Longitudinal stability of pre-reading skill profiles of kindergarten children: implications for early screening and theories of reading

Do early musical impairments predict later reading difficulties? A longitudinal study of pre-readers with and without familial risk for dyslexia

The present longitudinal study investigated the hypothesis that early musical skills (as measured by melodic and rhythmic perception and memory) predict later literacy development via a mediating effect of phonology. We examined 130 French-speaking children, 31 of whom with a familial risk for developmental dyslexia (DD). Their abilities in the three domains were assessed longitudinally with a comprehensive battery of behavioral tests in kindergarten, first grade, and second grade. Using a structural equation modeling approach, we examined potential longitudinal effects from music to literacy via phonology. We then investigated how familial risk for DD may influence these relationships by testing whether atypical music processing is a risk factor for DD. Results showed that children with a familial risk for DD consistently underperformed children without familial risk in music, phonology, and literacy. A small effect of musical ability on literacy via phonology was observed, but may have been induced by differences in stability across domains over time. Furthermore, early musical skills did not add significant predictive power to later literacy difficulties beyond phonological skills and family risk status. These findings are consistent with the idea that certain key auditory skills are shared between music and speech processing, and between DD and congenital amusia. However, they do not support the notion that music perception and memory skills can serve as a reliable early marker of DD, nor as a valuable target for reading remediation. RESEARCH HIGHLIGHTS: Music, phonology, and literacy skills of 130 children, 31 of whom with a familial risk for dyslexia, were examined longitudinally. Children with a familial risk for dyslexia consistently underperformed children without familial risk in musical, phonological, and literacy skills. Structural equation models showed a small effect of musical ability in kindergarten on literacy in second grade, via phonology in first grade. However, early musical skills did not add significant predictive power to later literacy difficulties beyond phonological skills and family risk status.

Towards a dynamic, comprehensive conceptualization of dyslexia

Here we build from the central strength of the existing definition of dyslexia-its emphasis on neurobiological origins-and proffer a set of seven core principles for a new, more comprehensive conceptualization of dyslexia. These principles derive from two major research directions: (1) the still evolving history of attempts to explain dyslexia, including in varied writing systems; and (2) the study of the reading brain circuit, its development, and its genetic and environmental influences. What emerges from connecting these two directions is a dynamic conceptualization of dyslexia that incorporates the extensive research on the heterogeneity of dyslexia and the interdependent contributions of multiple biological and socio-cultural risk and preventive factors. A new definition of dyslexia, therefore, needs to transcend both past unitary characterizations and past assumptions based largely on the English orthography. Such a conceptualization references the ways that different languages interact with the reading brain circuit to produce different sources of reading failure. Similarly, the characteristics and consequences of dyslexia that have been considered as secondary sequela (e.g., reduced reading comprehension, social-emotional issues) should be part of a more comprehensive narrative. Of critical importance, any definition of dyslexia should clarify persisting misconceptions that associate dyslexia with a lack of intelligence, potential to learn, or talents. Thus, the overall purpose of such a definition should serve as an instrument of knowledge and an enduring reason for pursuing growth in reading for the individual, the educator, and the public.

Understanding variation in prospective poor decoders: A person-centred approach from kindergarten to Grade 2

In the present study, we aimed to clarify variation in prospective poor decoders by studying the development of their word decoding skills during the first 1½ years of formal reading education and their unique pre-reading profiles before the onset of formal reading education. Using structural equation modelling and a factorial mixed model analysis of variance (ANOVA), we found autoregression and growth in the word decoding efficiency of prospective poor decoders (n = 90) and matched prospective adequate decoders (n = 90) in first and second grade. However, the gap between the two groups widened over time. Next, we zoomed in on the group of poor decoders by retrospectively studying their individual variation regarding cognitive and linguistic pre-reading skills. Using latent profile analysis, we found three distinct pre-reading profiles: (1) Poor PA, Letter Knowledge, RAN, and Verbal STM; (2) Poor PA and Letter Knowledge; and (3) Poor RAN. Together, these findings suggest that reading difficulties emerge at the intersection of multiple risk factors which can be detected in kindergarten, and that these reading problems persist throughout early reading education.

Characterizing different types of developmental dyslexias in French: The Malabi screener

Reading is a complex process involving multiple stages. An impairment in any of these stages may cause distinct types of reading deficits- distinct types of dyslexia. We describe the Malabi, a screener to identify deficits in various orthographic, lexical, and sublexical components of the reading process in French. The Malabi utilizes stimuli that are sensitive to different forms of dyslexia, including "attentional dyslexia", as it is traditionally refered to, characterized by letter-to-word binding impairments leading to letter migrations between words (e.g., "bar cat" misread as "bat car"), and "letter-position dyslexia", resulting in letter transpositions within words (e.g., "destiny" misread as "density"). After collecting reading error norms from 138 French middle-school students, we analyzed error types of 16 students with developmental dyslexia. We identified three selective cases of attentional dyslexia and one case of letter-position dyslexia. Further tests confirmed our diagnosis and demonstrate, for the first time, how these dyslexias are manifested in French. These results underscore the significance of recognizing and discussing the existence of multiple dyslexias, both in research contexts when selecting participants for dyslexia studies, and in practical settings where educators and practitioners work with students to develop personalized support. The test and supporting materials are available on Open Science Framework (https://osf.io/3pgzb/).

