating diseases. In this chapter, we introduce the characteristics of the four classes of GAGs that constitute the glycosaminoglycan family. The pathological roles of glycosaminoglycans in major diseases including innate disease, infectious disease, and cancer are discussed. The application of GAGs and their mimetics as therapeutics is introduced, as well as those therapeutic methods developed based on GAGs' role in pathogenesis. In addition, we provide a brief and overall lookback at the history of GAG research and sort out some critical techniques that facilitated GAG and glycomics studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuefan Song
- National R&D Branch Center for Seaweed Processing, College of Food Science and Engineering, Dalian Ocean University, Dalian, PR China. .,Center for Biotechnology and Interdisciplinary Studies, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy, NY, USA.
| | - Fuming Zhang
- Center for Biotechnology and Interdisciplinary Studies, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy, NY, USA
| | - Robert J Linhardt
- Center for Biotechnology and Interdisciplinary Studies, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy, NY, USA.
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25
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Mycroft-West CJ, Su D, Pagani I, Rudd TR, Elli S, Gandhi NS, Guimond SE, Miller GJ, Meneghetti MCZ, Nader HB, Li Y, Nunes QM, Procter P, Mancini N, Clementi M, Bisio A, Forsyth NR, Ferro V, Turnbull JE, Guerrini M, Fernig DG, Vicenzi E, Yates EA, Lima MA, Skidmore MA. Heparin Inhibits Cellular Invasion by SARS-CoV-2: Structural Dependence of the Interaction of the Spike S1 Receptor-Binding Domain with Heparin. Thromb Haemost 2020; 120:1700-1715. [PMID: 33368089 DOI: 10.1101/2020.04.28.066761] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/23/2023]
Abstract
The dependence of development and homeostasis in animals on the interaction of hundreds of extracellular regulatory proteins with the peri- and extracellular glycosaminoglycan heparan sulfate (HS) is exploited by many microbial pathogens as a means of adherence and invasion. Heparin, a widely used anticoagulant drug, is structurally similar to HS and is a common experimental proxy. Exogenous heparin prevents infection by a range of viruses, including S-associated coronavirus isolate HSR1. Here, we show that heparin inhibits severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2) invasion of Vero cells by up to 80% at doses achievable through prophylaxis and, particularly relevant, within the range deliverable by nebulisation. Surface plasmon resonance and circular dichroism spectroscopy demonstrate that heparin and enoxaparin, a low-molecular-weight heparin which is a clinical anticoagulant, bind and induce a conformational change in the spike (S1) protein receptor-binding domain (S1 RBD) of SARS-CoV-2. A library of heparin derivatives and size-defined fragments were used to probe the structural basis of this interaction. Binding to the RBD is more strongly dependent on the presence of 2-O or 6-O sulfate groups than on N-sulfation and a hexasaccharide is the minimum size required for secondary structural changes to be induced in the RBD. It is likely that inhibition of viral infection arises from an overlap between the binding sites of heparin/HS on S1 RBD and that of the angiotensin-converting enzyme 2. The results suggest a route for the rapid development of a first-line therapeutic by repurposing heparin and its derivatives as antiviral agents against SARS-CoV-2 and other members of the Coronaviridae.
