Genome editing in Bombyx mori: New opportunities for silkworm functional genomics and the sericulture industry

De Novo Long-Read Genome Assembly and Annotation of the Luna Moth (Actias luna) Fully Resolves Repeat-Rich Silk Genes

We present the first long-read de novo assembly and annotation of the luna moth (Actias luna) and provide the full characterization of heavy chain fibroin (h-fibroin), a long and highly repetitive gene (>20 kb) essential in silk fiber production. There are >160,000 described species of moths and butterflies (Lepidoptera), but only within the last 5 years have we begun to recover high-quality annotated whole genomes across the order that capture h-fibroin. Using PacBio HiFi reads, we produce the first high-quality long-read reference genome for this species. The assembled genome has a length of 532 Mb, a contig N50 of 16.8 Mb, an L50 of 14 contigs, and 99.4% completeness (BUSCO). Our annotation using Bombyx mori protein and A. luna RNAseq evidence captured a total of 20,866 genes at 98.9% completeness with 10,267 functionally annotated proteins and a full-length h-fibroin annotation of 2,679 amino acid residues.

Transcriptome Analysis Reveals Antioxidant Defense Mechanisms in the Silkworm Bombyx mori after Exposure to Lead

Lead (Pb) is a major source of heavy metal contamination, and poses a threat to biodiversity and human health. Elevated levels of Pb can hinder insect growth and development, leading to apoptosis via mechanisms like oxidative damage. The midgut of silkworms is the main organ exposed to heavy metals. As an economically important lepidopteran model insect in China, heavy metal-induced stress on silkworms causes considerable losses in sericulture, thereby causing substantial economic damage. This study aimed to investigate Pb-induced detoxification-related genes in the midgut of silkworms using high-throughput sequencing methods to achieve a deeper comprehension of the genes' reactions to lead exposure. This study identified 11,567 unigenes and 14,978 transcripts. A total of 1265 differentially expressed genes (DEGs) were screened, comprising 907 upregulated and 358 downregulated genes. Subsequently, Gene Ontology (GO) classification analysis revealed that the 1265 DEGs were distributed across biological processes, cellular components, and molecular functions. This suggests that the silkworm midgut may affect various organelle functions and biological processes, providing crucial clues for further exploration of DEG function. Additionally, the expression levels of 12 selected detoxification-related DEGs were validated using qRT-PCR, which confirmed the reliability of the RNA-seq results. This study not only provides new insights into the detoxification defense mechanisms of silkworms after Pb exposure, but also establishes a valuable foundation for further investigation into the molecular detoxification mechanisms in silkworms.

BmSPP is a virus resistance gene in Bombyx mori

Introduction

Signal peptide peptidase (SPP) is an intramembrane protease involved in a variety of biological processes, it participates in the processing of signal peptides after the release of the nascent protein to regulate the endoplasmic reticulum associated degradation (ERAD) pathway, binds misfolded membrane proteins, and aids in their clearance process. Additionally, it regulates normal immune surveillance and assists in the processing of viral proteins. Although SPP is essential for many viral infections, its role in silkworms remains unclear. Studying its role in the silkworm, Bombyx mori , may be helpful in breeding virus-resistant silkworms.

Methods

First, we performed RT-qPCR to analyze the expression pattern of BmSPP. Subsequently, we inhibited BmSPP using the SPP inhibitor 1,3-di-(N-carboxybenzoyl-L-leucyl-L-leucylaminopropanone ((Z-LL)2-ketone) and downregulated the expression of BmSPP using CRISPR/Cas9 gene editing. Furthermore, we assessed the impact of these interventions on the proliferation of Bombyx mori nucleopolyhedrovirus (BmNPV).

Results

We observed a decreased in the expression of BmSPP during viral proliferation. It was found that higher concentration of the inhibitor resulted in greater inhibition of BmNPV proliferation. The down-regulation of BmSPP in both in vivo and in vitro was found to affect the proliferation of BmNPV. In comparison to wild type silkworm, BmSPPKO silkworms exhibited a 12.4% reduction in mortality rate.

Discussion

Collectively, this work demonstrates that BmSPP plays a negative regulatory role in silkworm resistance to BmNPV infection and is involved in virus proliferation and replication processes. This finding suggests that BmSPP servers as a target gene for BmNPV virus resistance in silkworms and can be utilized in resistance breeding programs.

From phyllosphere to insect cuticles: silkworms gather antifungal bacteria from mulberry leaves to battle fungal parasite attacks

BACKGROUND

Bacterial transfers from plants to insect herbivore guts have been well investigated. However, bacterial exchanges between plant phyllospheres and insect cuticles remain unclear, as does their related biological function.

