Socioeconomic Inequality and the Developing Brain: Spotlight on Language and Executive Function

Impact of individual differences in cognitive reserve, stress, and busyness on episodic memory: an fMRI analysis of the Alabama Brain Study On Risk for Dementia

Cognitive reserve (CR) and busyness can boost memory, whereas stress can impair memory. Nevertheless, extant research has not yet examined busyness in conjunction with CR and stress, nor whether CR or stress moderate the relationship between busyness and episodic memory. Middle-aged and older adult participants (N = 71; ages 50-74; 31% African-American) answered lifestyle questionnaires and completed a visual paired-associate memory fMRI task. Dimension reduction techniques identified two latent CR factors-personal CR (own education; occupation complexity; socioeconomic status) and parental education (mother's/father's education), and identified two latent stress factors-external stress (neighborhood stress/violence; financial strain) and personal stress (perceived stress; work/personal stress). We cast these latent factors into a series of regression models, revealing that (1) in isolation, higher busyness predicted better episodic memory, (2) higher external stress predicted worse memory, (3) both greater personal CR and greater parental education predicted better memory, (4) busyness did not interact with stress nor with CR, and (5) in a combined model, higher parental education and lower external stress were significant independent predictors. Neuroimaging data revealed that higher CR was associated with more efficient brain activity in the hippocampus and posterior cingulate during successful episodic memory retrieval, whereas higher personal stress was associated with heightened activity in the precuneus. No interactions or main effects of busyness were observed for the fMRI data. Thus, although busyness was associated with superior episodic memory, busyness did not modulate brain activity during episodic memory retrieval, nor did CR or stress moderate the relationship between busyness and associative memory.

The ecology of poverty and children's brain development: A systematic review and quantitative meta-analysis of brain imaging studies

A growing number of studies have demonstrated associations between poverty and brain structure and function. However, the strength of this association and the effects of poverty level (e.g., family or neighborhood poverty), age and sex on the association are strikingly inconsistent across studies. We aimed to synthesize findings on gray matter volume and task-based brain activation associated with poverty in youth samples and disentangle the effects of poverty level, age, and sex. In general, poverty was associated with alterations in volume and activation in the frontal, temporal, and subcortical regions. Among 14,188 participants and 14,057 participants, poverty was associated with smaller gray matter volumes in the amygdala and hippocampus, respectively. Moderator testing revealed that family poverty had a stronger association than neighborhood poverty and that poverty was related to slower development of amygdala volume. Among 2696 participants, convergent functional alterations associated with poverty were observed in the left middle temporal gyrus (MTG) and left middle frontal gyrus across all task domains, with the percentage of girls positively associated with increased activation in the precuneus. Subgroup analyses revealed that greater poverty was associated with deactivation in the left MTG for top-down control and hyperactivity in the right superior temporal gyrus, left superior frontal gyrus, left insula, cerebellum/left fusiform gyrus, and left amygdala/hippocampus for bottom-up processing. These findings provide insights into the neuroscience of poverty, suggesting implications for targeted interventions to support the cognitive and mental health of children living in poverty.

Socioeconomic Status and Childhood Executive Function: Differing Conceptualizations, Diverse Assessments, and Decontextualized Investigations

Developing the ability to regulate actions, thoughts, and emotions is necessary for successfully engaging in goal-directed activities, which form the essence of success in many life situations. In this regard, executive function (EF), as an aspect of these top-down control processes, has been the subject of inquiry in many developmental studies aiming to identify its link with various other aspects of a child's life, including family socioeconomic status (SES). This article presents a critical look at the association between family SES and childhood EF by reviewing studies that provide contrasting perspectives compared to the generally reported positive correlation between these two constructs. We first address the various aspects of assessing SES and childhood EF, emphasizing their multifaceted nature. Next, we discuss the interplays between different components of these two constructs, especially as it unfolds in various cultural contexts. Finally, we conclude by discussing mainly neglected lines of research that could further improve our understanding of the extent of socioeconomic impacts on child development, specifically regarding executive function. Considering these lines of research is a necessary step to a more accurate analysis of the link between socioeconomic factors and childhood executive function.

Automated assessment of EEG background for neurodevelopmental prediction in neonatal encephalopathy

OBJECTIVE

Assess the capacity of brain state of the newborn (BSN) to predict neurodevelopment outcomes in neonatal encephalopathy.

METHODS

Trends of BSN, a deep learning-based measure translating EEG background to a continuous trend, were studied from a three-channel montage long-term EEG monitoring from a prospective cohort of 92 infants with neonatal encephalopathy and neurodevelopmental outcomes assessed by Bayley Scales of Infant Development, 3rd edition (Bayley-III) at 18 months. Outcome prediction used categories "Severe impairment" (Bayley-III composite score ≤70 or death) or "Any impairment" (score ≤85 or death).

RESULTS

"Severe impairment" was predicted best for motor outcomes (24 h area under the curve (AUC) = 0.97), followed by cognitive (36 h AUC = 0.90), overall (24 h AUC = 0.84), and language (24 h AUC = 0.82). "Any impairment" was best predicted for motor outcomes (12 h AUC = 0.95), followed by cognitive (24 h AUC = 0.85), overall (12 h AUC = 0.75), and language (12 and 24 h AUC = 0.68). Optimal BSN cutoffs for outcome predictions evolved with the postnatal age. Low BSN scores reached a 100% positive prediction of poor outcomes at 24 h of age.

INTERPRETATION

BSN is an excellent predictor of adverse neurodevelopmental outcomes in survivors of neonatal encephalopathy after therapeutic hypothermia, even at 24 h of life. The trend provides a fully automated, objective, quantified, and reliable interpretation of EEG background. The high temporal resolution supports continuous bedside brain assessment and early prognostication during the initial dynamic recovery phase.

Early Growth and Impacts on Long-Term Neurodevelopment and Human Capital

BACKGROUND

Growth trajectories during the first 1,000 days from conception to 2 years influence human capital, predicting intelligence, skills and health in adults.

SUMMARY

This review describes current evidence on the impacts of adverse pregnancy outcomes such as low birth weight, preterm birth, small for gestational age, and infant nutrition on long-term neurodevelopment and summarizes interventions that have proven to be effective in improving child development and further impact human capital. To date, no globally standardized measurements of child development in low-medium-income countries exist, and comparisons among studies using different developmental scales are challenging. In the perinatal period, birth weight, gestational age at delivery and elevated placental blood flow resistance have been identified as the main risk factors for global neurological delay, poor neurosensory development and cerebral palsy. Although these adverse neurological outcomes have decreased in developed settings, it is still a problem in low-resource populations. Nutritional deficiencies are the main drivers of developmental impairment, notably iron, iodine and folate deficiencies, and environmental stressors during pregnancy such as air pollution, exposure to chemicals, substance abuse, smoking, and maternal/parental psychiatric disorders can affect the developing brain. Interventions aiming to improve maternal macro- and micronutrient status, delayed cord clamping, exclusive breastfeeding and nurturing care have demonstrated to be effective strategies to prevent perinatal complications known to affect child development.