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Affiliation(s)
- Courtney J Mycroft-West
- Molecular and Structural Biosciences, School of Life Sciences, Keele University, Newcastle-Under-Lyme, Staffordshire, United Kingdom
| | - Dunhao Su
- Department of Biochemistry and Systems Biology, Institute of Systems, Molecular and Integrative Biology, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, United Kingdom
| | - Isabel Pagani
- Viral Pathogenesis and Biosafety Unit, Division of Immunology, Transplantation and Infectious Diseases, IRCCS San Raffaele Scientific Institute, Milan, Italy
| | - Timothy R Rudd
- Analytical and Biological Sciences Division, National Institute for Biological Standards and Control, Potters Bar, Hertfordshire, United Kingdom
| | - Stefano Elli
- Istituto di Ricerche Chimiche e Biochimiche G. Ronzoni, Milan, Italy
| | - Neha S Gandhi
- School of Chemistry and Physics, Queensland University of Technology, Brisbane, Australia
- Institute of Health and Biomedical Innovation, Queensland University of Technology, Brisbane, Australia
| | - Scott E Guimond
- School of Medicine, Keele University, Newcastle-Under-Lyme, Staffordshire, United Kingdom
| | - Gavin J Miller
- School of Chemical and Physical Sciences, Keele University, Newcastle-Under-Lyme, Staffordshire, United Kingdom
| | - Maria C Z Meneghetti
- Biochemistry Department, Federal University of São Paulo (UNIFESP), São Paulo, SP Brazil
| | - Helena B Nader
- Biochemistry Department, Federal University of São Paulo (UNIFESP), São Paulo, SP Brazil
| | - Yong Li
- Department of Biochemistry and Systems Biology, Institute of Systems, Molecular and Integrative Biology, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, United Kingdom
| | - Quentin M Nunes
- Department of Molecular and Clinical Cancer Medicine, Institute of Systems, Molecular and Integrative Biology, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, United Kingdom
| | - Patricia Procter
- Molecular and Structural Biosciences, School of Life Sciences, Keele University, Newcastle-Under-Lyme, Staffordshire, United Kingdom
| | | | | | - Antonella Bisio
- Istituto di Ricerche Chimiche e Biochimiche G. Ronzoni, Milan, Italy
| | - Nicholas R Forsyth
- Guy Hilton Research Centre, School of Pharmacy and Bioengineering, Keele University, Hartshill, Stoke-on-Trent, Staffordshire, United Kingdom
| | - Vito Ferro
- School of Chemistry and Molecular Biosciences, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Australia
- Australian Infectious Diseases Research Centre, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Australia
| | - Jeremy E Turnbull
- Department of Biochemistry and Systems Biology, Institute of Systems, Molecular and Integrative Biology, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, United Kingdom
| | - Marco Guerrini
- Istituto di Ricerche Chimiche e Biochimiche G. Ronzoni, Milan, Italy
| | - David G Fernig
- Department of Biochemistry and Systems Biology, Institute of Systems, Molecular and Integrative Biology, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, United Kingdom
| | - Elisa Vicenzi
- Viral Pathogenesis and Biosafety Unit, Division of Immunology, Transplantation and Infectious Diseases, IRCCS San Raffaele Scientific Institute, Milan, Italy
| | - Edwin A Yates
- Molecular and Structural Biosciences, School of Life Sciences, Keele University, Newcastle-Under-Lyme, Staffordshire, United Kingdom
- Department of Biochemistry and Systems Biology, Institute of Systems, Molecular and Integrative Biology, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, United Kingdom
| | - Marcelo A Lima
- Molecular and Structural Biosciences, School of Life Sciences, Keele University, Newcastle-Under-Lyme, Staffordshire, United Kingdom
| | - Mark A Skidmore
- Molecular and Structural Biosciences, School of Life Sciences, Keele University, Newcastle-Under-Lyme, Staffordshire, United Kingdom
- Department of Biochemistry and Systems Biology, Institute of Systems, Molecular and Integrative Biology, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, United Kingdom
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26
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Gasbarri M, V’kovski P, Torriani G, Thiel V, Stellacci F, Tapparel C, Cagno V. SARS-CoV-2 Inhibition by Sulfonated Compounds. Microorganisms 2020; 8:E1894. [PMID: 33265927 PMCID: PMC7760145 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms8121894] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/30/2020] [Revised: 11/26/2020] [Accepted: 11/28/2020] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Severe acute respiratory syndrome-related coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) depends on angiotensin converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) for cellular entry, but it might also rely on attachment receptors such as heparan sulfates. Several groups have recently demonstrated an affinity of the SARS-CoV2 spike protein for heparan sulfates and a reduced binding to cells in the presence of heparin or heparinase treatment. Here, we investigated the inhibitory activity of several sulfated and sulfonated molecules, which prevent interaction with heparan sulfates, against vesicular stomatitis virus (VSV)-pseudotyped-SARS-CoV-2 and the authentic SARS-CoV-2. Sulfonated cyclodextrins and nanoparticles that have recently shown broad-spectrum non-toxic virucidal activity against many heparan sulfates binding viruses showed inhibitory activity in the micromolar and nanomolar ranges, respectively. In stark contrast with the mechanisms that these compounds present for these other viruses, the inhibition against SARS-CoV-2 was found to be simply reversible.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matteo Gasbarri
- Institute of Materials, Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, 1015 Lausanne, Switzerland; (M.G.); (F.S.)
| | - Philip V’kovski
- Institute of Virology and Immunology (IVI), Länggassstrasse 122, 3012 Bern, Switzerland; (P.V.); (V.T.)