RESULTS

Here, we report that the cuticular bacterial loads of silkworm larvae quickly increased after molting and feeding on the white mulberry (Morus alba) leaves. The isolation and examination of silkworm cuticular bacteria identified one bacterium Mammaliicoccus sciuri that could completely inhibit the spore germination of fungal entomopathogens Metarhizium robertsii and Beauveria bassiana. Interestingly, Ma. sciuri was evident originally from mulberry leaves, which could produce a secreted chitinolytic lysozyme (termed Msp1) to damage fungal cell walls. In consistency, the deletion of Msp1 substantially impaired bacterial antifungal activity. Pretreating silkworm larvae with Ma. sciuri cells followed by fungal topical infections revealed that this bacterium could help defend silkworms against fungal infections. Unsurprisingly, the protective efficacy of ΔMsp1 was considerably reduced when compared with that of wild-type bacterium. Administration of bacterium-treated diets had no negative effect on silkworm development; instead, bacterial supplementation could protect the artificial diet from Aspergillus contamination.

CONCLUSIONS

The results of this study evidence that the cross-kingdom transfer of bacteria from plant phyllospheres to insect herbivore cuticles can help protect insects against fungal parasite attacks. Video Abstract.

High-throughput and genome-scale targeted mutagenesis using CRISPR in a nonmodel multicellular organism, Bombyx mori

Large-scale genetic mutant libraries are powerful approaches to interrogating genotype-phenotype correlations and identifying genes responsible for certain environmental stimuli, both of which are the central goal of life science study. We produced the first large-scale CRISPR-Cas9-induced library in a nonmodel multicellular organism, Bombyx mori We developed a piggyBac-delivered binary genome editing strategy, which can simultaneously meet the requirements of mixed microinjection, efficient multipurpose genetic operation, and preservation of growth-defect lines. We constructed a single-guide RNA (sgRNA) plasmid library containing 92,917 sgRNAs targeting promoters and exons of 14,645 protein-coding genes, established 1726 transgenic sgRNA lines following microinjection of 66,650 embryos, and generated 300 mutant lines with diverse phenotypic changes. Phenomic characterization of mutant lines identified a large set of genes responsible for visual phenotypic or economically valuable trait changes. Next, we performed pooled context-specific positive screens for tolerance to environmental pollutant cadmium exposure, and identified KWMTBOMO12902 as a strong candidate gene for breeding applications in sericulture industry. Collectively, our results provide a novel and versatile approach for functional B. mori genomics, as well as a powerful resource for identifying the potential of key candidate genes for improving various economic traits. This study also shows the effectiveness, practicality, and convenience of large-scale mutant libraries in other nonmodel organisms.

An efficient and safe strategy for germ cell-specific automatic excision of foreign DNA in F1 hybrid transgenic silkworms

The safety of transgenic technology is a major obstacle in the popularization and use of transgenic silkworms and their products. In sericulture, only the first filial generation (F1 ) hybrid eggs produced by cross-breeding Japanese and Chinese original strains are usually used for the large-scale breeding of silkworms, but this may result in uncontrolled transgene dispersal during the popularization and application of the F1 hybrid transgenic eggs. To address this issue, we developed a safe and efficient strategy using the GAL4/Upstream activating sequence (UAS) system, the FLP/flippase recognition target (FRT) system, and the gonad-specific expression gene promoters (RSHP1p and Nanosp) for the germ cell-specific automatic excision of foreign DNA in the F1 hybrid transgenic silkworms. We established 2 types of activator strains, R1p::GAL4-Gr and Nsp::GAL4-Gr, containing the testis-specific GAL4 gene expression cassettes driven by RSHP1p or Nanosp, respectively, and 1 type of effector strain, UAS::FLP-Rg, containing the UAS-linked FLP gene expression cassette. The FLP recombinase-mediated sperm-specific complete excision of FRT-flanked target DNA in the F1 double-transgenic silkworms resulting from the hybridization of R1p::GAL4-Gr and UAS::FLP-Rg was 100%, whereas the complete excision efficiency resulting from the hybridization of Nsp::GAL4-Gr and UAS::FLP-Rg ranged from 13.73% to 80.3%. Additionally, we identified a gene, sw11114, that is expressed in both testis and ovary of Bombyx mori, and can be used to establish novel gonad-specific expression systems in transgenic silkworms. This strategy has the potential to fundamentally solve the safety issue in the production of F1 transgenic silkworm eggs and provides an important reference for the safety of transgenic technology in other insect species.

SilkMeta: a comprehensive platform for sharing and exploiting pan-genomic and multi-omic silkworm data

The silkworm Bombyx mori is a domesticated insect that serves as an animal model for research and agriculture. The silkworm super-pan-genome dataset, which we published last year, is a unique resource for the study of global genomic diversity and phenotype-genotype association. Here we present SilkMeta (http://silkmeta.org.cn), a comprehensive database covering the available silkworm pan-genome and multi-omics data. The database contains 1082 short-read genomes, 546 long-read assembled genomes, 1168 transcriptomes, 294 phenotype characterizations (phenome), tens of millions of variations (variome), 7253 long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs), 18 717 full length transcripts and a set of population statistics. We have compiled publications on functional genomics research and genetic stock deciphering (mutant map). A range of bioinformatics tools is also provided for data visualization and retrieval. The large batch of omics data and tools were integrated in twelve functional modules that provide useful strategies and data for comparative and functional genomics research. The interactive bioinformatics platform SilkMeta will benefit not only the silkworm but also the insect biology communities.