Challenging the stability of RAN development: Acknowledging PA and Gf in relation to reading

This study had two overriding goals, (1) examine the stability of rapid automatized naming (RAN) in predicting reading achievement while taking into account two other frequently studied constructs, phonological awareness and fluid intelligence (Gf) and (2) examine the predictive power of RAN measured at age 4 on reading ability. The stable pattern of RAN development found in a previously reported growth model was challenged by relating phonological awareness and Gf to the model. Children (N = 364) were followed from age 4 to age 10. At age 4, Gf related strongly to phonological awareness, which in turn related strongly to RAN. The relations between the RAN measures over time was largely unaffected by the inclusion of Gf and phonological awareness. RAN, Gf and phonological awareness at age 4 independently predicted latent factors reflecting reading-related abilities in grade 1 and grade 4. However, when scrutinizing type of reading measure in grade 4, Gf, phonological awareness and RAN at age 4 predicted both spelling and reading fluency, whereas RAN in grade 2 did not predict spelling but was the strongest predictor of reading fluency.

The Role of Emergent Literacy Assessment in Brazilian Portuguese Literacy Acquisition during COVID-19

The contributions of emergent literacy skills to reading and writing development have been evidenced in different linguistic contexts. The worsening of the Brazil literacy scenario during the pandemic denoted the importance of a better understanding of these contributions' specificities in Brazilian Portuguese to support evidence-based mitigation strategies. This study aimed to analyze the associations between emergent literacy components (emergent writing, alphabet knowledge, vocabulary, and phonological awareness) and word/pseudoword reading and spelling performance in first grade students during COVID-19. A total of 42 children (M_age = 6.29 years, SD = 0.45, 52.4% female) participated remotely in this study. Correlations and multilinear regression analyses were conducted. The results show significant associations between emergent literacy components and reading and spelling performance. Stronger associations were found with specific emergent skills such as letter writing, spontaneous writing, letter-sound production, and alliteration. Regression models indicated that children's performance in early literacy skills explained 49% of the variance in reading and 55% of the variance in spelling. This study highlighted the role of emergent writing and alphabet knowledge as reading and spelling predictors during literacy acquisition in Brazilian Portuguese. Implications for educational context and directions for remediating the negative impact of the pandemic on learning were discussed.

Longitudinal predictors of French word reading difficulties among French Immersion children

In Canada, approximately 12% of school-aged children are enrolled in French Immersion (FI), with some provinces estimating close to 30%. FI programs are intended to produce bilingual individuals who can functionally communicate in both of Canada's official languages. Yet, we are currently underinformed as to how to identify children with French word reading difficulties in such programs. Within this context, and in the interests of informing early identification of second language reading challenges, we examined early English predictors of French word reading difficulties. We also examined potential overlap of these difficulties as well as the stability of these difficulties over time. A total of 108 children in FI participated, completing measures of English nonverbal intelligence, phonological awareness, rapid automatized naming, and receptive vocabulary in kindergarten, as well as English and French word reading in grades 1, 2, and 3. Logistic regressions revealed that kindergarten English phonological awareness and rapid automatized naming (RAN) distinguished between good and poor French word readers in grade 3, with adequate sensitivity and specificity. These results suggest that English phonological awareness and RAN may be appropriate early skills to identify children at risk of word reading challenges in bilingual programs. Chi-square analyses demonstrated significant overlap of English and French word reading challenges in grades 1, 2, and 3, highlighting the possibility that English and French word reading difficulties do not exist independently. Finally, chi-square analyses revealed retrospectively stable word reading difficulties in English and French. Interestingly, prospective stability was stronger for French than English word reading challenges. Overall, our results underscore the importance of considering the specific nature of word reading difficulties in bilingual readers.

The Detection of Early Reading Performance and Its Relationship with Biopsychosocial Risk Factors in the Study of Learning Difficulties

The study of the multiple processes involved in learning how to read can contribute towards the early detection of good and bad readers. However, it is necessary to take into consideration different biopsychosocial risk factors (pre- and perigestational, neonatal, medical, developmental and family-related) that may have a significant impact on neurodevelopment, producing atypical cognitive development that could lead to the presence of reading difficulties. The objective of this study was to identify the main psycholinguistic abilities involved in the early reading performance and analyse their relationship to biopsychosocial risk factors. A total of 110 subjects between the ages of 4 and 7 years old and enrolled in state-run schools in Spain participated in the study. Significant correlations were found between different psycholinguistic abilities and certain biopsychosocial risk factors (having had hyperbilirubinemia, having obtained a score lower than 9 on the Apgar test, having had language problems or a sibling with dyslexia). This relationship should be taken into account in the study of learning difficulties as a potential indicator to predict later reading development and even the presence of developmental dyslexia.

Development, Reliability, and Validity of the Preschool Learning Skills Scale: A Tool for Early Identification of Preschoolers at Risk of Learning Disorder in Mainland China

Background

Early identification of children at risk of learning disorders (LD) may mitigate the adverse effects of delayed intervention by guiding children to receive preventive services at an earlier age. However, there is no assessment tool for the early identification of children at risk of LD in Mainland China. Therefore, this study aimed to create a Chinese version of the Preschool Learning Skills Scale and investigate its validity and reliability.