- Institute for Infectious Diseases, University of Bern, Hochschulstrasse 6, 3012 Bern, Switzerland
| | - Giulia Torriani
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Medicine, University of Geneva, 1211 Geneve, Switzerland; (G.T.); (C.T.)
| | - Volker Thiel
- Institute of Virology and Immunology (IVI), Länggassstrasse 122, 3012 Bern, Switzerland; (P.V.); (V.T.)
- Institute for Infectious Diseases, University of Bern, Hochschulstrasse 6, 3012 Bern, Switzerland
| | - Francesco Stellacci
- Institute of Materials, Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, 1015 Lausanne, Switzerland; (M.G.); (F.S.)
- Institute of Bioengineering, Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, 1015 Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Caroline Tapparel
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Medicine, University of Geneva, 1211 Geneve, Switzerland; (G.T.); (C.T.)
| | - Valeria Cagno
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Medicine, University of Geneva, 1211 Geneve, Switzerland; (G.T.); (C.T.)
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27
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Direct activation of the alternative complement pathway by SARS-CoV-2 spike proteins is blocked by factor D inhibition. Blood 2020; 136:2080-2089. [PMID: 32877502 PMCID: PMC7596849 DOI: 10.1182/blood.2020008248] [Citation(s) in RCA: 249] [Impact Index Per Article: 62.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/16/2020] [Accepted: 08/25/2020] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) is a highly contagious respiratory virus that can lead to venous/arterial thrombosis, stroke, renal failure, myocardial infarction, thrombocytopenia, and other end-organ damage. Animal models demonstrating end-organ protection in C3-deficient mice and evidence of complement activation in humans have led to the hypothesis that SARS-CoV-2 triggers complement-mediated endothelial damage, but the mechanism is unclear. Here, we demonstrate that the SARS-CoV-2 spike protein (subunit 1 and 2), but not the N protein, directly activates the alternative pathway of complement (APC). Complement-dependent killing using the modified Ham test is blocked by either C5 or factor D inhibition. C3 fragments and C5b-9 are deposited on TF1PIGAnull target cells, and complement factor Bb is increased in the supernatant from spike protein–treated cells. C5 inhibition prevents the accumulation of C5b-9 on cells, but not C3c; however, factor D inhibition prevents both C3c and C5b-9 accumulation. Addition of factor H mitigates the complement attack. In conclusion, SARS-CoV-2 spike proteins convert nonactivator surfaces to activator surfaces by preventing the inactivation of the cell-surface APC convertase. APC activation may explain many of the clinical manifestations (microangiopathy, thrombocytopenia, renal injury, and thrombophilia) of COVID-19 that are also observed in other complement-driven diseases such as atypical hemolytic uremic syndrome and catastrophic antiphospholipid antibody syndrome. C5 inhibition prevents accumulation of C5b-9 in vitro but does not prevent upstream complement activation in response to SARS-CoV-2 spike proteins.