Serpin-1a and serpin-6 regulate the Toll pathway immune homeostasis by synergistically inhibiting the Spätzle-processing enzyme CLIP2 in silkworm, Bombyx mori

The Toll receptor signaling pathway is an important innate immune response of insects to pathogen infection; its extracellular signal transduction involves serine protease cascade activation. However, excessive or constitutive activation of the Toll pathway can be detrimental. Hence, the balance between activation and inhibition of the extracellular protease cascade must be tightly regulated to achieve favorable outcomes. Previous studies have shown that serpins-serine protease inhibitors-negatively regulate insect innate immunity by inhibiting extracellular protease cascade signaling. Although the roles of serpins in insect innate immunity are well described, the physiological mechanisms underlying their synergistic effects remain poorly understand. Here, we characterize the molecular mechanism by which serpin-1a and serpin-6 synergistically maintain immune homeostasis of the silkworm Toll pathway under physiological and pathological conditions. Through in vitro biochemical assays and in vivo bioassays, we demonstrate that clip-domain serine protease 2 (CLIP2), as the Toll cascade-activating terminal protease, is responsible for processing proSpätzle1 to induce the expression of antimicrobial peptides. Further biochemical and genetic analyses indicate that constitutively expressed serpin-1a and inducible serpin-6 synergistically target CLIP2 to maintain homeostasis of the silkworm Toll pathway under physiological and pathological conditions. Taken together, this study provides new insights into the precise regulation of Toll cascade activation signals in insect innate immune responses and highlights the importance and complexity of insect immune homeostasis regulation.

Effects of Chromium Exposure on the Gene Expression of the Midgut in Silkworms, Bombyx mori

Chromium is a severe heavy metal pollutant with significant environmental risks. The effects of Chromium on the digestion of Bombyx mori (silkworms) are of particular importance due to their ecological and economic significance. Herein, RNA sequencing was conducted on nine midgut samples from silkworms exposed to control, 12 g/kg and 24 g/kg Chromium chemical diets. Comparative transcriptomics revealed that under moderate Chromium exposure, there was a significant increase in up-regulated genes (1268 up-regulated to 857 down-regulated), indicating a stimulation response. At higher stress levels, a weakened survival response was observed, with a decrease in up-regulated genes and an increase in down-regulated genes (374 up-regulated to 399 down-regulated). A notable shift in cellular responses under medium chromium exposure was exposed, signifying the activation of crucial metabolic and transport systems and an elevation in cellular stress and toxicity mechanisms. The observation of up-regulated gene expression within xenobiotic metabolism pathways suggests a heightened defense against Chromium-induced oxidative stress, which was primarily through the involvement of antioxidant enzymes. Conversely, high-dose Chromium exposure down-regulates the folate biosynthesis pathway, indicating biological toxicity. Two novel genes responsive to pressure were identified, which could facilitate future stress adaptation understanding. The findings provide insights into the molecular mechanisms underlying silkworms' digestion response to Chromium exposure and could inform its biological toxicity.

Delivering on the promise of recombinant silk-inspired proteins for drug delivery

Effective drug delivery is essential for the success of a medical treatment. Polymeric drug delivery systems (DDSs) are preferred over systemic administration of drugs due to their protection capacity, directed release, and reduced side effects. Among the numerous polymer sources, silks and recombinant silks have drawn significant attention over the past decade as DDSs. Native silk is produced from a variety of organisms, which are then used as sources or guides of genetic material for heterologous expression or engineered designs. Recombinant silks bear the outstanding properties of natural silk, such as processability in aqueous solution, self-assembly, drug loading capacity, drug stabilization/protection, and degradability, while incorporating specific properties beneficial for their success as DDS, such as monodispersity and tailored physicochemical properties. Moreover, the on-demand inclusion of sequences that customize the DDS for the specific application enhances efficiency. Often, inclusion of a drug into a DDS is achieved by simple mixing or diffusion and stabilized by non-specific molecular interactions; however, these interactions can be improved by the incorporation of drug-binding peptide sequences. In this review we provide an overview of native sources for silks and silk sequences, as well as the design and formulation of recombinant silk biomaterials as drug delivery systems in a variety of formats, such as films, hydrogels, porous sponges, or particles.

ATAC-seq exposes differences in chromatin accessibility leading to distinct leaf shapes in mulberry

Mulberry leaf shape is an important agronomic trait indicating yield, growth, development, and habitat variation. China was the earliest country in the world to grow mulberry for sericulture, and it is also one of the great contributions of the Chinese nation to human civilization. ATAC-seq (Assay for Transposase Accessible Chromatin using sequencing) is a recently developed technique for genome-wide analysis of chromatin accessibility. The samples used for ATAC sequencing in this study were divided into two groups of whole leaves (CK-1 and CK-2) and lobed leaves (HL-1 and HL-2), with two replicates in each group. The related motif analysis, differential expression motif screening, and functional annotation of mulberry leaf shape differences were performed by raw letter analysis to finally obtain the transcription factors (TFs) that lead to the production of heteromorphic leaves. These transcription factors are common in plants, especially the TCP family, shown to be associated with leaf development and growth in other woody plants and are a potential transcription factor responsible for leaf shape differences in mulberry. Dissecting the regulatory mechanisms of leaf shape of different forms of mulberry leaves by ATAC-seq is an important way to protect mulberry germplasm resources and improve mulberry yield. It is conducive to cultivating mulberry varieties with high resistance to adversity, promoting the sustainable development of sericulture, and protecting and improving the ecological environment.