Methods

Firstly, a pilot scale was designed based on literature review and expert review. Secondly, a pre-survey of the pilot scale was conducted. In phase 3, a formal survey was carried out to test the reliability and validity of the scale by involving 2,677 preschool children from 7 kindergartens. Data were collected using a checklist for demographic characteristics, the preschool learning skills scale, the Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Function-Preschool Version (BRIEF-P), and Conners' Rating Scales.

Results

The final scale included 38 items under seven factors. The reliability and validity tests confirmed that the Cronbach's alpha, split-half reliability, and test–retest reliability coefficients of the scale were 0.946, 0.888, and 0.941, respectively. The Spearman correlations of factor-total score ranged from 0.685 to 0.876. The results of criterion-related validity showed a direct and significant association between the preschool learning skills scale with the BRIEF-P (r = 0.641, P < 0.001) and the cognitive problems factor of Conners' Rating Scales (r = 0.564, P < 0.001). The model had a good fit (χ2/df = 3.489, RMSEA = 0.047, RMR = 0.024, CFI = 0.912, TLI = 0.900, and IFI = 0.912). Multigroup confirmatory factor analysis supported the structural and measurement invariance on the preschool learning skills scale across gender and grade.

Conclusions

The developed preschool learning skills scale has good reliability and validity, indicating that the scale can be used to identify preschool children at risk of LD and can be recommended for use in clinical research and practice.

A Cumulative Risk and Resilience Model of Dyslexia

Considerable attention and legislation are currently focused on developmental dyslexia. A major challenge to these efforts is how to define and operationalize dyslexia. In this article, we argue that rather than defining dyslexia on the basis of an underlying condition, dyslexia is best viewed as a label for an unexpected reading disability. This view fits well with a preventive approach in which risk for reading disability is identified and addressed prior to children experiencing reading failure. A risk-resilience model is introduced that proposes that dyslexia is due to the cumulative effects of risk and resilience factors. Evidence for the multifactorial causal basis of dyslexia is reviewed and potential factors that may offset this risk are considered. The implications of a cumulative risk and resilience model for early identification and intervention is discussed.

White matter properties underlying reading abilities differ in 8-year-old children born full term and preterm: A multi-modal approach

Many diffusion magnetic resonance imaging (dMRI) studies document associations between reading skills and fractional anisotropy (FA) within brain white matter, suggesting that efficient transfer of information across the brain contributes to individual differences in reading. Use of complementary imaging methods can determine if these associations relate to myelin content of white matter tracts. Compared to children born at term (FT), children born preterm (PT) are at risk for reading deficits. We used two MRI methods to calculate associations of reading and white matter properties in FT and PT children. Participants (N=79: 36 FT and 43 PT) were administered the Gray's Oral Reading Test at age 8. We segmented three dorsal (left arcuate and bilateral superior longitudinal fasciculus) and four ventral (bilateral inferior longitudinal fasciculus and bilateral uncinate) tracts and quantified (1) FA from dMRI and (2) R1 from quantitative T1 relaxometry. We examined correlations between reading scores and these metrics along the trajectories of the tracts. Reading positively correlated with FA in segments of left arcuate and bilateral superior longitudinal fasciculi in FT children; no FA associations were found in PT children. Reading positively correlated with R1 in segments of the left superior longitudinal, right uncinate, and left inferior longitudinal fasciculi in PT children; no R1 associations were found in FT children. Birth group significantly moderated the associations of reading and white matter metrics. Myelin content of white matter may contribute to individual differences in PT but not FT children.

Implementing Remote Developmental Research: A Case Study of a Randomized Controlled Trial Language Intervention During COVID-19

Intervention studies with developmental samples are difficult to implement, in particular when targeting demographically diverse communities. Online studies have the potential to examine the efficacy of highly scalable interventions aimed at enhancing development, and to address some of the barriers faced by underrepresented communities for participating in developmental research. During the COVID-19 pandemic, we executed a fully remote randomized controlled trial (RCT) language intervention with third and fourth grade students (N = 255; age range 8.19-10.72 years, mean = 9.41, SD = 0.52) from diverse backgrounds across the United States. Using this as a case study, we discuss both challenges and solutions to conducting an intensive online intervention through the various phases of the study, including recruitment, data collection, and fidelity of intervention implementation. We provide comprehensive suggestions and takeaways, and conclude by summarizing some important tradeoffs for researchers interested in carrying out such studies.

Predicting Word Reading Deficits Using an App-Based Screening Tool at School Entry

BACKGROUND

Reading is a crucial competence associated with academic development, mental health, and social adaptation. Reading difficulties are often detected at a late stage, with a possible negative impact on long-term reading development and secondary developmental disadvantages. The first manifestations of reading difficulties can be identified by word reading deficits in first and second grade, paving the way for specific interventions. For widespread implementation, instruments must be easy to use and motivating for children.

OBJECTIVES

Development and validation of an economical, well-accepted, and accurate screening tool composed of the domains of phonological information processing, language skills, and non-verbal intelligence in regular school settings.