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28
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Zhang Q, Chen CZ, Swaroop M, Xu M, Wang L, Lee J, Wang AQ, Pradhan M, Hagen N, Chen L, Shen M, Luo Z, Xu X, Xu Y, Huang W, Zheng W, Ye Y. Heparan sulfate assists SARS-CoV-2 in cell entry and can be targeted by approved drugs in vitro. Cell Discov 2020; 6:80. [PMID: 33298900 PMCID: PMC7610239 DOI: 10.1038/s41421-020-00222-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 141] [Impact Index Per Article: 35.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/22/2020] [Accepted: 09/28/2020] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
The cell entry of SARS-CoV-2 has emerged as an attractive drug repurposing target for COVID-19. Here we combine genetics and chemical perturbation to demonstrate that ACE2-mediated entry of SARS-Cov and CoV-2 requires the cell surface heparan sulfate (HS) as an assisting cofactor: ablation of genes involved in HS biosynthesis or incubating cells with a HS mimetic both inhibit Spike-mediated viral entry. We show that heparin/HS binds to Spike directly, and facilitates the attachment of Spike-bearing viral particles to the cell surface to promote viral entry. We screened approved drugs and identified two classes of inhibitors that act via distinct mechanisms to target this entry pathway. Among the drugs characterized, Mitoxantrone is a potent HS inhibitor, while Sunitinib and BNTX disrupt the actin network to indirectly abrogate HS-assisted viral entry. We further show that drugs of the two classes can be combined to generate a synergized activity against SARS-CoV-2-induced cytopathic effect. Altogether, our study establishes HS as an attachment factor that assists SARS coronavirus cell entry and reveals drugs capable of targeting this important step in the viral life cycle.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qi Zhang
- Laboratory of Molecular Biology, National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, 20892, USA
| | - Catherine Zhengzheng Chen
- National Center for Advancing Translational Sciences, National Institutes of Health, Rockville, MD, 20850, USA
| | - Manju Swaroop
- National Center for Advancing Translational Sciences, National Institutes of Health, Rockville, MD, 20850, USA
| | - Miao Xu
- National Center for Advancing Translational Sciences, National Institutes of Health, Rockville, MD, 20850, USA
| | - Lihui Wang
- Laboratory of Molecular Biology, National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, 20892, USA
| | - Juhyung Lee
- Laboratory of Molecular Biology, National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, 20892, USA
| | - Amy Qiu Wang
- National Center for Advancing Translational Sciences, National Institutes of Health, Rockville, MD, 20850, USA
| | - Manisha Pradhan
- National Center for Advancing Translational Sciences, National Institutes of Health, Rockville, MD, 20850, USA
| | - Natalie Hagen
- National Center for Advancing Translational Sciences, National Institutes of Health, Rockville, MD, 20850, USA
| | - Lu Chen
- National Center for Advancing Translational Sciences, National Institutes of Health, Rockville, MD, 20850, USA
| | - Min Shen
- National Center for Advancing Translational Sciences, National Institutes of Health, Rockville, MD, 20850, USA
| | - Zhiji Luo
- National Center for Advancing Translational Sciences, National Institutes of Health, Rockville, MD, 20850, USA
| | - Xin Xu
- National Center for Advancing Translational Sciences, National Institutes of Health, Rockville, MD, 20850, USA
| | - Yue Xu
- Laboratory of Molecular Biology, National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, 20892, USA
| | - Wenwei Huang
- National Center for Advancing Translational Sciences, National Institutes of Health, Rockville, MD, 20850, USA
| | - Wei Zheng
- National Center for Advancing Translational Sciences, National Institutes of Health, Rockville, MD, 20850, USA
| | - Yihong Ye
- Laboratory of Molecular Biology, National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, 20892, USA.
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29
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Sun L, Chopra P, Boons GJ. Modular Synthesis of Heparan Sulfate Oligosaccharides Having N-Acetyl and N-Sulfate Moieties. J Org Chem 2020; 85:16082-16098. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.joc.0c01881] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Lifeng Sun
- Department of Chemical Biology and Drug Discovery, Utrecht Institute for Pharmaceutical Sciences, and Bijvoet Center for Biomolecular Research, Utrecht University, Universiteitsweg 99, 3584 CG Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Pradeep Chopra
- Complex Carbohydrate Research Center, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia 30602, United States
| | - Geert-Jan Boons
- Department of Chemical Biology and Drug Discovery, Utrecht Institute for Pharmaceutical Sciences, and Bijvoet Center for Biomolecular Research, Utrecht University, Universiteitsweg 99, 3584 CG Utrecht, The Netherlands
- Complex Carbohydrate Research Center, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia 30602, United States
- Department of Chemistry, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia 30602, United States