Abolition of egg diapause by ablation of suboesophageal ganglion in parental females is compatible with genetic engineering methods

Microinjection of genetic material into non-diapause eggs is required for genetic engineering of silkworms. Besides diapause could be useful for maintaining transgenic lines, a drawback of this technology is that most standard silkworm strains and experimental lines of interest produce diapausing eggs. Several approaches have been developed to abolish diapause but none are very efficient. Here, we investigated the ablation of the suboesophageal ganglion (SG) in female pupae, which is a source of the hormone required to trigger egg diapause, as a mean to abolish diapause. We showed that SG-ablation is a reliable method to produce nondiapause eggs. Additionally, the challenge associated with lower fecundity of females with SG ablation was resolved by injecting pilocarpine into the mated female. We also investigated the suitability of nondiapause eggs laid by SG-ablated females for transgenesis, targeted mutagenesis, and induction of parthenogenetic development. Our results demonstrated SG-ablation to be a useful and simple method for expanding the possibilities associated with genetic engineering in silkworms.

Mechanism of silk secretion revealed by proteomic analysis of silkworm cocoons with fibroin light chain mutations

Silkworm is an economically important insect due to its efficient production of silk proteins. Silk itself and the silk trade have enriched human civilization through art and culture and contributed to early globalization in the Silk Road era for nearly two thousand years. Although a large number of studies on silk have been carried out, the mechanism of silk secretion in silkworms has not been thoroughly studied thus far. As the main component of fibroin, fibroin light chain (Fib-L) plays a key role in the secretion of silk. In this study, we constructed a homozygous Fib-L gene mutant population of a nonpractical variety using the CRISPR/Cas9 system. The homozygous mutants displayed a thin cocoon layer, but their viability was not affected by the Fib-L mutation. Furthermore, a comparative proteomic analysis of homozygous mutant cocoons and wild-type cocoons was performed. Strikingly, fibrohexamerin (P25) was secreted almost normally in the homozygous mutant. Further analysis of cocoon proteins revealed that the mutant responded to greater environmental stress caused by a dramatic decrease in fibroin by significantly increasing the secretion of protease inhibitors. These results will further help explain the silk secretion mechanism of silkworm. SIGNIFICANCE: This study generated a homozygous Fib-L gene mutant population of a nonpractical variety using the CRISPR/Cas9 system. The homozygous mutants displayed a thin cocoon layer, but their viability was not affected by the Fib-L mutation. Furthermore, a comparative proteomic analysis of homozygous mutant cocoons and wild-type cocoons was performed. The analysis of the abundance of silk proteins in the cocoons revealed that P25 could be secreted almost normally. The analysis of the abundance of cocoon proteins other than silk proteins showed that the homozygous mutants responded to greater environmental stress by increasing the secretion of defense-related proteins, such as protease inhibitors. These results will further help explain the silk secretion mechanism of silkworm.

Combined analysis of silk synthesis and hemolymph amino acid metabolism reveal key roles for glycine in increasing silkworm silk yields

Rearing silkworms (Bombyx mori) using formula feed has revolutionized traditional mulberry feed strategies. However, low silk production efficiencies persist and have caused bottlenecks, hindering the industrial application of formula feed sericulture. Here, we investigated the effects of formula feed amino acid composition on silk yields. We showed that imbalanced amino acids reduced DNA proliferation, decreased Fib-H, Fib-L, and P25 gene expression, and caused mild autophagy in the posterior silk gland, reducing cocoon shell weight and ratio. When compared with mulberry leaves, Gly, Ala, Ser, and Tyr percentages of total amino acids in formula feed were decreased by 5.26%, while Glu and Arg percentages increased by 9.56%. These changes increased uric acid and several amino acids levels in the hemolymph of silkworms on formula feed. Further analyses showed that Gly and Thr (important synthetic Gly sources) increased silk yields, with Gly increasing amino acid conversion efficiencies to silk protein, and reducing urea levels in hemolymph. Also, Gly promoted endomitotic DNA synthesis in silk gland cells via phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3K)/Akt/target of rapamycin (TOR) signaling. In this study, we highlighted the important role of Gly in regulating silk yields in silkworms.