The importance of timing of socioeconomic disadvantage throughout development for depressive symptoms and brain structure

Prior studies have reported associations between socioeconomic disadvantage, brain structure and mental health outcomes, but the timing of these relations is not well understood. Using prospective longitudinal data from the Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children (ALSPAC), this preregistered study examined whether socioeconomic disadvantage related differentially to depressive symptoms (n=3012-3530) and cortical and subcortical structures (n=460-733) in emerging adults, depending on the timing of exposure to socioeconomic disadvantage. Family income in early childhood and own income measured concurrently were both significantly related to depressive symptoms in emerging adulthood. Similar results were observed for perceived financial strain. In contrast, only family income in early childhood was associated with brain structure in emerging adulthood, with positive associations with intracranial volume and total and regional cortical surface area. The findings suggest that both objective and subjective aspects of one's financial standing throughout development relate to depressive symptoms in adulthood, but that specifically early life family income is related to brain structural features in emerging adulthood. This suggests that associations between socioeconomic disadvantage and brain structure originate early in neurodevelopment, highlighting the role of timing of socioeconomic disadvantage.

Verbal fluency in Lebanese children: Preliminary normative data, sociodemographic determinants, and patterns of clustering and switching

This study assessed the quantitative and qualitative performance of Lebanese-speaking children on verbal fluency (VF) tasks and investigated the effects of sociodemographic characteristics. This study included 219 Lebanese children aged between 5 and 12 years and 11 months, whose native language is Lebanese-Arabic. Semantic and letter VF tasks were assessed using a range of categories and letters. Switching and clustering strategies were analyzed for 177 Lebanese children. The number of words produced presented a significant increase with age (p < .004) in semantic (SVF), while in letter (LVF), the differences were significant between extreme age groups. Females generated more words in the clothes (p = .003) and household items (p = .002) categories. The total number of switches and clusters showed a significantly increasing pattern with age (p < .05). The number of switches was higher for participants with high maternal (p < .001) and paternal (p < .013) educational levels. Regression analyses showed that the total number of switches and clusters, and the mean cluster size had a significant effect on SVF performance (p < .001). The current study generated preliminary norms for VF tasks for Lebanese-speaking children. The results of the current study have an important contribution to neuropsychology research and clinical practice.

The Necessity of Taking Culture and Context into Account When Studying the Relationship between Socioeconomic Status and Brain Development

Decades of research has revealed a relationship between childhood socioeconomic status (SES) and brain development at the structural and functional levels. Of particular note is the distinction between income and maternal education, two highly correlated factors which seem to influence brain development through distinct pathways. Specifically, while a families' income-to-needs ratio is linked with physiological stress and household chaos, caregiver education influences the day-to-day language environment a child is exposed to. Variability in either one of these environmental experiences is related to subsequent brain development. While this work has the potential to inform public policies in a way that benefits children, it can also oversimplify complex factors, unjustly blame low-SES parents, and perpetuate a harmful deficit perspective. To counteract these shortcomings, researchers must consider sociodemographic differences in the broader cultural context that underlie SES-based differences in brain development. This review aims to address these issues by (a) identifying how sociodemographic mechanisms associated with SES influence the day-to-day experiences of children, in turn, impacting brain development, while (b) considering the broader cultural contexts that may differentially impact this relationship.

The promise and pitfalls of a strength-based approach to child poverty and neurocognitive development: Implications for policy

There has been significant progress in understanding the effects of childhood poverty on neurocognitive development. This progress has captured the attention of policymakers and promoted progressive policy reform. However, the prevailing emphasis on the harms associated with childhood poverty may have inadvertently perpetuated a deficit-based narrative, focused on the presumed shortcomings of children and families in poverty. This focus can have unintended consequences for policy (e.g., overlooking strengths) as well as public discourse (e.g., focusing on individual rather than systemic factors). Here, we join scientists across disciplines in arguing for a more well-rounded, "strength-based" approach, which incorporates the positive and/or adaptive developmental responses to experiences of social disadvantage. Specifically, we first show the value of this approach in understanding normative brain development across diverse human environments. We then highlight its application to educational and social policy, explore pitfalls and ethical considerations, and offer practical solutions to conducting strength-based research responsibly. Our paper re-ignites old and recent calls for a strength-based paradigm shift, with a focus on its application to developmental cognitive neuroscience. We also offer a unique perspective from a new generation of early-career researchers engaged in this work, several of whom themselves have grown up in conditions of poverty. Ultimately, we argue that a balanced strength-based scientific approach will be essential to building more effective policies.

A network analysis of psychopathology in young Black children: Implications for predicting outcomes in adolescence

OBJECTIVE

Network analysis may identify specific symptoms involved in the maintenance and development of psychopathology. This approach, however, has not been applied to the study of young Black children, a population facing unique challenges and developmental risks. It is also unclear whether network analysis identifies early symptoms in Black children that are linked to their longer-term difficulties and strengths in adolescence.

METHODS

We conducted a network analysis of emotional and behavioral difficulties in 1238 Black (non-Hispanic) children from the age-3 assessment in the Future of Families and Child Wellbeing Study (47 % female). We also explored whether early childhood symptoms predict subsequent caregiver-reported internalizing and externalizing problems, and youth-reported social competencies and extracurricular and community involvement, at the age-15 assessment.

RESULTS

We identified specific symptoms of externalizing and emotional reactivity as central in the network. Symptoms of emotional reactivity were also involved in comorbidity, bridging different communities of symptoms. Using elastic net models, we identified specific central and bridge symptoms, but also peripheral network symptoms, that contributed uniquely to the prediction of internalizing and externalizing problems in adolescence. Early childhood symptoms were less predictive of positive outcomes in adolescence.

CONCLUSIONS

This study identified central and bridge symptoms in young Black children, an underrepresented population in network analysis research. Some of these central and bridge symptoms, but also peripheral network symptoms, may be useful targets in early interventions to prevent long-term difficulties. Conversely, network approaches to understanding early psychopathology may have less utility for predicting Black children's subsequent strengths in adolescence.

Parental socioeconomic status weakly predicts specific cognitive and academic skills beyond general cognitive ability

Parental socioeconomic status (SES) is a well-established predictor of children's neurocognitive development. Several theories propose that specific cognitive skills are particularly vulnerable. However, this can be challenging to test, because cognitive assessments are not pure measures of distinct neurocognitive processes, and scores across different tests are often highly correlated. Aside from one previous study by Tucker-Drob, little research has tested if associations between SES and cognition are explained by differences in general cognitive ability rather than specific cognitive skills. Using structural equation modelling (SEM), we tested if parental SES is associated with individual cognitive test scores after controlling for latent general cognitive ability. Data from three large-scale cohorts totalling over 16,360 participants from the UK and USA (ages 6-19) were used. Associations between SES and cognitive test scores are mainly (but not entirely) explained through general cognitive ability. Socioeconomic advantage was associated with particularly strong vocabulary performance, unexplained by general ability. When controlling for general cognitive ability, socioeconomic disadvantage was associated with better executive functions. Better characterizing relationships between cognition and adversity is a crucial first step toward designing interventions to narrow socioeconomic gaps. RESEARCH HIGHLIGHTS: Understanding environmental influences on cognitive development is a crucial goal for developmental science-parental socioeconomic status (SES) is one of the strongest predictors. Several theories have proposed that specific cognitive skills, such as language or certain executive functions, are particularly susceptible to socioeconomic adversity. Using structural equation modelling, we tested whether SES predicts specific cognitive and academic tests after controlling for latent general cognitive ability across three large-scale cohorts. SES moderately predicted latent general cognitive ability, but associations with specific cognitive skills were mainly small, with a few exceptions.