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30
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Tiwari V, Tandon R, Sankaranarayanan NV, Beer JC, Kohlmeir EK, Swanson-Mungerson M, Desai UR. Preferential recognition and antagonism of SARS-CoV-2 spike glycoprotein binding to 3- O-sulfated heparan sulfate. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2020:2020.10.08.331751. [PMID: 33052337 PMCID: PMC7553162 DOI: 10.1101/2020.10.08.331751] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
The COVID-19 pandemic caused by SARS-CoV-2 is in immediate need of an effective antidote. Although the Spike glycoprotein (SgP) of SARS-CoV-2 has been shown to bind to heparins, the structural features of this interaction, the role of a plausible heparan sulfate proteoglycan (HSPG) receptor, and the antagonism of this pathway through small molecules remain unaddressed. Using an in vitro cellular assay, we demonstrate HSPGs modified by the 3-O-sulfotransferase isoform-3, but not isoform-5, preferentially increased SgP-mediated cell-to-cell fusion in comparison to control, unmodified, wild-type HSPGs. Computational studies support preferential recognition of the receptor-binding domain of SgP by 3-O-sulfated HS sequences. Competition with either fondaparinux, a 3-O-sulfated HS-binding oligopeptide, or a synthetic, non-sugar small molecule, blocked SgP-mediated cell-to-cell fusion. Finally, the synthetic, sulfated molecule inhibited fusion of GFP-tagged pseudo SARS-CoV-2 with human 293T cells with sub-micromolar potency. Overall, overexpression of 3-O-sulfated HSPGs contribute to fusion of SARS-CoV-2, which could be effectively antagonized by a synthetic, small molecule.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vaibhav Tiwari
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Midwestern University, Downers Grove, IL 60515
| | - Ritesh Tandon
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Mississippi Medical Center, Jackson, MS 39216
| | - Nehru Viji Sankaranarayanan
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry and Institute for Structural Biology, Drug Discovery and Development, Virginia Commonwealth University, 800 E. Leigh Street, Suite 212, Richmond, VA 23219
| | - Jacob C. Beer
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Midwestern University, Downers Grove, IL 60515
| | | | | | - Umesh R. Desai
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry and Institute for Structural Biology, Drug Discovery and Development, Virginia Commonwealth University, 800 E. Leigh Street, Suite 212, Richmond, VA 23219
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31
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Zhang Q, Chen CZ, Swaroop M, Xu M, Wang L, Lee J, Wang AQ, Pradhan M, Hagen N, Chen L, Shen M, Luo Z, Xu X, Xu Y, Huang W, Zheng W, Ye Y. Heparan sulfate assists SARS-CoV-2 in cell entry and can be targeted by approved drugs in vitro. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2020:2020.07.14.202549. [PMID: 32699847 PMCID: PMC7373127 DOI: 10.1101/2020.07.14.202549] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
The cell entry of SARS-CoV-2 has emerged as an attractive drug repurposing target for COVID-19. Here we combine genetics and chemical perturbation to demonstrate that ACE2-mediated entry of SARS-CoV and CoV-2 requires the cell surface heparan sulfate (HS) as an assisting cofactor: ablation of genes involved in HS biosynthesis or incubating cells with a HS mimetic both inhibit Spike-mediated viral entry. We show that heparin/HS binds to Spike directly, facilitates the attachment of viral particles to the cell surface to promote cell entry. We screened approved drugs and identified two classes of inhibitors that act via distinct mechanisms to target this entry pathway. Among the drugs characterized, Mitoxantrone is a potent HS inhibitor, while Sunitinib and BNTX disrupt the actin network to indirectly abrogate HS-assisted viral entry. We further show that drugs of the two classes can be combined to generate a synergized activity against SARS-CoV-2-induced cytopathic effect. Altogether, our study establishes HS as an attachment factor that assists SARS coronavirus cell entry, and reveals drugs capable of targeting this important step in the viral life cycle.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qi Zhang
- Laboratory of Molecular Biology, National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892
| | - Catherine Z. Chen
- National Center for Advancing Translational Sciences, National Institutes of Health, Rockville, MD 20850
| | - Manju Swaroop
- National Center for Advancing Translational Sciences, National Institutes of Health, Rockville, MD 20850
| | - Miao Xu
- National Center for Advancing Translational Sciences, National Institutes of Health, Rockville, MD 20850
| | - Lihui Wang
- Laboratory of Molecular Biology, National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892
| | - Juhyung Lee
- Laboratory of Molecular Biology, National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892
| | - Amy Q. Wang
- National Center for Advancing Translational Sciences, National Institutes of Health, Rockville, MD 20850
| | - Manisha Pradhan