BmPMFBP1 regulates the development of eupyrene sperm in the silkworm, Bombyx mori

Sperm deliver the male complement of DNA to the ovum, and thus play a key role in sexual reproduction. Accordingly, spermatogenesis has outstanding significance in fields as disparate as infertility treatments and pest-control, making it a broadly interesting and important focus for molecular genetics research in a wide range of species. Here we investigate spermatogenesis in the model lepidopteran insect Bombyx mori (silkworm moth), with particular focus on the gene PMFBP1 (polyamine modulated factor 1 binding protein 1). In humans and mouse, PMFBP1 is essential for spermatogenesis, and mutations of this gene are associated with acephalic spermatozoa, which cause infertility. We identified a B. mori gene labeled as “PMFBP1” in GenBank’s RefSeq database and sought to assess its role in spermatogenesis. Like in mammals, the silkworm version of this gene (BmPMFBP1) is specifically expressed in testes. We subsequently generated BmPMFBP1 mutants using a transgenic CRISPR/Cas9 system. Mutant males were sterile while the fertility of mutant females was comparable to wildtype females. In B. mori, spermatogenesis yields two types of sperm, the nucleated fertile eupyrene sperm, and anucleated unfertile apyrene sperm. Mutant males produced abnormal eupyrene sperm bundles but normal apyrene sperm bundles. For eupyrene sperm, nuclei were mislocated and disordered inside the bundles. We also found the BmPMFBP1 deficiency blocked the release of eupyrene sperm bundles from testes to ejaculatory seminalis. We found no obvious abnormalities in the production of apyrene sperm in mutant males, and double-matings with apyrene-deficient sex-lethal mutants rescued the ΔBmPMFBP1 infertility phenotype. These results indicate BmPMFBP1 functions only in eupyrene spermatogenesis, and highlight that distinct genes underlie the development of the two sperm morphs commonly found in Lepidoptera. Bioinformatic analyses suggest PMFBP1 may have evolved independently in lepidoptera and mammals, and that despite the shared name, are likely not homologous genes.

The presence of nucleated and anucleated dimorphic sperm produced by a single male is a notable characteristic of lepidopteran insects. Previously we identified the gene BmSxl and BmPnldc1 are required for apyrene and eupyrene sperm development, respectively. However, there remains very little known about the molecular mechanism of eupyrene and apyrene sperm development and function. In human and mouse, the protein PMFBP1 is related to acephalic spermatozoa syndrome. Here, we generate somatic mutants in the silkworm Bombyx mori for this gene. In the silkworm, BmPMFBP1 is essential for male fertility. Loss of BmPMFBP1 function results in defective eupyrene sperm bundles in the early elongation stage of spermatogenesis. The nuclei of the eupyrene sperm bundles were displaced from sperm heads while the apyrene sperm bundles were normal. This deficiency also results in the failure of the release of eupyrene sperm bundles from testes to the ejaculatory seminalis duct. Our study proves the important function of BmPMFBP1 in the development of the eupyrene sperm in the silkworm and identifies a potential target gene for lepidopteran pest control.

Long Non-Coding RNA Bmdsx-AS1 Effects on Male External Genital Development in Silkworm

Simple Summary

LncRNAs are a class of non-coding RNAs longer than 200 nt that are involved in a variety of biological processes. Studies on lncRNAs in Bombyx mori have shown that some lncRNAs are involved in brain development, silk production and the response to virus infection of the host. However, the roles of lncRNAs are still largely unknown in the silkworm. In this study, we analyzed the function of lncRNAs Bmdsx-AS1 in silkworm by transgenic overexpression, which not only affects the development of male silkworm external genitalia, but also participates in the regulation of EGFR signaling pathway. Moreover, we studied the upstream promoter of Bmdsx-AS1 and found that the BmAbd-B transcription factor of the Hox gene family can negatively regulate the expression of Bmdsx-AS1. These results laid a substantial foundation for in-depth study of the function of lncRNAs in the silkworm.

Abstract

Long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs) have been suggested to play important roles in some biological processes. However, the detailed mechanisms are not fully understood. We previously identified an antisense lncRNA, Bmdsx-AS1, that is involved in pre-mRNA splicing of the sex-determining gene Bmdsx in the silkworm. In this study, we analyzed the changes in the male external genitalia of transgenic overexpressed Bmdsx-AS1 silkworm lines and analyzed downstream and upstream responses. We found that Bmdsx-AS1 transgenic silkworms, compared with wild type, showed more claspers in the male external genitalia. Quantitative real-time PCR (qPCR) results indicated that overexpression of Bmdsx-AS1 decreased the expression of genes in the EGFR signaling pathway. Knockdown of Bmdsx-AS1 increased the activity of the EGFR pathway. Through promoter prediction, promoter truncation and electrophoretic mobility shift assay (EMSA) analyses, we found that the protein encoded by the Hox gene BmAbd-B specifically binds to the promoter of Bmdsx-AS1. Moreover, overexpression of BmAbd-B in the silkworm BmE cell line indicated that BmAbd-B negatively regulates the mRNA expression of Bmdsx-AS1. Our study provides insights into the regulatory mechanism of the lncRNA in the silkworm.