Higher parental education was associated with good cognitive outcomes in infants with hypoxic-ischaemic encephalopathy

AIM

Predicting neurodevelopmental outcomes in hypoxic-ischaemic encephalopathy (HIE) remains imprecise, despite advanced imaging and neurophysiological tests. We explored the predictive value of socio-economic status (SES).

METHODS

The cohort comprised 93 infants (59% male) with HIE, who had received therapeutic hypothermia. Patients underwent magnetic resonance imaging, and brain injuries were quantified using the Barkovich scoring system. Family SES was self-reported using a questionnaire. Adverse outcomes were defined as mild to severely delayed development with a score of ≤85 in any domain at 2 years of age, based on the Bayley Scales of Infant Development, Second Edition. Data are presented as odds ratios (OR) with 95% confidence intervals (95% CI).

RESULTS

Multiple regression modelling revealed that higher parental education was strongly associated with good cognitive development, when adjusted for gestational age, serum lactate and brain injuries (OR 2.20, 95% CI 1.16-4.36). The effect size of parental education (β = 0.786) was higher than one score for any brain injury using the Barkovich scoring system (β = -0.356). The literacy environment had a significant effect on cognitive development in the 21 infants who had brain injuries (OR 40, 95% CI 3.70-1352).

CONCLUSION

Parental education and the literacy environment influenced cognitive outcomes in patients with HIE.

Infant-directed speech facilitates word learning through attentional mechanisms: An fNIRS study of toddlers

The speech register that adults especially caregivers use when interacting with infants and toddlers, that is, infant-directed speech (IDS) or baby talk, has been reported to facilitate language development throughout the early years. However, the neural mechanisms as well as why IDS results in such a developmental faciliatory effect remain to be investigated. The current study uses functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) to evaluate two alternative hypotheses of such a facilitative effect, that IDS serves to enhance linguistic contrastiveness or to attract the child's attention. Behavioral and fNIRS data were acquired from twenty-seven Cantonese-learning toddlers 15-20 months of age when their parents spoke to them in either an IDS or adult-directed speech (ADS) register in a naturalistic task in which the child learned four disyllabic pseudowords. fNIRS results showed significantly greater neural responses to IDS than ADS register in the left dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (L-dlPFC), but opposite response patterns in the bilateral inferior frontal gyrus (IFG). The differences in fNIRS responses to IDS and to ADS in the L-dlPFC and the left parietal cortex (L-PC) showed significantly positive correlations with the differences in the behavioral word-learning performance of toddlers. The same fNIRS measures in the L-dlPFC and right PC (R-PC) of toddlers were significantly correlated with pitch range differences of parents between the two speech conditions. Together, our results suggest that the dynamic prosody in IDS increased toddlers' attention through greater involvement of the left frontoparietal network that facilitated word learning, compared to ADS. RESEARCH HIGHLIGHTS: This study for the first time examined the neural mechanisms of how infant-directed speech (IDS) facilitates word learning in toddlers. Using fNIRS, we identified the cortical regions that were directly involved in IDS processing. Our results suggest that IDS facilitates word learning by engaging a right-lateralized prosody processing and top-down attentional mechanisms in the left frontoparietal networks. The language network including the inferior frontal gyrus and temporal cortex was not directly involved in IDS processing to support word learning.

Component-specific developmental trajectories of ERP indices of cognitive control in early childhood

Early childhood is characterized by robust developmental changes in cognitive control. However, our understanding of intra-individual change in neural indices of cognitive control during this period remains limited. Here, we examined developmental changes in event-related potential (ERP) indices of cognitive control from preschool through first grade, in a large and diverse sample of children (N = 257). We recorded ERPs during a visual Go/No-Go task. N2 and P3b mean amplitudes were extracted from the observed waveforms (Go and No-Go) and the difference wave (No-Go minus Go, or ∆). Latent growth curve modeling revealed that while N2 Go and No-Go amplitudes showed no linear change, P3b Go and No-Go amplitudes displayed linear decreases in magnitude (became less positive) over time. ∆N2 amplitude demonstrated a linear increase in magnitude (became more negative) over time whereas ∆P3b amplitude was more positive in kindergarten compared to preschool. Younger age in preschool predicted greater rates of change in ∆N2 amplitude, and higher maternal education predicted larger initial P3b Go and No-Go amplitudes in preschool. Our findings suggest that observed waveforms and difference waves are not interchangeable for indexing neurodevelopment, and the developmental trajectories of different ERP indices of cognitive control are component-specific in early childhood.

Disrupting links between poverty, chronic stress, and educational inequality

The income-achievement gap is a significant and stubborn problem in the United States, which has been exacerbated by the Covid-19 pandemic. In this article, we link two emerging literatures that have historically been disparate: the neurobiology of poverty as a form of early life stress, and research on educational policies with the potential to reduce SES-based disparities in academic achievement. In doing so, we (1) integrate the literature on poverty-related mechanisms that contribute to early life stress, alter neurobiology, and lead to educational inequities, and (2) based on this research, highlight policies and practices at the school/classroom level and broader structural level that have the potential to address the problem of inequity in our educational systems. We emphasize that educational inequity is a systemic issue, and its resolution will require coordination of local, state, and national policies.

Socioeconomic Status and Reading Development: Moving from "Deficit" to "Adaptation" in Neurobiological Models of Experience-Dependent Learning

Childhood socioeconomic status (SES) is one of the strongest predictors of student reading outcomes, and these disparities have persisted for decades. Relatedly, two underlying skills that are required for successful reading-oral language and executive function (EF)-are also the two neurocognitive domains most affected by SES. In this review, we summarize current knowledge on how SES influences the neurobiology of language, EF, and their intersection, including the proximal factors that drive these relationships. We then consider the burgeoning evidence that SES systematically moderates certain brain-behavior relationships for language and EF, underscoring the importance of considering context in investigations of the neurobiological underpinnings of reading development. Finally, we discuss how disparities in reading may be conceptualized as neurobiological adaptations to adversity rather than deficit models. We conclude by suggesting that by harnessing children's stress-adapted relative strengths to support reading development, we may address opportunity gaps both ethically and efficaciously.