DESIGN

In 2020, the screening tool was used on a sample of 409 first graders between the second and fifth weeks of school in a one-to-one setting. Additionally, information on parental education and the use of German and/or other languages by the child was collected using a parental questionnaire. A follow-up involving the use of established standardized word reading tests was conducted at the end of the first school year.

RESULTS

A five-variable screening tool consisting of the dimensions of phonological information processing (letter knowledge, rapid naming, and phonological awareness) and linguistic skills (receptive vocabulary and morphosyntax) showed statistical relevance (AUC = 0.78; sensitivity 0.80, specificity 0.74) for predicting word reading problems concerning reading speed (<16th percentile) at the end of first grade, whereas gender, first language, and age of first exposure to the German language did not contribute to the prediction. The instrument was well accepted by the children and screeners and can be administered within an acceptable time frame.

CONCLUSION

Word reading deficits at the end of first grade can be predicted by the use of an app-based screening tool at school entry that includes phonological information processing and language skills. Further validation and assessment of empirical feasibility data are needed to support the screening instrument for German orthography.

Chronic pediatric diseases and risk for reading difficulties: a narrative review with recommendations

Literacy is a major social determinant of health, rooted in skills that develop during early childhood. Children arriving at kindergarten unprepared to learn to read are more likely to have low reading proficiency thereafter. General and health literacy are highly correlated, affecting understanding of health conditions, treatment adherence, and transition to self-care and adult healthcare services. The American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) recommends literacy and school readiness promotion during well-visits and neurodevelopmental surveillance is emphasized across primary and subspecialty care. While genetic and environmental risk factors for reading difficulties are well-established, risks related to complex and chronic medical conditions are less appreciated and under-researched. This review applies an eco-bio-developmental framework to explore literacy across five complex chronic conditions affecting millions of children worldwide: asthma, cancer, congenital heart disease, epilepsy, and sickle cell disease. In each, integration of an efficient reading brain network may be impacted by direct factors, such as ischemia, anesthesia, and/or medications, and also indirect factors, such as altered parent-child routines, hospital stays, and missed school. By integrating literacy into care management plans for affected children, pediatric primary care and specialty providers are poised to identify risks early, target guidance and interventions, and improve academic and health outcomes. IMPACT: While genetic and environmental risk factors for reading difficulties are well-established, risks related to complex and/or chronic medical conditions such as asthma, cancer, congenital heart disease, epilepsy, and sickle cell disease are substantial, less appreciated, and under-researched. General and health literacy are highly correlated, with implications for the understanding one's health condition, treatment adherence, and transitioning to self-care, which is especially important for children with complex and/or chronic illness. Pediatric primary care and specialty providers are poised to integrate reading and literacy into care management plans for children with complex and/or chronic illness, including early screening, guidance, support, and interventions.

ERP Mismatch Negativity Amplitude and Asymmetry Reflect Phonological and Rapid Automatized Naming Skills in English-Speaking Kindergartners

The mismatch negativity (MMN), an electrophysiological response to an oddball auditory stimulus, is related to reading ability in many studies. There are conflicting findings regarding exactly how the MMN relates to risk or actual diagnosis of dyslexia/reading impairment, perhaps due to the heterogeneity of abilities in children with reading impairment. In this study, 166 English-speaking kindergarten children oversampled for dyslexia risk completed behavioral assessments and a speech-syllable MMN paradigm. We examined how early and late MMN mean amplitude and laterality were related to two established predictors of reading ability: phonological awareness (PA) and rapid automatized naming (RAN). In bootstrapped group analyses, late MMN amplitude was significantly greater in children with typical PA ability than low PA ability. In contrast, laterality of the early and late MMN was significantly different in children with low versus typical RAN ability. Continuous analyses controlling for child age, non-verbal IQ, and letter and word identification abilities showed the same associations between late MMN amplitude with PA and late MMN laterality with RAN. These findings suggest that amplitude of the MMN may relate to phonological representations and ability to manipulate them, whereas MMN laterality may reflect differences in brain processes that support automaticity needed for reading.

Multifactorial pathways facilitate resilience among kindergarteners at risk for dyslexia: A longitudinal behavioral and neuroimaging study

Recent efforts have focused on screening methods to identify children at risk for dyslexia as early as preschool/kindergarten. Unfortunately, while low sensitivity leads to under-identification of at-risk children, low specificity can lead to over-identification, resulting in inaccurate allocation of limited educational resources. The present study focused on children identified as at-risk in kindergarten who do not subsequently develop poor reading skills to specify factors associated with better reading outcomes among at-risk children. Early screening was conducted in kindergarten and a subset of children was tracked longitudinally until second grade. Potential protective factors were evaluated at cognitive-linguistic, environmental, and neural levels. Relative to at-risk kindergarteners with subsequent poor reading, those with typical reading outcomes were characterized by significantly higher socioeconomic status (SES), speech production accuracy, and structural organization of the posterior right-hemispheric superior longitudinal fasciculus (SLF). A positive association between structural organization of the right SLF and subsequent decoding skills was found to be specific to at-risk children and not observed among typical controls. Among at-risk children, several kindergarten-age factors were found to significantly contribute to the prediction of subsequent decoding skills: white matter organization in the posterior right SLF, age, gender, SES, and phonological awareness. These findings suggest that putative compensatory mechanisms are already present by the start of kindergarten. The right SLF, in conjunction with the cognitive-linguistic and socioeconomic factors identified, may play an important role in facilitating reading development among at-risk children. This study has important implications for approaches to early screening, and assessment strategies for at-risk children.