- National Center for Advancing Translational Sciences, National Institutes of Health, Rockville, MD 20850
| | - Natalie Hagen
- National Center for Advancing Translational Sciences, National Institutes of Health, Rockville, MD 20850
| | - Lu Chen
- National Center for Advancing Translational Sciences, National Institutes of Health, Rockville, MD 20850
| | - Min Shen
- National Center for Advancing Translational Sciences, National Institutes of Health, Rockville, MD 20850
| | - Zhiji Luo
- National Center for Advancing Translational Sciences, National Institutes of Health, Rockville, MD 20850
| | - Xin Xu
- National Center for Advancing Translational Sciences, National Institutes of Health, Rockville, MD 20850
| | - Yue Xu
- Laboratory of Molecular Biology, National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892
| | - Wenwei Huang
- National Center for Advancing Translational Sciences, National Institutes of Health, Rockville, MD 20850
| | - Wei Zheng
- National Center for Advancing Translational Sciences, National Institutes of Health, Rockville, MD 20850
| | - Yihong Ye
- Laboratory of Molecular Biology, National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892
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32
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Campos EVR, Pereira AES, de Oliveira JL, Carvalho LB, Guilger-Casagrande M, de Lima R, Fraceto LF. How can nanotechnology help to combat COVID-19? Opportunities and urgent need. J Nanobiotechnology 2020; 18:125. [PMID: 32891146 PMCID: PMC7474329 DOI: 10.1186/s12951-020-00685-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 116] [Impact Index Per Article: 29.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/09/2020] [Accepted: 08/28/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Incidents of viral outbreaks have increased at an alarming rate over the past decades. The most recent human coronavirus known as COVID-19 (SARS-CoV-2) has already spread around the world and shown R0 values from 2.2 to 2.68. However, the ratio between mortality and number of infections seems to be lower in this case in comparison to other human coronaviruses (such as severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus (SARS-CoV) and Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus (MERS-CoV)). These outbreaks have tested the limits of healthcare systems and have posed serious questions about management using conventional therapies and diagnostic tools. In this regard, the use of nanotechnology offers new opportunities for the development of novel strategies in terms of prevention, diagnosis and treatment of COVID-19 and other viral infections. In this review, we discuss the use of nanotechnology for COVID-19 virus management by the development of nano-based materials, such as disinfectants, personal protective equipment, diagnostic systems and nanocarrier systems, for treatments and vaccine development, as well as the challenges and drawbacks that need addressing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Estefânia V R Campos
- Human and Natural Sciences Center, Federal University of ABC. Av. dos Estados, 5001. Bl. A, T3 Lab. 503-3. Bangú, Santo André, SP, Brazil
| | - Anderson E S Pereira
- São Paulo State University-UNESP, Institute of Science and Technology, Sorocaba, SP, Brazil
| | | | | | | | - Renata de Lima
- Universidade de Sorocaba, Rodovia Raposo Tavares km 92,5, Sorocaba, São Paulo, Brazil.
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33
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Reina G, Peng S, Jacquemin L, Andrade AF, Bianco A. Hard Nanomaterials in Time of Viral Pandemics. ACS NANO 2020; 14:9364-9388. [PMID: 32667191 PMCID: PMC7376974 DOI: 10.1021/acsnano.0c04117] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2020] [Accepted: 07/15/2020] [Indexed: 05/05/2023]
Abstract
The SARS-Cov-2 pandemic has spread worldwide during 2020, setting up an uncertain start of this decade. The measures to contain infection taken by many governments have been extremely severe by imposing home lockdown and industrial production shutdown, making this the biggest crisis since the second world war. Additionally, the continuous colonization of wild natural lands may touch unknown virus reservoirs, causing the spread of epidemics. Apart from SARS-Cov-2, the recent history has seen the spread of several viral pandemics such as H2N2 and H3N3 flu, HIV, and SARS, while MERS and Ebola viruses are considered still in a prepandemic phase. Hard nanomaterials (HNMs) have been recently used as antimicrobial agents, potentially being next-generation drugs to fight viral infections. HNMs can block infection at early (disinfection, entrance inhibition) and middle (inside the host cells) stages and are also able to mitigate the immune response. This review is focused on the application of HNMs as antiviral agents. In particular, mechanisms of actions, biological outputs, and limitations for each HNM will be systematically presented and analyzed from a material chemistry point-of-view. The antiviral activity will be discussed in the context of the different pandemic viruses. We acknowledge that HNM antiviral research is still at its early stage, however, we believe that this field will rapidly blossom in the next period.