Contributions of socioeconomic status and cognition to emotion processes and internalizing psychopathology in childhood and adolescence: A systematic review

This systematic review evaluated evidence from 25 manuscripts regarding three possible relationships of socioeconomic disadvantage (SESD) and cognition to emotion knowledge (EK), emotion regulation (ER), and internalizing psychopathology (IP) across development; a) independent contributions of disadvantage and cognition; b) cognition mediates relations of disadvantage; or c) cognition moderates' relations of disadvantage. Results support associations between SESD and cognition to emotion that differ by cognitive domain and developmental epoch. For EK, in early and middle childhood language and executive functions contribute to EK independent of SESD, and early childhood executive functions may interact with socioeconomic status (SES) to predict prospective EK. Regarding ER, language contributes to ER independent of SES across development and may mediate associations between SES and ER in adolescence. Regarding IP, SES, language, executive function, and general ability have independent contributions to IP across development; in adolescence executive function may mediate or moderate associations between SES and IP. Findings highlight the need for nuanced and developmentally sensitive research on the contributions of SESD and domains of cognition to emotion.

Implications of age at lesion onset for neuropsychological outcomes: A systematic review focusing on focal brain lesions

Theories of the relation between age at lesion onset and outcomes posit different views of the young brain: resilient and plastic (i.e., the so-called "Kennard Principle"), or vulnerable (i.e., the Early Vulnerability Hypothesis). There is support for both perspectives in previous research and questions about the "best" or "worst" times to sustain brain injury remain. Here, we present a systematic review investigating the influence of age at focal brain lesion onset on cognitive functioning. This systematic review identifies and qualitatively synthesizes empirical studies from 1985 to 2021 that investigated age at lesion onset as a variable of interest associated with neuropsychological outcomes. A total of 45 studies were identified from PubMed, PsycINFO, and CINAHL databases. Almost all studies indicated that brain injury earlier in the developmental period predicts worse cognitive outcomes when compared to onset either later in the developmental period or in adulthood. More specifically, the overwhelming majority of studies support an "earlier is worse" model for domains of intellect, processing speed, attention and working memory, visuospatial and perceptual skills, and learning and memory. Relatively more variability in outcomes exists for domains of language and executive functioning. Outcomes for all domains are influenced by various other age and injury variables (e.g., lesion size, lesion laterality, chronicity, a history of epilepsy). Continued interdisciplinary understanding and communication about the influence of age at lesion onset on neuropsychological outcomes will aid in promoting the best possible outcomes for patients.

Executive function and mathematics in preschool children: Training and transfer effects

Identifying the underpinnings of mathematics proficiency is relevant for all societies. A growing literature supports a relation between executive function (EF) and mathematics across a wide age range, but causal links are not well understood. In the current study, typically developing preschool children (N = 104) were randomly assigned to one of four training conditions: EF, Number, EF + Number, or an active Control. They participated in three brief training sessions and pretest and posttest sessions measuring EF and mathematics skills. EF training improved EF skills on a task similar to the training but did not extend to an untrained EF task. In addition, the EF training improved number skills but not general mathematics skills. The EF + Number training improved number and general mathematics skills but not EF skills. The EF + Number training did not yield significantly greater benefits for EF and mathematics beyond other training conditions. Finally, differential training effects emerged, such that children with lower pretest EF skills had greater EF benefits on only the trained EF skill. In addition, children from lower versus higher socioeconomic households had greater gains in numerical skills following EF training. No training condition improved verbal knowledge, suggesting that results were specific to the targeted skills. These results extend prior findings on the effectiveness of improving EF and mathematical skills through short-term trainings during early childhood.

Cascades in language acquisition: Re-thinking the linear model of development

The first 5 years of life are characterized by incredible growth across domains of child development. Drawing from over 50 years of seminal research, this chapter contextualizes recent advances in language sciences through the lens of developmental cascades to explore complexities and connections in acquisition. Converging evidence-both classic and contemporary-points to the many ways in which advances in one learning system can pose significant and lasting impacts on the advances in other learning systems. This chapter reviews evidence in developmental literature from multiple domains and disciplines (i.e., cognitive, social, motor, bilingual language learning, and communication sciences and disorders) to examine the phenomenon of developmental cascades in language acquisition.

Does the frequency of reading and writing habits contribute to executive functions, intelligence, and learning in adolescents with healthy development?

The influence of the frequency of reading and writing habits (FRWH) on cognition has been investigated by several studies in the literature. However, the implications of FRWH on executive development, intelligence, and academic achievement are not yet clear in adolescents with healthy development. The aim was to verify whether there are differences in executive functions, intelligence, and academic achievement between adolescents with high and low FRWH. Moreover, we aimed to investigate if there are differences in the parental FRWH between adolescents with high and low FRWH. The sample was composed of 47 healthy adolescents, n = 24 with high FRWH and n = 23 with low FRWH. Adolescents with higher FRWH had better performance on measures of vocabulary, Speech Act analysis, and Oral Narrative Discourse. Therefore, a high FRWH has a positive influence on the cognitive development of healthy adolescents, especially with regard to pragmatic language. However, adolescents with low FRWH performed better than those with a high FRWH on an automatic counting task. The interpretation of cognitive performance and academic achievement scores in neuropsychological assessment should consider the FRWH of parents and adolescents. This factor should be targeted by early stimulation interventions to help adolescents achieve the highest possible levels of global development.

Association between maternal reflective function and preschool children’s cognitive abilities

Children’s cognitive abilities (e.g., working memory) are associated with mental health, adaptive behaviors, and academic achievement, and may be enhanced by parental reflective function (i.e., capacity to reflect on mental states, feelings, thoughts, and intentions in one’s child and oneself). We evaluated associations between maternal reflective function and children’s cognitive abilities alone and while controlling for parent-child attachment and interaction quality, and psychosocial (i.e., maternal depressive symptoms, adverse childhood experiences) and sociodemographic (e.g., socioeconomic status) factors. Our sample, recruited in Canada, was primarily white and included 73 mothers and their 4–5 year old preschool children. Maternal reflective function was measured with the Reflective Functioning Scale applied to the Parent Development Interview and the Parental Reflective Functioning Questionnaire. Multiple regression analyses revealed that maternal reflective function was associated with children’s cognitive abilities. The Parent Development Interview rated child-reflective function was associated with children’s higher verbal comprehension alone and while adjusting for covariates (e.g., parent-child interaction quality, socioeconomic status), and the Parental Reflective Functioning Questionnaire Interest and Curiosity with higher verbal comprehension while adjusting for parent-child interactions and attachment pattern. The Parental Reflective Functioning Questionnaire Certainty in Mental States was associated with higher working memory scores for children while adjusting for covariates. Full Scale IQ and Visual Spatial Index were not significantly associated with maternal reflective function. Associations were found between secure and disorganized attachment with higher verbal comprehension and lower working memory, respectively. These findings highlight the importance of high maternal reflective function to cognitive abilities in early childhood.

