Behavioural responses to human-induced change: Why fishing should not be ignored

Evolutionary changes in cognition due to fisheries mortality?

Fish experiencing harvest mortality often evolve a fast life-history that prioritizes investment in current versus future reproduction, thereby potentially limiting energetic investment in the brain. Fisheries may also select for shy fish that are less willing to learn, or directly select fish with poor cognitive ability. The resulting evolutionary changes can alter the cognitive performance of individuals and affect fish populations and fisheries quality.

Do risk-prone behaviours compromise reproduction and increase vulnerability of fish aggregations exposed to fishing?

Human disturbances can prompt natural anti-predator behaviours in animals, affecting how energy is traded off between immediate survival and reproduction. In our study of male squaretail groupers (Plectropomus areolatus) in India's Lakshadweep archipelago, we investigated the impact of fishing pressure on anti-predatory responses and reproductive behaviours by comparing a fished and unfished spawning aggregation site and tracking responses over time at the fished site. Using observational sampling and predator exposure experiments, we analysed fear responses (flight initiation distance, return time), as well as time spent in vigilance, courtship and territorial defence. Unpaired males at fished sites were twice as likely to flee from simulated predators and took longer to return to mating territories. In contrast, paired males at both sites took greater risks during courtship, fleeing later than unpaired males, but returned earlier at the unfished site compared with the fished site. Our findings suggest that high fishing pressure reduces reproductive opportunities by increasing vigilance and compromising territorial defence, potentially affecting mate selection cues. Altered behavioural trade-offs may mitigate short-term capture risk but endanger long-term population survival through altered reproductive investment. Human extractive practices targeting animal reproductive aggregations can have disruptive effects beyond direct removal, influencing animal behaviours crucial for population survival.

Individual behaviour, growth, survival and vulnerability to hunting in a large mammal

Humans have exploited wild animals for thousands of years. Recent studies indicate that harvest-induced selection on life-history and morphological traits may lead to ecological and evolutionary changes. Less attention has been given to harvest-induced selection on behavioural traits, especially in terrestrial systems. We assessed in a wild population of large terrestrial mammals whether decades of hunting led to harvest-induced selection on trappability, a proxy of risk-taking behaviour. We investigated links between trappability, horn growth and survival across individuals in early life and quantified the correlations between early-life trappability and horn growth with availability to hunters and probability of being shot. We found positive among-individual correlations between early-life trappability and horn growth, early-life trappability and survival and early-life horn growth and survival. Faster growing individuals were more likely to be available to hunters and shot at a young age. We found no correlations between early-life trappability and availability to hunters or probability of being shot. Our results show that correlations between behaviour and growth can occur in wild terrestrial population but may be context dependent. This result highlights the difficulty in formulating general predictions about harvest-induced selection on behaviour, which can be affected by species ecology, harvesting regulations and harvesting methods used. Future studies should investigate mechanisms linking physiological, behavioural and morphological traits and how this effects harvest vulnerability to evaluate the potential for harvest to drive selection on behaviour in wild animal populations.

Fear generalization and behavioral responses to multiple dangers

Animals often exhibit consistent-individual differences (CIDs) in boldness/fearfulness, typically studied in the context of predation risk. We focus here on fear generalization, where fear of one danger (e.g., predators) is correlated with fear of other dangers (e.g., humans, pathogens, moving vehicles, or fire). We discuss why fear generalization should be ecologically important, and why we expect fear to correlate across disparate dangers. CIDs in fear are well studied for some dangers in some taxa (e.g., human fear of pathogens), but not well studied for most dangers. Fear of some dangers has been found to correlate with general fearfulness, but some cases where we might expect correlated fears (e.g., between fear of humans, familiar predators, and exotic predators) are surprisingly understudied.

Personality in juvenile Atlantic cod ecotypes and implications for fisheries management

Animals show among-individual variation in behaviors, including migration behaviors, which are often repeatable across time periods and contexts, commonly termed "personality." These behaviors can be correlated, forming a behavioral syndrome. In this study, we assessed the repeatability and correlation of different behavioral traits, i.e., boldness, exploration, and sociality, and the link to feeding migration patterns in Atlantic cod juveniles. To do so, we collected repeated measurements within two short-term (3 days) and two long-term (2 months) intervals of these personality traits and genotypes of the Pan I locus, which is correlated with feeding migration patterns in this species. We found high repeatabilities for exploration behavior in the short- and long-term intervals, and a trend for the relationship between exploration and the Pan I locus. Boldness and sociality were only repeatable in the second short-term interval indicating a possible development of stability over time and did not show a relation with the Pan I locus. We found no indication of behavioral syndromes among the studied traits. We were unable to identify the existence of a migration syndrome for the frontal genotype, which is the reason that the link between personality and migration remains inconclusive, but we demonstrated a possible link between exploration and the Pan I genotype. This supports the need for further research that should focus on the effect of exploration tendency and other personality traits on cod movement, including the migratory (frontal) ecotype to develop management strategies based on behavioral units, rather than treating the population as a single homogeneous stock.