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Affiliation(s)
- Giacomo Reina
- CNRS, Immunology, Immunopathology and Therapeutic Chemistry, UPR 3572,
University of Strasbourg ISIS, 67000 Strasbourg,
France
| | - Shiyuan Peng
- CNRS, Immunology, Immunopathology and Therapeutic Chemistry, UPR 3572,
University of Strasbourg ISIS, 67000 Strasbourg,
France
| | - Lucas Jacquemin
- CNRS, Immunology, Immunopathology and Therapeutic Chemistry, UPR 3572,
University of Strasbourg ISIS, 67000 Strasbourg,
France
| | - Andrés Felipe Andrade
- CNRS, Immunology, Immunopathology and Therapeutic Chemistry, UPR 3572,
University of Strasbourg ISIS, 67000 Strasbourg,
France
| | - Alberto Bianco
- CNRS, Immunology, Immunopathology and Therapeutic Chemistry, UPR 3572,
University of Strasbourg ISIS, 67000 Strasbourg,
France
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34
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Clausen TM, Sandoval DR, Spliid CB, Pihl J, Painter CD, Thacker BE, Glass CA, Narayanan A, Majowicz SA, Zhang Y, Torres JL, Golden GJ, Porell R, Garretson AF, Laubach L, Feldman J, Yin X, Pu Y, Hauser B, Caradonna TM, Kellman BP, Martino C, Gordts PLSM, Leibel SL, Chanda SK, Schmidt AG, Godula K, Jose J, Corbett KD, Ward AB, Carlin AF, Esko JD. SARS-CoV-2 Infection Depends on Cellular Heparan Sulfate and ACE2. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2020. [PMID: 32699853 PMCID: PMC7373134 DOI: 10.1101/2020.07.14.201616] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
We show that SARS-CoV-2 spike protein interacts with cell surface heparan sulfate and angiotensin converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) through its Receptor Binding Domain. Docking studies suggest a putative heparin/heparan sulfate-binding site adjacent to the domain that binds to ACE2. In vitro, binding of ACE2 and heparin to spike protein ectodomains occurs independently and a ternary complex can be generated using heparin as a template. Contrary to studies with purified components, spike protein binding to heparan sulfate and ACE2 on cells occurs codependently. Unfractionated heparin, non-anticoagulant heparin, treatment with heparin lyases, and purified lung heparan sulfate potently block spike protein binding and infection by spike protein-pseudotyped virus and SARS-CoV-2 virus. These findings support a model for SARS-CoV-2 infection in which viral attachment and infection involves formation of a complex between heparan sulfate and ACE2. Manipulation of heparan sulfate or inhibition of viral adhesion by exogenous heparin may represent new therapeutic opportunities.
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Zamboni P. COVID-19 as a Vascular Disease: Lesson Learned from Imaging and Blood Biomarkers. Diagnostics (Basel) 2020; 10:E440. [PMID: 32610564 PMCID: PMC7399947 DOI: 10.3390/diagnostics10070440] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/09/2020] [Revised: 06/25/2020] [Accepted: 06/26/2020] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
Abstract
COVID-19, a disease initially thought to be prominently an interstitial pneumonia with varying degrees of severity, can be considered a vascular disease with regards to serious complications and causes of mortality. Quite recently, blood clots have emerged as the common factor unifying many of the symptoms initially attributed without an explanation to COVID-19. Cardiovascular biomarkers and particularly, D-dimer and troponin appear to be very powerful prognostic markers, signaling the need for earlier and more aggressive interventions and treatments in order to avoid and/or minimize arterial/venous thromboembolism and myocardial infarct. The ultrasound imaging patterns at both the lung and peripheral vascular level can also be very useful weapons that have the advantage of being able to monitor longitudinally the clinical picture, something that real-time PCR/nasopharyngeal swab is not able to do and that CT can only pursue with significant radiation exposure. A lesson learned in the early phase of the COVID-19 pandemic suggests quitting and starting again with targeted imaging and blood vascular biomarkers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paolo Zamboni
- Department of Surgery, Vascular Disease Centre University Hospital of Ferrara, 44124 Cona (Fe), Italy
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