An observational approach for exploring variability in young children's regulation-related skills within classroom contexts

Prior work has conceptualized children's executive function and self-regulation skills as relatively stable across short periods of time. Grounded in long-standing contextual theories of human development, this study introduces a new observational tool for measuring children's regulatory skills across different naturally occurring situations within early childhood classrooms. Using 460 observations of 91 children (M age = 5.54 years) in 16 socio-demographically diverse Prekindergarten and Kindergarten classrooms, we found that this tool-the Regulation-Related Skills Measure (RRSM)-reliably captured observed dimensions of young children's attention control and inhibitory control, but failed to appropriately represent more "internal" regulatory processes (e.g., working memory). Associations between the RRSM and other measures of children's executive function and self-regulation (i.e., direct assessments, adult reports) were low to moderate (r = 0.03 to 0.44), suggesting these tools are likely to be complementary in that they provide overlapping but ultimately distinct information regarding children's regulatory performance. Finally, results suggested substantial within-child variation in regulatory behaviors across different situations within the classroom, with the same children demonstrating consistently stronger attention control and inhibitory control during transitions than during either teacher- or student-directed activities. These findings underscore the situationally-dependent nature of children's self-regulatory performance, with implications for both theory and practice. Future research is needed to replicate these findings in more diverse, representative samples of children.

Language development as a mechanism linking socioeconomic status to executive functioning development in preschool

Childhood socioeconomic status (SES) is related to disparities in the development of both language and executive functioning (EF) skills. Emerging evidence suggests that language development may precede and provide necessary scaffolding for EF development in early childhood. The present preregistered study investigates how these skills co-develop longitudinally in early childhood and whether language development explains the relationship between SES and EF development. A socioeconomically diverse sample of 305 children completed repeated assessments of language (sentence comprehension) and EF (cognitive flexibility, behavioral inhibition, and cognitive inhibition) at four waves spaced 9 months apart from ages 3 to 5 years. Bivariate latent curve models with structured residuals were estimated to disaggregate between-person and within-person components of stability and change. Results revealed bidirectional relationships between language and EF across all waves. However, at 3 years, language comprehension more strongly predicted EF than the reverse; yet by 5 years, the bidirectional effects across domains did not significantly differ. Children from higher-SES backgrounds exhibited higher initial language and EF skills than children from lower-SES families, though SES was not associated with either rate of growth. Finally, early language-mediated the association between SES and early EF skills, and this model outperformed a reverse direction mediation. Together, results suggest that EF development is driven by early language development, and that SES disparities in EF are explained, at least in part, by early differences in language comprehension. These findings have implications for early interventions to support children's language skills as a potential pathway to improving early EF development.

Educational attainment polygenic scores, socioeconomic factors, and cortical structure in children and adolescents

Genome‐wide polygenic scores for educational attainment (PGS‐EA) and socioeconomic factors, which are correlated with each other, have been consistently associated with academic achievement and general cognitive ability in children and adolescents. Yet, the independent associations of PGS‐EA and socioeconomic factors with specific underlying factors at the neural and neurocognitive levels are not well understood. The main goals of this study were to examine the unique contributions of PGS‐EA and parental education to cortical structure and neurocognitive skills in children and adolescents, and the associations among PGS‐EA, cortical structure, and neurocognitive skills. Participants were typically developing 3‐ to 21‐year‐olds (53% male; N = 391). High‐resolution, T1‐weighted magnetic resonance imaging data were acquired, and cortical thickness (CT) and surface area (SA) were measured. PGS‐EA were computed based on the EA3 genome‐wide association study of educational attainment. Participants completed executive function, vocabulary, and episodic memory tasks. Higher PGS‐EA and parental education were independently and significantly associated with greater total SA and vocabulary. Higher PGS‐EA was significantly associated with greater SA in the left medial orbitofrontal gyrus and inferior frontal gyrus, which was associated with higher executive function. Higher parental education was significantly associated with greater SA in the left parahippocampal gyrus after accounting for PGS‐EA and total brain volume. These findings suggest that education‐linked genetics may influence SA in frontal regions, leading to variability in executive function. Associations of parental education with cortical structure in children and adolescents remained significant after controlling for PGS‐EA, a source of genetic confounding.

Examining the Role of Socioeconomic Status and Maternal Sensitivity in Predicting Functional Brain Network Connectivity in 5-Month-Old Infants

Infancy is a sensitive period of human brain development that is plastically shaped by environmental factors. Both proximal factors, such as sensitive parenting, and distal factors, such as socioeconomic status (SES), are known predictors of individual differences in structural and functional brain systems across the lifespan, yet it is unclear how these familial and contextual factors work together to shape functional brain development during infancy, particularly during the first months of life. In the current study, we examined pre-registered hypotheses regarding the interplay between these factors to assess how maternal sensitivity, within the broader context of socioeconomic variation, relates to the development of functional connectivity in long-range cortical brain networks. Specifically, we measured resting-state functional connectivity in three cortical brain networks (fronto-parietal network, default mode network, homologous-interhemispheric connectivity) using functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS), and examined the associations between maternal sensitivity, SES, and functional connectivity in a sample of 5-month-old infants and their mothers (N = 50 dyads). Results showed that all three networks were detectable during a passive viewing task, and that maternal sensitivity was positively associated with functional connectivity in the default mode network, such that infants with more sensitive mothers exhibited enhanced functional connectivity in this network. Contrary to hypotheses, we did not observe any associations of SES with functional connectivity in the brain networks assessed in this study. This suggests that at 5 months of age, maternal sensitivity is an important proximal environmental factor associated with individual differences in functional connectivity in a long-range cortical brain network implicated in a host of emotional and social-cognitive brain processes.

Human brain anatomy reflects separable genetic and environmental components of socioeconomic status

Socioeconomic status (SES) correlates with brain structure, a relation of interest given the long-observed relations of SES to cognitive abilities and health. Yet, major questions remain open, in particular, the pattern of causality that underlies this relation. In an unprecedently large study, here, we assess genetic and environmental contributions to SES differences in neuroanatomy. We first establish robust SES-gray matter relations across a number of brain regions, cortical and subcortical. These regional correlates are parsed into predominantly genetic factors and those potentially due to the environment. We show that genetic effects are stronger in some areas (prefrontal cortex, insula) than others. In areas showing less genetic effect (cerebellum, lateral temporal), environmental factors are likely to be influential. Our results imply a complex interplay of genetic and environmental factors that influence the SES-brain relation and may eventually provide insights relevant to policy.

Associations Among Food Delay of Gratification, Cognitive Measures, and Environment in a Community Preschool Sample

Much of the work on the development of appetite self-regulation in early childhood employs tasks assessing Delay of Gratification (DoG). While this skill is thought to rely on "cool" cognitive processes like effortful control, executive functioning, and self-regulation, demonstration of how laboratory measures of food DoG relate to common assessments of those cognitive processes in community samples of children is needed. This study presents secondary data investigating the associations between two laboratory tasks of food DoG, the Snack Delay and Tongue Tasks, and an array of laboratory and parent-report cognitive measures in a sample of 88 children ages 3-6 (M age = 4.05, SD = 0.76), as well as how four measures of the child's environment were associated with food DoG. Results indicated that both measures of food DoG were positively correlated with performance on the cognitive tasks, with stronger associations observed for the Tongue Task. Family income was positively associated with food DoG as measured by the Tongue Task, and child negative life events in the past year were negatively correlated with food DoG as measured by the Snack Delay Task. These findings present the pattern of associations between cognitive tasks and food DoG, the development of which may be meaningfully affected by specific aspects of family environment.