Effects of ASL Rhyme and Rhythm on Deaf Children's Engagement Behavior and Accuracy in Recitation: Evidence from a Single Case Design

Early language acquisition is critical for lifelong success in language, literacy, and academic studies. There is much to explore about the specific techniques used to foster deaf children’s language development. The use of rhyme and rhythm in American Sign Language (ASL) remains understudied. This single-subject study compared the effects of rhyming and non-rhyming ASL stories on the engagement behavior and accuracy in recitation of five deaf children between three and six years old in an ASL/English bilingual early childhood classroom. With the application of alternating treatment design with initial baseline, it is the first experimental research of its kind on ASL rhyme and rhythm. Baseline data revealed the lack of rhyme awareness in children and informed the decision to provide intervention as a condition to examine the effects of explicit handshape rhyme awareness instruction on increasing engagement behavior and accuracy in recitation. There were four phases in this study: baseline, handshape rhyme awareness intervention, alternating treatments, and preference. Visual analysis and total mean and mean difference procedures were employed to analyze results. The findings indicate that recitation skills in young deaf children can be supported through interventions utilizing ASL rhyme and rhythm supplemented with ASL phonological awareness activities. A potential case of sign language impairment was identified in a native signer, creating a new line of inquiry in using ASL rhyme, rhythm, and phonological awareness to detect atypical language patterns.

Pre-literacy heterogeneity in Dutch-speaking kindergartners: latent profile analysis

Research demonstrated that a dyslexia diagnosis is mainly given after the most effective time for intervention has passed, referred to as the dyslexia paradox. Although some pre-reading cognitive measures have been found to be strong predictors of early literacy acquisition, i.e., phonological awareness (PA), letter knowledge (LK), and rapid automatized naming (RAN), more insight in the variability of pre-reading profiles might be of great importance for early identification of children who have an elevated risk for developing dyslexia and to provide tailor-made interventions. To address this issue, this study used a latent profile analysis (LPA) to disentangle different pre-reading profiles in a sample of 1091 Dutch-speaking kindergartners. Four profiles emerged: high performers (16.50%), average performers (40.24%), below-average performers with average IQ (25.57%), and below-average performers with below-average IQ (17.69%). These results suggested two at-risk profiles diverging in IQ, which are presumably more likely to develop dyslexia later on. Although below-average profiles differed significantly in rapid naming and IQ, no clear evidence for the double-deficit theory was found in Dutch-speaking kindergartners. Educational level and reading history of the parents appeared to be predictive for children's classification membership. Our results point towards the heterogeneity that is already present in kindergartners and the possibility to identify at-risk profiles prior to reading instruction, which may be the foundation for earlier targeted interventions. However, more extended research is needed to determine the stability of these profiles across time and across different languages.

Cognitive, Noncognitive, and Home Environment Correlates of Reading Difficulties in Primary-Grade Students With Language Impairment

Purpose This article first aimed to examine the cognitive (rapid automatized naming, phonological awareness, working memory, nonverbal cognition, and language) correlates of reading difficulty in children with language impairment (LI). Second, we considered whether noncognitive (effortful control, social competence, and behavior problems) correlates offered any explanatory value above that of cognitive factors. Third, we examined whether home environment (specifically household organization and home learning environment) would offer an additional explanatory value. Method The sample included 165 children in kindergarten and Grade 1 who were receiving intervention for LI in public schools. Standardized measures along with parent interviews/questionnaires were administered at the end of the school year. Results Logistic regression models indicated the noncognitive factors added discriminatory value to that of cognitive factors in predicting reading difficulties, whereas household factors did not. In the final model using all 11 predictors, prediction accuracy was 88.7% for the typical reading group and 54.2% for the reading difficulty group, with an overall accuracy of 76.4%. Only phonological awareness and working memory significantly contributed to predicting reading group membership when measured in kindergarten and Grade 1. Conclusions For this sample of children with LI, the most important predictors of reading were cognitive. The child's behavior and social competence improved prediction to a limited but statistically significant degree, whereas home environment did not. Overall classification was low, as only half of the children with reading difficulties were correctly predicted. Important factors differentiating good and poor emergent readers with LI were not captured in this study. Supplemental Material https://doi.org/10.23641/asha.12462428.

Latent profile analysis of students' reading development and the relation of cognitive variables to reading profiles

Previous studies have showed that early problems with word decoding can lead to poor performance in text reading and comprehension and suggest that poor readers often struggle with reading deficits throughout their school years. Therefore, early detection of those children who are at risk for slow reading development and/or who belong to the lowest reading profiles is essential in order to organize proper support. The present study explores the heterogeneity and prevalence of latent reading profiles among 769 Finnish- and German-reading students during their first and second school years in three countries (Finland, Germany, and Italy) using latent profile analysis. The results identified three latent profiles among Finnish readers, one of which (sentence-level reading) was identified as developing slowly. Among German-reading students, four latent profiles were discovered, two of which were identified as developing slowly. The results of ordinal logistic regression modeling show that rapid automatic naming (RAN) was significantly related to poorer reading profiles among Finnish- and German-reading students, and that the poorer results in letter-sound connection testing among the German-reading group was also significantly related to poorer reading profiles. Although the educational systems have some differences between Germany and German-speaking areas of Italy, no significant country effect was detected. In addition, a child's age and spoken language did not significantly affect the student's reading profile.