Mapping and CRISPR homology-directed repair of a recessive white eye mutation in Plodia moths

The pantry moth Plodia interpunctella is a worldwide pest of stored food products and a promising laboratory model system for lepidopteran functional genomics. Here we describe efficient methods for precise genome editing in this insect. A spontaneous recessive white-eyed phenotype maps to a frameshift deletion (c.737delC) in the white gene. CRISPR NHEJ mutagenesis of white replicates this phenotype with high rates of somatic biallelic knockout. G₀ individuals with mutant clones on both eyes produced 100% mutant progeny, making white an ideal marker for co-conversion when targeting other genes. CRISPR HDR experiments corrected c.737delC and reverted white eyes to a pigmented state in 37% of G₀ mosaic adults. These repaired alleles showed practical rates of germline transmission in backcrosses, demonstrating the potential of the technique for precise genome editing. Plodia offers a promising avenue for research in this taxon because of its lab-ready features, egg injectability, and editability.

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Plodia pantry moths are an emerging model organism for functional genomics in Lepidoptera

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Spontaneous and CRISPR-induced white mutations yield recessive-white eye phenotypes

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CRISPR HDR repair with ssODN donor result in practical rates of base editing

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We provide optimized protocols for Plodia handling and genome editing

Advances in Editing Silkworms (Bombyx mori) Genome by Using the CRISPR-Cas System

CRISPR (clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats)-Cas (CRISPR-associated) represents a powerful genome editing technology that revolutionized in a short period of time numerous natural sciences branches. Therefore, extraordinary progress was made in various fields, such as entomology or biotechnology. Bombyx mori is one of the most important insects, not only for the sericulture industry, but for numerous scientific areas. The silkworms play a key role as a model organism, but also as a bioreactor for the recombinant protein production. Nowadays, the CRISPR-Cas genome editing system is frequently used in order to perform gene analyses, to increase the resistance against certain pathogens or as an imaging tool in B. mori. Here, we provide an overview of various studies that made use of CRISPR-Cas for B. mori genome editing, with a focus on emphasizing the high applicability of this system in entomology and biological sciences.

Transgenic genome editing-derived antiviral therapy to nucleopolyhedrovirus infection in the industrial strain of the silkworm

The silkworm (Bombyx mori) is a domesticated and economically important insect. During the whole growth period, silkworm suffers various pathogen infection. Nearly 80% of silk cocoon crop losses are attributed to viral diseases. The circular double-stranded DNA virus Bombyx mori nuclepolyhedrovirus (BmNPV) is the major viral pathogen responsible for massive silkworm death and huge economic losses in the sericulture industry. Up to now, almost all the new strategies for developing immunity against BmNPV are in laboratory strains because of the lack of transgenic technology in industrial silkworm strains. We previously demonstrated that modification of BmNPV genome DNA with the antivirus transgenic CRISPR/Cas9 system effectively improved the resistance of laboratory silkworm strains to viral pathogens. The industrial strains are monovoltine or bivoltine. It is very difficult to break the diapause before microinjection for genetic transformation. Here, we show that the anti-BmNPV transgenic CRISPR/Cas9 system also works in the industrial silkworm strain Jingsong. In this study, we successfully broke diapause and obtained generation-skipping embryos and constructed two TG Jingsong lines. Both lines exhibited significantly enhanced immunity to BmNPV without significant changes in most of the commercially important traits. These results demonstrate that the construction of TG silkworm lines carrying a heritable immune defense system against BmNPV could be an effective strategy to enhance the resistance of industrial silkworm strains to the most devastating DNA virus. The research opened a window for genetic modification of the important strains from laboratory strains to industrial strains.

CRISPR/Cas9 in lepidopteran insects: Progress, application and prospects

Clustered regularly spaced short palindrome repeats (CRISPR) structure family forms the acquired immune system in bacteria and archaea. Recent advances in CRISPR/Cas genome editing as derived from prokaryotes, confirmed the characteristics of robustness, high target specificity and programmability, and also revolutionized the insect sciences field. The successful application of CRISPR in a wide variety of lepidopteran insects, with a high genetic diversity, provided opportunities to explore gene functions, insect modification and pest control. In this review, we present a detailed overview on the recent progress of CRISPR in lepidopteran insects, and described the basic principles of the system and its application. Major interest is on wing development, pigmentation, mating, reproduction, sex determination, metamorphosis, resistance and silkworm breeding innovation. Finally, we outlined the limitations of CRISPR/Cas system and discussed its application prospects in lepidopteran insects.

The acetylation modification regulates the stability of Bm30K-15 protein and its mechanism in silkworm, Bombyx mori

The 30 K proteins are the major silkworm hemolymph proteins and are involved in a variety of physiological processes, such as nutrient and energy storage, embryogenesis, immune response, and inhibition of apoptosis. The Bm30K-15 protein is one of the 30 K proteins and is abundant in the hemolymph of fifth instar silkworm larva. We previously found that the Bm30K-15 protein can be acetylated. In the present study, we found that acetylation can improve the protein stability of Bm30K-15. Further exploration confirmed that the increase in protein stability by acetylation was caused by competition between acetylation and ubiquitination. In summary, these findings aim to provide insight into the effect of acetylation modification on the protein level and stability of the Bm30K-15 and the possible molecular mechanism of its existence in silkworm, Bombyx mori.