Exploring neural correlates of behavioral and academic resilience among children in poverty

Children in poverty must contend with systems that do not meet their needs. We explored what, at a neural level, helps explain children's resilience in these contexts. Lower coupling between lateral frontoparietal network (LFPN) and default mode network (DMN)-linked, respectively, to externally- and internally-directed thought-has previously been associated with better cognitive performance. However, we recently found the opposite pattern for children in poverty. Here, we probed ecologically-valid assessments of performance. In a pre-registered study, we investigated trajectories of network coupling over ages 9-13 and their relation to school grades and attention problems. We analyzed longitudinal data from ABCD Study (N = 8366 children at baseline; 1303 below poverty). The link between cognitive performance and grades was weaker for children in poverty, highlighting the importance of ecologically-valid measures. As predicted, higher LFPN-DMN connectivity was linked to worse grades and attentional problems for children living above poverty, while children below poverty showed opposite tendencies. This interaction between LFPN-DMN connectivity and poverty related to children's grades two years later; however, it was attenuated when controlling for baseline grades and was not related to attention longitudinally. Together, these findings suggest network connectivity is differentially related to performance in real-world settings for children above and below poverty.

Nurturing the Mathematical Brain: Home Numeracy Practices Are Associated With Children's Neural Responses to Arabic Numerals

Disparities in home numeracy environments contribute to variations in children's mathematical skills. However, the neural mechanisms underlying the relation between home numeracy experiences and mathematical learning are unknown. Here, parents of 66 eight-year-olds completed a questionnaire assessing the frequency of home numeracy practices. Neural adaptation to the repetition of Arabic numerals and words was measured in children using functional MRI (n = 50) to assess how sensitive the brain is to the presentation of numerical and nonnumerical information. Disparities in home numeracy practices were related to differences in digit (but not word) processing in a region of the left intraparietal sulcus (IPS) that was also related to children's arithmetic fluency. Furthermore, digit-related processing in the IPS influenced the relation between home numeracy practices and arithmetic fluency. Results were consistent with a model hypothesizing that home numeracy practices may affect children's mathematical skills by modulating the IPS response to symbolic numerical information.

Genetic and environmental influences on executive functions and intelligence in middle childhood

Executive functions (EFs) and intelligence (IQ) are phenotypically correlated. In twin studies, latent variables for EFs and IQ display moderate to high heritability estimates; however, they show variable genetic correlations in twin studies spanning childhood to middle age. We analyzed data from over 11,000 children (9- to 10-year-olds, including 749 twin pairs) in the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development (ABCD) Study to examine the phenotypic and genetic relations between EFs and IQ in childhood. We identified two EF factors-Common EF and Updating-Specific-which were both related to IQ (rs = 0.64-0.81). Common EF and IQ were heritable (53%-67%), and their genetic correlation (rG = 0.86) was not significantly different than 1. These results suggest that EFs and IQ are phenotypically but not genetically separable in middle childhood, meaning that this phenotypic separability may be influenced by environmental factors.

Brain network coupling associated with cognitive performance varies as a function of a child's environment in the ABCD study

Prior research indicates that lower resting-state functional coupling between two brain networks, lateral frontoparietal network (LFPN) and default mode network (DMN), relates to cognitive test performance, for children and adults. However, most of the research that led to this conclusion has been conducted with non-representative samples of individuals from higher-income backgrounds, and so further studies including participants from a broader range of socioeconomic backgrounds are required. Here, in a pre-registered study, we analyzed resting-state fMRI from 6839 children ages 9-10 years from the ABCD dataset. For children from households defined as being above poverty (family of 4 with income > $25,000, or family of 5+ with income > $35,000), we replicated prior findings; that is, we found that better performance on cognitive tests correlated with weaker LFPN-DMN coupling. For children from households defined as being in poverty, the direction of association was reversed, on average: better performance was instead directionally related to stronger LFPN-DMN connectivity, though there was considerable variability. Among children in households below poverty, the direction of this association was predicted in part by features of their environments, such as school type and parent-reported neighborhood safety. These results highlight the importance of including representative samples in studies of child cognitive development.

Ethnoracial disparities in cognition are associated with multiple socioeconomic status-stress pathways

Systemic racism can have broad impacts on health in ethnoracial minorities. One way is by suppressing socioeconomic status (SES) levels through barriers to achieve higher income, wealth, and educational attainment. Additionally, the weathering hypothesis proposes that the various stressful adversities faced by ethnoracial minorities lead to greater wear and tear on the body, known as allostatic load. In the present study, we extend these ideas to cognitive health in a tri-ethnic sample of young adults-when cognition and brain health is arguably at their peak. Specifically, we tested competing mediation models that might shed light on how two key factors caused by systemic racism-SES and perceived stress-intersect to explain ethnoracial disparities in cognition. We found evidence for partial mediation via a pathway from SES to stress on episodic memory, working memory capacity, and executive function in Black Americans relative to non-Hispanic White Americans. Additionally, we found that stress partially mediated the ethnoracial disparities in working memory updating for lower SES Black and Hispanic Americans relative to non-Hispanic White Americans, showing that higher SES can sometimes reduce the negative effects stress has on these disparities in some cognitive domains. Overall, these findings suggest that multiple pathways exist in which lower SES creates a stressful environment to impact ethnoracial disparities cognition. These pathways differ depending on the specific ethnoracial category and cognitive domain. The present results may offer insight into strategies to help mitigate the late-life risk for neurocognitive disorders in ethnoracial minorities.

Links between socioeconomic disadvantage, neural function, and working memory in early childhood

Children reared in socioeconomically disadvantaged environments are at risk for academic, cognitive, and behavioral problems. Mounting evidence suggests that childhood adversities, encountered at disproportionate rates in contexts of socioeconomic risk, shape the developing brain in ways that explain disparities. Circuitries that subserve neurocognitive functions related to memory, attention, and cognitive control are especially affected. However, most work showing altered neural function has focused on middle childhood and adolescence. Understanding alterations in brain development during foundational points in early childhood is a key next step. To address this gap, we examined functional near-infrared-spectroscopy-based neural activation during a working memory (WM) task in young children aged 4-7 years (N = 30) who varied in socioeconomic risk exposure. Children who experienced greater disadvantage (lower income to needs ratio and lower Hollingshead index) exhibited lower activation in the lateral prefrontal cortex than children who experienced less to no disadvantage. Variability in prefrontal cortex activation, but not behavioral performance on the WM task, was associated with worse executive functioning in children as reported by parents. These findings add to existing evidence that exposure to early adversity, such as socioeconomic risk, may lead to foundational changes in the developing brain, which increases risk for disparities in functioning across multiple cognitive and social domains.