Letter-name knowledge: Predicting reading and writing diffi culties

Abstract This study evaluated the precision of a Letter-Name Knowledge task in predicting children at risk/non-risk of reading and writing difficulties in Brazil. A second goal was to compare the precision of classification of two versions of this task: a 26 letter-task and a 15 letter-task. A total of 213 Brazilian children performed the 26 letter-task when they were in kindergarten. Of those children, 176 performed a writing task and 174 performed a reading task in 1st grade Elementary School. The choice of letters for the 15 letter-task was based on the Item Response Theory and on neural network simulation. The results based on the Receiver Operating Characteristic curve analysis, showed that both tasks could be used for screening children with reading and writing difficulties (areas under the curve of 0.83 and 0.80).

Stable auditory processing underlies phonological awareness in typically developing preschoolers

Sound processing is an important scaffold for early language acquisition. Here we investigate its relationship to three components of phonological processing in young children (∼age 3): Phonological Awareness (PA), Phonological Memory (PM), and Rapid Automatized Naming (RAN). While PA is believed to hinge upon consistency of sound processing to distinguish and manipulate word features, PM relies on an internal store of the sounds of language and RAN relies on fluid production of those sounds. Given the previously demonstrated link between PA and the auditory system, we hypothesized that only this component would be associated with auditory neural stability. Moreover, we expected relationships to manifest at early ages because additional factors may temper the association in older children. We measured across-trial stability of the frequency-following response, PA, PM, and RAN longitudinally in twenty-seven children. Auditory neural stability at age ∼3 years exclusively predicts PA, but this relationship vanishes in older children.

The effect of phonological awareness on rapid automatized naming

Background: Phonological awareness (PA) is a fundamental predictor of reading disability. However, researches on reading have indicated that PA assessment alone is not sufficient to prevent reading problems. Rapid automatized naming (RAN) has been suggested as another influential factor in reading deficits independent of PA. This study investigated the impact of phonological awareness on rapid automatized naming.

Methods: This was a randomized clinical trial study in which 62 Persian monolingual first graders were recruited from 3 schools using convenience sampling. Inclusion criteria were lack of deficits with sensory-motor skills and knowledge of the Persian alphabets. Measures of PA and RAN were utilized. The participants were randomly assigned into either the intervention or the control group. The intervention group was divided into small groups of 4-6 children who received thirty 40-minute training sessions in PA. T test, Mann-Whitney, and Wilcoxon tests were used for data analysis.

Results: The results revealed that the RAN time was significantly reduced (p≤0.001), with a significant increase in PA scores (p≤0.001). In addition, there was a significant inverse relationship between some of the measures of the phonological awareness subtests and rapid automatized naming (eg, phonemic blending & RAN (numbers): ρ=-0.52 with p≤0.001).

Conclusion: The findings showed that in the initial assessment, PA and RAN had a significant relationship, but RAN could be significantly improved by PA training.

The Reading House: A Children's Book for Emergent Literacy Screening During Well-Child Visits

BACKGROUND

The American Academy of Pediatrics recommends literacy promotion and developmental assessment during well-child visits. Emergent literacy skills are well defined, and the use of early screening has the potential to identify children at risk for reading difficulties and guide intervention before kindergarten.

METHODS

The Reading House (TRH) is a children's book designed to screen emergent literacy skills. These are assessed by sharing the book with the child and using a 9-item, scripted scoring form. Get Ready to Read! (GRTR) is a validated measure shown to predict reading outcomes. TRH and GRTR were administered in random order to 278 children (mean: 43.1 ± 5.6 months; 125 boys, 153 girls) during well-child visits at 7 primary care sites. Parent, child, and provider impressions of TRH were also assessed. Analyses included Rasch methods, Spearman-ρ correlations, and logistic regression, including covariates age, sex, and clinic type.

RESULTS

Psychometric properties were strong, including item difficulty and reliability. Internal consistency was good for new measures (r_{Co- α} = 0.68). The mean TRH score was 4.2 (±2.9; range: 0-14), and mean GRTR was 11.1 (±4.4; range: 1-25). TRH scores were positively correlated with GRTR scores (r _s = 0.66; high), female sex, private practice, and child age (P < .001). The relationship remained significant controlling for these covariates (P < .05). The mean TRH administration time was 5:25 minutes (±0:55; range: 3:34-8:32). Parent, child, and provider impressions of TRH were favorable.

CONCLUSIONS

TRH is a feasible, valid, and enjoyable means by which emergent literacy skills in 3- and 4-year-old children can be directly assessed during primary care.

Cognitive Neuroscience of Dyslexia

Purpose

This review summarizes what is known about the structural and functional brain bases of dyslexia.

Method

We review the current literature on structural and functional brain differences in dyslexia. This includes evidence about differences in gray matter anatomy, white matter connectivity, and functional activations in response to print and language. We also summarize findings concerning brain plasticity in response to interventions.