In-depth transcriptome unveils the cadmium toxicology and a novel metallothionein in silkworm

Heavy metal pollution has gradually become a major global issue. It is so far reaching in part because heavy metals are absorbed by soil and affect almost all species via ecological cycles. Silkworms (Bombyx mori) are poisoned by heavy metals through a soil-mulberry-silkworm system, which inhibits larval growth and development and leads to a decrease in silk production. In the present study, we performed transcriptome sequencing of larval midgut with cadmium exposure to explore the toxicological mechanism of heavy metal, and found that the following potential pathways may be involved in cadmium infiltration: endocytosis, oxidative phosphorylation, and MAPK signaling. Moreover, we identified a novel metallothionein in silkworm, which is inhibited by cadmium exposure and able to improve heavy metal tolerance in B. mori cell lines and Escherichia coli. We also generated a transgenic silkworm strain overexpressing metallothionein and the result showed that metallothionein observably enhanced larval viability under cadmium exposure. This study used RNA sequencing to reveal a mechanism for cadmium toxicology, and identified and functionally verified BmMT, offering a new potential heavy metal-tolerant silkworm variety.

Deep Sequencing Reveals the Comprehensive CRISPR-Cas9 Editing Spectrum in Bombyx mori

Application of the clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats associated 9 (CRISPR-Cas9) technology has revolutionized biology by greatly enhancing the ability to introduce mutations into DNA for research and prospective therapeutic purposes. However, the understanding of Cas9 editing outcomes is still limited. Previously, it was considered that Cas9 introduces stochastic insertions or deletions (indels) at the target site. In the current study, we performed in vivo multiplex editing, deep sequencing, and comprehensive analysis of its editing outcomes in Bombyx mori (B. mori). A total of 31161 editing events from 9 single-guide RNA (sgRNA) sites in 16 individuals were generated and analyzed, and we found that Cas9 introduces mutations with some regularity rather than via stochastic indels. The editing efficiency varies with sgRNA sequences, individuals, and orientation. Small deletions account for the vast majority of mutated sequences, followed by a small fraction of substitutions and insertions. The most likely mutations are deletions between two microhomologous sequences or single-base deletions at the cleavage site in the absence of microhomologous pairs. Insertions are formed by diverse mechanisms, including direct acquisition of free genomic fragments, duplication of broken ends, replication of adjacent sequences, or random addition of free nucleotides. The above results indicate that the Cas9 editing spectrum is reproducible and predictable. Thus, our findings enable a deeper understanding of Cas9-mediated mutagenesis and better design of genome editing experiments, as well as elucidate the DNA double-strand break repair processes in B. mori.

Genome-wide CRISPR-Cas9 screening in Bombyx mori reveals the toxicological mechanisms of environmental pollutants, fluoride and cadmium

Fluoride and cadmium, two typical environmental pollutants, have been extensively existed in the ecosystem and severely injured various organisms including humans. To explore the toxicological properties and the toxicological mechanism of fluoride and cadmium in silkworm, we perform a CRISPR (Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeats) -based functional genomic screen, which can directly measure the genetic requirement of genes in response to the pollutants. Our screen identifies 751 NaF-resistance genes, 753 NaF-sensitive genes, 757 CdCl₂-resistance genes, and 725 CdCl₂-sensitive genes. The top-ranked resistant genes are experimentally verified and the results show that their loss conferred resistance to fluoride or cadmium. Functional analysis of the resistant- and sensitive-genes demonstrates enrichment of multiple signaling pathways, among which the MAPK signaling pathway and DNA damage and repair are both required for fluoride- or cadmium-induced cell death, whereas the Toll and Imd signaling pathway and Autophagy are fluoride- or cadmium-specific. Moreover, we confirm that these pathways are truly involved in the toxicological mechanism in both cultured cells and individual tissues. Our results supply potential targets for rescuing the biohazards of fluoride and cadmium in silkworm, and reveal the feasible toxicological mechanism, which highlights the role of functional genomic screens in elucidating the toxicity mechanisms of environmental pollutants.

Bombyx mori β1,4-N-acetylgalactosaminyltransferase possesses relaxed donor substrate specificity in N-glycan synthesis

N-Glycosylation is one of the most important post-translational protein modifications in eukaryotic cells. Although more than 200 N-glycogenes contributing to N-glycan biosynthesis have been identified and characterized, the information on insect N-glycosylation is still limited. Here, focusing on insect N-glycosylation, we characterized Bombyx mori N-acetylgalactosaminyltransferase (BmGalNAcT) participating in complex N-glycan biosynthesis in mammals. BmGalNAcT localized at the Golgi and was ubiquitously expressed in every organ and in the developmental stage of the middle silk gland of fifth instar larvae. Analysis of recombinant BmGalNAcT expressed in Sf9 cells showed that BmGalNAcT transferred GalNAc to non-reducing terminals of GlcNAcβ1,2-R with β1,4-linkage. In addition, BmGalNAcT mediated transfer of galactose and N-acetylglucosamine residues but not transfer of either glucose or glucuronic acid from the UDP-sugar donor substrate to the N-glycan. Despite this tri-functional sugar transfer activity, however, most of the endogenous glycoproteins of insect cells were present without GalNAc, Gal, or GlcNAc residues at the non-reducing terminal of β1,2-GlcNAc residue(s). Moreover, overexpression of BmGalNAcT in insect cells had no effect on N-acetylgalactosaminylation, galactosylation, or N-acetylglucosaminylation of the major N-glycan during biosynthesis. These results suggested that B. mori has a novel multifunctional glycosyltransferase, but the N-glycosylation is highly and strictly regulated by the endogenous N-glycosylation machineries.