Teaching the Teachers About Language Support Strategies: Effects on Young Children's Language Development

The feeling thinking talking (FTT) intervention was designed because early childhood seems to be a prime time for fostering young children's language skills. This intervention involved teaching teachers from N = 28 kindergarten groups in N = 13 German kindergartens language support strategies (LSS) to be used in everyday conversations with the children in their care. The FTT intervention was evaluated in a business-as-usual control group design with N = 281 children (mean age = 49.82 months, range = 33-66 months at T1, mixed SES) who were individually tested using objective tests on grammar, vocabulary and working memory before (T1) and after the FTT intervention (T2), and in a follow-up about one year after T1 (T3). After propensity matching was applied, multilevel models demonstrated that the children taught by the intervention group teachers made faster progress in their understanding of sentences, their application of morphological rules, and their memory for sentences when numerous covariates (child age, gender, behavioral self-regulation, multilingual upbringing, and family SES) were controlled. Results suggest that complex language processing abilities in young children can be promoted by a teacher-led intervention in early childhood education. Improved language skills will further all children's academic and social success in school.

Evidence for dissociable cognitive and neural pathways from poverty versus maltreatment to deficits in emotion regulation

Poverty and threat exposure (TE) predict deficits in emotion regulation (ER). Effective cognitive ER (i.e., reappraisal) may be supported by: (1) cognitive processes implicated in generating and implementing cognitive reappraisal, supported by activation in brain regions involved in cognitive control (e.g., frontal, insular, and parietal cortices) and (2) emotion processing and reactivity, involving identification, encoding, and maintenance of emotional states and related variation in brain activity of regions involved in emotional reactivity (i.e., amygdala). Poverty is associated with deficits in cognitive control, and TE with alterations in emotion processing and reactivity. Our goal was to identify dissociable emotional and cognitive pathways to ER deficits from poverty and TE. Measures of cognitive ability, emotional processing and reactivity, ER, and neural activity during a sadness ER task, were examined from a prospective longitudinal study of youth at risk for depression (n = 139). Both cognitive ability and left anterior insula extending into the frontal operculum activity during a sadness reappraisal task mediated the relationship between poverty and ER. Emotion processing/reactivity didn’t mediate the relationship of TE to ER. Findings support a cognitive pathway from poverty to ER deficits. They also underscore the importance of dissociating mechanisms contributing to ER impairments from adverse early childhood experiences.

[Formula: see text] Neural correlates of socioeconomic status in early childhood: a systematic review of the literature

It is now established that socioeconomic variables are associated with cognitive, academic achievement, and psychiatric outcomes. Recent years have shown the advance in our understanding of how socioeconomic status (SES) relates to brain development in the first years of life (ages 0-5 years). However, it remains unknown which neural structures and functions are most sensitive to the environmental experiences associated with SES. Pubmed, PsycInfo, and Google Scholar databases from January 1, 2000, to December 31, 2019, were systematically searched using terms "Neural" OR "Neuroimaging" OR "Brain" OR "Brain development," AND "Socioeconomic" OR "SES" OR "Income" OR "Disadvantage" OR "Education," AND "Early childhood" OR "Early development". Nineteen studies were included in the full review after applying all exclusion criteria. Studies revealed associations between socioeconomic and neural measures and indicated that, in the first years of life, certain neural functions and structures (e.g., those implicated in language and executive function) may be more sensitive to socioeconomic context than others. Findings broadly support the hypothesis that SES associations with neural structure and function operate on a gradient. Socioeconomic status is reflected in neural architecture and function of very young children, as early as shortly after birth, with its effects possibly growing throughout early childhood as a result of postnatal experiences. Although socioeconomic associations with neural measures were relatively consistent across studies, results from this review are not conclusive enough to supply a neural phenotype of low SES. Further work is necessary to understand causal mechanisms underlying SES-brain associations.

Young Children's Prosocial Behavior Protects Against Academic Risk in Neighborhoods With Low Socioeconomic Status

Children raised in neighborhoods with low socioeconomic status (SES) are at risk for low academic achievement. Identifying factors that help children from disadvantaged neighborhoods thrive is critical for reducing inequalities. We investigated whether children's prosocial behavior buffers concurrent and subsequent academic risk in disadvantaged neighborhoods in Bradford, UK. Diverse children (N = 1,175) were followed until age seven, with measurements taken at four times. We used governmental indices of neighborhood-level SES, teacher observations of prosocial behaviors, and direct assessments of academic achievement. Neighborhood SES was positively associated with academic achievement among children with low levels of prosocial behavior, but not among children with high levels of prosocial behavior. Prosocial behavior may mitigate academic risk across early childhood.

Pieces of evidences of reliability of the Brazilian version of the Child Executive Functions Battery (CEF-B)

Executive dysfunctions are central symptoms in different neurological, developmental, and context-related conditions. The assessment of these functions is then essential in neuropsychological pediatric clinical practice. Given the need for reliable and valid evaluation batteries for clinical practice in Brazil, this study aimed to present the pieces of evidences of reliability of the Child Executive Functions Battery (CEF-B). A total of 230 Brazilian children with typical development aged between 7 and 12 years participated in the study. Internal consistency was determined by the split-half method, Cronbach’s α, and Ω. In addition, measurements of test-retest reliability and intraclass coefficient were also performed. Retest indicators were mostly weak and moderate (between .43 and .75). Overvall, coefficients show a satisfactory internal consistency reliability for planning and inhibition measures (between .72 and .92). Considering the measures of WM, results were also satisfactory for both α and Ω indexes. This study revealed that the CEF-B has satisfactory internal consistency reliability coefficients. However, several tests have shown low reliability assessed through the test-retest method. In general, findings reveal interesting pieces of initial evidence of reliability of the Brazilian version. The methodological approach could be improved in future studies by including children with executive disorders.

The Relationship Between Socioeconomic Status and Scalp Event-Related Potentials: A Systematic Review

Several decades of behavioral research have established that variations in socioeconomic status (SES) are related to differences in cognitive performance. Neuroimaging and psychophysiological techniques have recently emerged as a method of choice to better understand the neurobiological processes underlying this phenomenon. Here we present a systematic review of a particular sub-domain of this field. Specifically, we used the PICOS approach to review studies investigating potential relationships between SES and scalp event-related brain potentials (ERP). This review found evidence that SES is related to amplitude variations in a diverse range of ERPs: P1, N1, N2, Error-Related Negativities (ERN), N400, auditory evoked potentials, negative difference waves (Nd), P3 and slow waves (SW). These ERPs include early, mid-latency and late potentials that reflect a broad range of cognitive processes (e.g., automatic attentional processes, overt attention, language, executive function, etc.). In this review, all SES effects on ERPs appeared to reflect an impairment or a less efficient form of task-related neural activity for low-SES compared to high-SES individuals. Overall, these results confirm that a wide variety of distinct neural processes with different functional meanings are sensitive to SES differences. The findings of this review also suggest that the relationship between SES and some ERP components may depend on the developmental stage of study participants. Results are further discussed in terms of the current limitations of this field and future avenues of research.