Results

We highlight evidence relating brain function and structure to instructional issues such as diagnosis and prognosis. We also highlight evidence about brain differences in early childhood, before formal reading instruction in school, which supports the importance of early identification and intervention.

Conclusion

Neuroimaging studies of dyslexia reveal how the disorder is related to differences in structure and function in multiple neural circuits.

Disrupted left fusiform response to print in beginning kindergartners is associated with subsequent reading

Dyslexia is a common neurobiological disorder in which a child fails to acquire typical word reading skills despite adequate opportunity and intelligence. The visual word form area (VWFA) is a region within the left fusiform gyrus that specializes for print over the course of reading acquisition and is often hypoactivated in individuals with dyslexia. It is currently unknown whether atypicalities in this brain region are already present in kindergarten children who will subsequently develop dyslexia. Here, we measured fMRI activation in response to letters and false fonts in bilateral fusiform gyrus in children with and without risk for dyslexia (defined by family history or low scores on assessments of pre-reading skills, such as phonological awareness). We then followed these children longitudinally through the end of second grade to evaluate whether brain activation patterns in kindergarten were related to second-grade reading outcomes. Compared to typical readers who exhibited no risk factors for reading impairment in kindergarten, there was significant hypoactivation to both letters and false-fonts in the left fusiform gyrus in at-risk children who subsequently developed reading impairment, but not in at-risk children who developed typical reading skills. There were no significant differences in letter- or false-font responses in the right fusiform gyrus among the groups. The finding that hypoactivation to print in the VWFA is present in children who subsequently develop reading impairment even prior to the onset of formal reading instruction suggests that atypical responses to print play an early role in the development of reading impairments such as dyslexia.

Causal Attribution Profiles as a Function of Reading Skills, Hyperactivity, and Inattention

The causes that individuals attribute to reading outcomes shape future behaviors, including engagement or persistence with learning tasks. Although previous reading motivation research has examined differences between typical and struggling readers, there may be unique dynamics related to varying levels of reading and attention skills. Using latent profile analysis, we found 4 groups informed by internal attributions to ability and effort. Reading skills, inattention, and hyperactivity/impulsivity were investigated as functional correlates of attribution profiles. Participants were 1,312 youth (8-15 years of age) of predominantly African American and Hispanic racial/ethnic heritage. More adaptive attribution profiles had greater reading performance and lower inattention. The reverse was found for the least adaptive profile with associations to greater reading and attention difficulties. Distinct attribution profiles also existed across similar-achieving groups. Understanding reading-related attributions may inform instructional efforts in reading. Promoting adaptive attributions may foster engagement with texts despite learning difficulties and, in turn, support reading achievement.

Shared reading quality assessment by parental report: preliminary validation of the DialogPR

Background

The American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) recommends shared reading beginning as soon as possible after birth to promote healthy development. Shared reading quality can strongly influence outcomes, especially in children from low-SES households. Dialogic reading is a method developed to enhance verbal interactivity and engagement through book sharing, advocated by the AAP and clinic-based programs such as Reach Out and Read. There is no brief, validated, caregiver report measure of dialogic reading or shared reading quality currently available.

Methods

This cross-sectional study involved 49 healthy mother-child dyads (mean child age 4.5 yrs., SD = 0.6 yrs.) from 2 separate MRI-based studies. The DialogPR was administered by trained research coordinators following MRI, along with the READ subscale of the validated StimQ-P measure of home cognitive environment. The DialogPR consists of eight items developed in consultation with experts in early literacy, based on the PEER/CROWD dialogic reading conceptual model. Estimated reading level is 6th grade. Descriptive statistics were computed at both the item and scale levels. Modern theory Rasch methods were used to analyze all eight DialogPR items along with preliminary estimates of reliability and validity.

Results

Our combined sample involved 15 boys and 34 girls, and was diverse in terms of age, household income, and maternal education. DialogPR administration time was less than 2 min, with no problems reported. The DialogPR demonstrated strong internal consistency and reliability (Cronbach’s alpha = 0.82), and criterion-related validity with the StimQ-P READ (Spearman’s rho coefficient = 0.53). Rasch analysis revealed strong psychometric properties in terms of reliability, variability in item difficulty, and inter-item and item-measure correlations.

Conclusions

Preliminary evidence suggests that the DialogPR may be an efficient means to assess shared reading quality and dialogic reading via caregiver report for clinical and research purposes, warranting further investigation.

Validity and Reliability of the Dyslexia Checklist for Chinese Children

The study on developmental dyslexia (DD) has fairly matured in the past decades, even when there is a lack of a standardized and convenient instrument for dyslexia in the Chinese population. The purpose of this study was to assess the reliability and validity of the Dyslexia Checklist for Chinese Children (DCCC), which was administered to Chinese students in primary school. A total of 545 students from grades 2 through 6 were recruited in Wuhan to participate in this study. We used confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) to evaluate the structure validity of the DCCC. Concurrent validity was determined via correlations between the DCCC and the verbal comprehension index (VCI), and Chinese achievement. The reliability of the DCCC was assessed via test-retest reliability and internal consistency. The CFA suggested that the first order model with eight factors and 55 items fit the data well (RMSEA = 0.057, CFI = 0.930, and TLI = 0.925). The DCCC was negatively associated with VCI (r = −0.218) and Chinese achievement (r = −0.372). The test-retest reliability of the DCCC was 0.734, and the internal consistency of all subscales was above 0.752. The DCCC thus proved to have adequate validity and reliability to screen Chinese dyslexia among students in grades 2 through 6.