Development of insect cell line using CRISPR technology

In this chapter, we delineated the methods of CRISPR technology that has been used for the development of engineered insect cell line. We elaborated on how CRISPR/Cas9 genome editing in Drosophila melanogaster, Bombyx mori, Spodoptera frugiperda (Sf9 and Sf21), and Mosquitoes enabled the use of model or non-model insect system in various biological and medical applications. Also, the application of synthetic baculovirus genome along with CRISPR/Cas9 vector system to enable genome editing of insect cell systems for treatment of communicable and non-communicable diseases.

The novel insight into the outcomes of CRISPR/Cas9 editing intra- and inter-species

The CRISPR/Cas (clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeat technology/CRISPR-associated protein) is a widely used and powerful research tool in biosciences and a promising therapeutic agent for treating genetic diseases. Mutations induced by Cas9 are generally considered stochastic and unpredictable, thus hindering its applications where precise genetic alternations are required. Here, through deep sequencing and analysis of genome editing outcomes of multiple sites in four distinct species, we found that Cas9-induced mutations are coincident in mutation types but are significantly different in indel patterns among species. In human and mouse cells, indels were almost evenly distributed at both ends of the cleavage sites. However, the indels mainly appeared at the upstream of cleavage sites in Bombyx mori, while they predominantly occurred downstream of the cleavage sites in the zebrafish Danio rerio. We also found that within a species, indel patterns are sequence dependent, wherein deletions between two adjacent micro-homology sequences were the most frequently observed mutations in the repair spectrum. These results suggested the species differences in DNA repair processes during Cas9-induced gene editing, and the important role of sequence structure at the target site in predicting the gene editing outcome.

Genetic and genomic analysis for cocoon yield traits in silkworm

Domestic species provides a powerful model for examining genetic mechanisms in the evolution of yield traits. The domestic silkworm (Bombyx mori) is an important livestock species in sericulture. While the mechanisms controlling cocoon yield are largely unknown. Here, using B. mori and its wild relative B. mandarina as intercross parents, 100 BC₁ individuals were sequenced by restriction site-associated DNA sequencing (RAD-Seq). The linkage map contained 9,632 markers was constructed. We performed high-resolution quantitative trait locus (QTL) mapping for four cocoon yield traits. A total of 11 QTLs were identified, including one yield-enhancing QTL from wild silkworm. By integrating population genomics and transcriptomic analysis with QTLs, some favourable genes were revealed, including 14 domestication-related genes and 71 differentially expressed genes (DEGs) in the fifth-instar larval silk gland transcriptome between B. mori and B. mandarina. The relationships between the expression of two important candidate genes (KWMTBOMO04917 and KWMTBOMO12906) and cocoon yield were supported by quantitative real-time PCR (qPCR). Our results provide some new insights into the molecular mechanisms of complex yield traits in silkworm. The combined method might be an efficient approach for identifying putative causal genes in domestic livestock and wild relatives.

Construction of a One-Vector Multiplex CRISPR/Cas9 Editing System to Inhibit Nucleopolyhedrovirus Replication in Silkworms

Recently the developed single guide (sg)RNA-guided clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats/associated protein 9 nuclease (CRISPR/Cas9) technology has opened a new avenue for antiviral therapy. The CRISPR/Cas9 system uniquely allows targeting of multiple genome sites simultaneously. However, there are relatively few applications of CRISPR/Cas9 multigene editing to target insect viruses. To address the need for sustained delivery of a multiplex CRISPR/Cas9-based genome-editing vehicle against insect viruses, we developed a one-vector (pSL1180-Cas9-U6-sgRNA) system that expresses multiple sgRNA and Cas9 protein to excise Bombyx mori nucleopolyhedrovirus (BmNPV) in insect cells. We screened the immediate-early-1 gene (ie-1), the major envelope glycoprotein gene (gp64), and the late expression factor gene (lef-11), and identified multiple sgRNA editing sites through flow cytometry and viral DNA replication analysis. In addition, we constructed a multiplex editing vector (PSL1180-Cas9-sgIE1-sgLEF11-sgGP64, sgMultiple) to efficiently regulate multiplex gene-editing and inhibit BmNPV replication after viral infection. This is the first report of the application of a multiplex CRISPR/Cas9 system to inhibit insect virus replication. This multiplex system can significantly enhance the potential of CRISPR/Cas9-based multiplex genome engineering in insect virus.