Addressing educational inequalities and promoting learning through studies of stress physiology in elementary school students

To be ready to learn, children need to be focused, engaged, and able to bounce back from setbacks. However, many children come to school with heightened or diminished physiological arousal due to exposure to poverty-related risks. While stress physiology plays a role in explaining how adversity relates to processes that support students' cognitive development, there is a lack of studies of physiological stress response in educational settings. This review integrates relevant studies and offers future directions for research on the role of stress physiology in the school adaptation of elementary school students, focusing on these important questions: (a) What are the links between physiological stress response and learning-related skills and behaviors, and do they vary as a function of proximal and distal experiences outside of school? (b) How are school experiences associated with students' physiological stress response and related cognitive and behavioral adaptations? (c) How can we leverage measures of students' physiological stress response in evaluations of school-based interventions to better support the school success of every student? We hope to stimulate a new wave of research that will advance the science of developmental stress physiology, as well as improve the application of these findings in educational policy and practice.

Developmental Profile of Executive Functioning in School-Age Children From Northeast Brazil

The development of executive functions (EF) is recognizably correlated to culture, contextual and social factors. However, studies considering all the basic EF are still scarce in Brazil, most notably in the Northeast region, which is known for its social inequality and economic gap. This study aimed to analyze the developmental trajectories and structure of four EF, namely inhibition, flexibility, working memory and planning. In addition, the potential effects of socioeconomic status (SES) and gender were examined. The sample included 230 Brazilian children between 7-12 years old, homogeneously distributed by age, gender and type of school. The EF were assessed through the Brazilian version of the Child Executive Functions Battery (CEF-B). A global effect of age was found for most of the EF measures evaluated. Gender effect was mostly non-significant, except for 4 of the 12 tasks. There was a significant SES effect on 8 tasks, all in favor of private school children. Exploratory factorial and correlation analysis showed a 4-factor EF structure, corroborating the theoretical distribution considered in the CEF-B. A developmental progression is evident in the results for all of the EF measures evaluated. While gender had little influence on EF, SES seems to significantly impact the development of EF. As normative data are still lacking in Northeast Brazil, this study may help to understand EF development trajectories and provide tools for neuropsychological evaluation.

Measurement of Cognition for the National Children's Study

The National Children's Study Cognitive Health Domain Team developed detailed plans for assessing cognition longitudinally from infancy to early adulthood. These plans identify high-priority aspects of cognition that can be measured efficiently and effectively, and we believe they can serve as a model for future large-scale longitudinal research. For infancy and toddlerhood, we proposed several paradigms that collectively allowed us to assess six broad cognitive constructs: (1) executive function skills, (2) episodic memory, (3) language, (4) processing speed, (5) spatial and numerical processing, and (6) social cognition. In some cases, different trial sequences within a paradigm allow for the simultaneous assessment of multiple cognitive skills (e.g., executive function skills and processing speed). We define each construct, summarize its significance for understanding developmental outcomes, discuss the feasibility of its assessment throughout development, and present our plan for measuring specific skills at different ages. Given the need for well-validated, direct behavioral measures of cognition that can be used in large-scale longitudinal studies, especially from birth to age 3 years, we also initiated three projects focused on the development of new measures.

A Systematic Overview of Meta-Analyses on Socioeconomic Status, Cognitive Ability, and Achievement: The Need to Focus on Specific Pathways

Meta-analyses on the relation between socioeconomic status (SES) and performance on measures of cognitive ability and achievement arrive at the same general conclusion of a small to medium association. Advancements in methods make possible for meta-analyses to examine specific pathways linking SES to cognitive ability and achievement, as well as the moderators of these pathways. In this study, we conducted a systematic overview of meta-analyses on SES to address three research questions: 1) what is the direction and overall strength of association between SES and performance on measures of cognitive ability and achievement, and how precise are the effect sizes reported? 2) to what extent have meta-analyses examined moderation by components of SES, age, sex, and race/ethnicity? and 3) to what extent have meta-analyses examined mechanisms linking SES to cognitive ability and achievement? We conducted a systematic search using online archives (i.e., PsycINFO, ERIC, PubMed, Sociological Abstracts, and Web of Science), searching issues in Psychological Bulletin and Review of Educational Research, and examining references and citations. We identified 14 meta-analyses published between 1982 and 2019. These meta-analyses consistently reported positive associations of small to medium magnitude, indicating that SES is a meaningful contributor to the development of cognitive ability and achievement. Fewer meta-analyses reported evidence of moderation by age, sex, and race/ethnicity. None of the meta-analyses directly examined mechanisms, but provided evidence of possible mechanisms for future research. We suggest that meta-analyses can increase their contribution to future research, interventions, and policy by narrowing their focus on specific pathways.

Positive Economic, Psychosocial, and Physiological Ecologies Predict Brain Structure and Cognitive Performance in 9-10-Year-Old Children

While low socioeconomic status (SES) introduces risk for developmental outcomes among children, there are an array of proximal processes that determine the ecologies and thus the lived experiences of children. This study examined interrelations between 22 proximal measures in the economic, psychosocial, physiological, and perinatal ecologies of children, in association with brain structure and cognitive performance in a diverse sample of 8,158 9-10-year-old children from the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development (ABCD) study. SES was measured by the income-to-needs ratio (INR), a measure used by federal poverty guidelines. Within the ABCD study, in what is one of the largest and most diverse cohorts of children studied in the United States, we replicate associations of low SES with lower total cortical surface area and worse cognitive performance. Associations between low SES (<200% INR) and measures of development showed the steepest increases with INR, with apparent increases still visible beyond the level of economic disadvantage in the range of 200-400% INR. Notably, we found three latent factors encompassing positive ecologies for children across the areas of economic, psychosocial, physiological, and perinatal well-being in association with better cognitive performance and the higher total cortical surface area beyond the effects of SES. Specifically, latent factors encompassing youth perceived social support and perinatal well-being were positive predictors of developmental measures for all children, regardless of SES. Further, we found a general latent factor that explained relationships between 20 of the proximal measures and encompassed a joint ecology of higher social and economic resources relative to low adversity across psychosocial, physiological, and perinatal domains. The association between the resource-to-adversity latent factor and cognitive performance was moderated by SES, such that for children in higher SES households, cognitive performance progressively increased with these latent factor scores, while for lower SES, cognitive performance increased only among children with the highest latent factor scores. Our findings suggest that both positive ecologies of increased access to resources and lower adversity are mutually critical for promoting better cognitive development in children from low SES households. Our findings inform future studies aiming to examine positive factors that influence healthier development in children.

Socio-economic status, executive functions, and theory of mind ability in adolescents: Relationships with language ability and cortisol

Socio‐economic status (SES) is linked to the development of cognitive abilities, particularly language and executive processes. It is unclear whether these represent a single or independent correlates. We studied 110 Ecuadorian youths aged 12–17 with measures of SES, language, executive function, and theory of mind (ToM), a.k.a. mentalizing. A subsample gave hair samples to estimate recent cortisol levels. Restricting analyses to reliable measures, SES was highly associated with language skill, and to a lesser extent with executive function and ToM performance. However, those latter associations were attenuated and non‐significant when language ability was controlled for statistically. Systemic cortisol levels were not associated with SES, but were significantly and negatively correlated with ToM, independent of variation in language skills. We conclude that language development underlies most of the impact of SES on executive function and ToM ability of adolescents, but that stress‐related cortisol may have an independent, direct effect on mentalizing.