The relationship between socioeconomic status and white matter microstructure in pre-reading children: A longitudinal investigation

Reading is a learned skill crucial for educational attainment. Children from families of lower socioeconomic status (SES) tend to have poorer reading performance and this gap widens across years of schooling. Reading relies on the orchestration of multiple neural systems integrated via specific white-matter pathways, but there is limited understanding about whether these pathways relate differentially to reading performance depending on SES background. Kindergarten white-matter FA and second-grade reading outcomes were investigated in an SES-diverse sample of 125 children. The three left-hemisphere white-matter tracts most associated with reading, and their right-hemisphere homologs, were examined: arcuate fasciculus (AF), superior longitudinal fasciculus (SLF), and inferior longitudinal fasciculus (ILF). There was a significant and positive association between SES and fractional anisotropy (FA) in the bilateral ILF in kindergarten. SES moderated the association between kindergarten ILF and second grade reading performance, such that it was positive in lower-SES children, but not significant in higher-SES children. These results have implications for understanding the role of the environment in the development of the neural pathways that support reading.

Early development of letter specialization in left fusiform is associated with better word reading and smaller fusiform face area

A functional region of left fusiform gyrus termed "the visual word form area" (VWFA) develops during reading acquisition to respond more strongly to printed words than to other visual stimuli. Here, we examined responses to letters among 5- and 6-year-old early kindergarten children (N = 48) with little or no school-based reading instruction who varied in their reading ability. We used functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) to measure responses to individual letters, false fonts, and faces in left and right fusiform gyri. We then evaluated whether signal change and size (spatial extent) of letter-sensitive cortex (greater activation for letters versus faces) and letter-specific cortex (greater activation for letters versus false fonts) in these regions related to (a) standardized measures of word-reading ability and (b) signal change and size of face-sensitive cortex (fusiform face area or FFA; greater activation for faces versus letters). Greater letter specificity, but not letter sensitivity, in left fusiform gyrus correlated positively with word reading scores. Across children, in the left fusiform gyrus, greater size of letter-sensitive cortex correlated with lesser size of FFA. These findings are the first to suggest that in beginning readers, development of letter responsivity in left fusiform cortex is associated with both better reading ability and also a reduction of the size of left FFA that may result in right-hemisphere dominance for face perception.

Shared Reading Quality and Brain Activation during Story Listening in Preschool-Age Children

OBJECTIVE

To explore the relationship between maternal shared reading quality (verbal interactivity and engagement) and brain function during story listening in at-risk, preschool-age children, in the context of behavioral evidence and American Academy of Pediatrics, recommendations.

STUDY DESIGN

In this cross-sectional study, 22 healthy, 4-year-old girls from low socioeconomic status households completed functional magnetic resonance imaging using an established story listening task, followed by videotaped observation of uncoached mother-daughter reading of the same, age-appropriate picture book. Shared reading quality was independently scored applying dialogic reading and other evidence-based criteria reflecting interactivity and engagement, and applied as a predictor of neural activation during the functional magnetic resonance imaging task, controlling for income and maternal education.

RESULTS

Shared reading quality scores were generally low and negatively correlated with maternal distraction by smartphones (P < .05). Scores were positively correlated with activation in left-sided brain areas supporting expressive and complex language, social-emotional integration, and working memory (P <.05, false discovery rate corrected).

CONCLUSIONS

Maternal shared reading quality is positively correlated with brain activation supporting complex language, executive function, and social-emotional processing in at-risk, preschool-age children. These findings represent novel neural biomarkers of how this modifiable aspect of home reading environment may influence foundational emergent literacy skills, reinforce behavioral evidence and American Academy of Pediatrics, recommendations, and underscore the potential of dialogic reading interventions to promote healthy brain development, especially in at-risk households.

How Is RAN Related to Reading Fluency? A Comprehensive Examination of the Prominent Theoretical Accounts

We examined the prominent theoretical explanations of the RAN-reading relationship in a relatively transparent language (Greek) in a sample of children (n = 286) followed from Grade 1 to Grade 2. Specifically, we tested the fit of eight different models, as defined by the type of reading performance predicted (oral vs. silent word reading fluency), the type of RAN tasks (non-alphanumeric vs. alphanumeric), and the RAN effects (direct vs. indirect). Working memory, attention, processing speed, and motor skills were used as "common cause" variables predicting both RAN and reading fluency and phonological awareness and orthographic processing were used as mediators of RAN's effects on reading fluency. The findings of both concurrent and longitudinal analyses indicated that RAN is a unique predictor of oral reading fluency, but not silent reading fluency. Using alphanumeric or non-alphanumeric RAN did not particularly affect the RAN-reading relationship. Both phonological awareness and orthographic processing partly mediated RAN's effects on reading fluency. Theoretical implications of these findings are discussed.