Freshwater protected areas can preserve high-performance phenotypes in populations of a popular sportfish

Recreational fishing has the potential to cause evolutionary change in fish populations; a phenomenon referred to as fisheries-induced evolution. However, detecting and quantifying the magnitude of recreational fisheries selection in the wild is inherently difficult, largely owing to the challenges associated with variation in environmental factors and, in most cases, the absence of pre-selection or baseline data against which comparisons can be made. However, exploration of recreational fisheries selection in wild populations may be possible in systems where fisheries exclusion zones exist. Lakes that possess intra-lake freshwater protected areas (FPAs) can provide investigative opportunities to evaluate the evolutionary impact(s) of differing fisheries management strategies within the same waterbody. To address this possibility, we evaluated how two physiological characteristics (metabolic phenotype and stress responsiveness) as well as a proxy for angling vulnerability, catch-per-unit-effort (CPUE), differed between populations of largemouth bass (Micropterus salmoides) inhabiting long-standing (>70 years active) intra-lake FPAs and adjacent, open access, main-lake areas. Fish from FPA populations had significantly higher aerobic scope (AS) capacity (13%) and CPUE rates compared with fish inhabiting the adjacent main-lake areas. These findings are consistent with theory and empirical evidence linking exploitation with reduced metabolic performance, supporting the hypothesis that recreational fishing may be altering the metabolic phenotype of wild fish populations. Reductions in AS are concerning because they suggest a reduced scope for carrying out essential life-history activities, which may result in fitness level implications. Furthermore, these results highlight the potential for unexploited FPA populations to serve as benchmarks to further investigate the evolutionary consequences of recreational fishing on wild fish and to preserve high-performance phenotypes.

Evolutionary implications of size-selective mortality on the ontogenetic development of shoal cohesion: a neurochemical approach using a zebrafish, Danio rerio, harvest selection experiment

Abstract

Size-selective mortality may evolutionarily alter life-history as well as individual behavioral and physiological traits. Moreover, size-selective mortality can affect group behavioral traits, such as shoaling and collective properties (e.g., shoal cohesion), which are relevant for finding food and reducing risk of predation. Here, we present experimental evidence using selection lines of zebrafish (Danio rerio) that were exposed to positive (large-harvested), negative (small-harvested), and random (control) size-selective mortality for five generations, followed by eight generations during which harvesting was halted to remove maternal effects and to study evolutionarily fixed outcomes. We investigated changes in shoal cohesion and turnover in monoamines in zebrafish through ontogeny. To that end, we repeatedly measured inter-individual distance in groups of eight fish and the turnovers of dopamine and serotonin in brains of fish from juvenile to the adult stage at 40-day intervals. We, firstly, found that shoal cohesion was overall consistent through ontogeny at group levels suggesting the presence of collective personality. Secondly, we found a decrease in shoal cohesion through ontogeny in the small-harvested and control lines, while the large-harvested line did not show any ontogenetic change. Thirdly, the selection lines did not differ among each other in shoal cohesion at any ontogenetic stage. Fourthly, dopamine turnover increased through ontogeny in a similar way for all lines while the serotonin turnover decreased in the large-harvested and control lines, but not in the small-harvested line. The large-harvested line also had higher serotonin turnover than controls at specific time periods. In conclusion, intensive size-selective mortality left an evolutionary legacy of asymmetric selection responses in the ontogeny of shoal cohesion and the underlying physiological mechanisms in experimentally harvested zebrafish in the laboratory.

Significant statement

The evolution of animal behavior can be affected by human activities both at behavioral and physiological levels, but causal evidence is scarce and mostly focusing on single life-stages. We studied whether and to what extent size-selective harvesting, a common selection pattern in fisheries, can be an evolutionary driver of the development of shoal cohesion during ontogeny. We used a multi-generation experiment with zebrafish to study cause-and-effects of opposing size-selection patterns. We quantified shoal cohesion, and serotonin and dopamine turnover in the brain. We found that shoal cohesion emerged as a collective personality trait and that behavioral and physiological responses were asymmetrical with respect to the opposing selection patterns.

Eco‐evolutionary dynamics of Atlantic cod spatial behavior maintained after the implementation of a marine reserve

The effects of marine reserves on the life history and demography of the protected populations are well‐established, typically increasing population density and body size. However, little is known about how marine reserves may alter the behavior of the populations that are the target of protection. In theory, marine reserves can relax selection on spatial behavioral phenotypes that were previously targeted by the fishery and also drive selection in favor of less mobile individuals. In this study, we used acoustic telemetry to monitor the individual spatial behavior of 566 Atlantic cod (Gadus morhua Linnaeus, 1758) moving within a marine reserve and a control site in southern Norway, starting 1 year before the implementation of the marine reserve and lasting up to 9 years after. Following a before‐after‐control‐impact approach, we investigated changes in (1) survival, (2) selection acting on behavioral traits, and (3) mean behavioral phenotypes, after the implementation of the marine reserve. We focused on three behavioral traits commonly used to describe the mobility of aquatic animals: home range size, depth position, and diel vertical migration range. Survival increased after reserve implementation, but contrary to our expectations, it subsequently decreased to preprotection levels after just 3 years. Further, we found no significance in selection patterns acting on any of the three behavioral traits after reserve implementation. Although some changes related to water column use (the tendency to occupy deeper waters) were observed in the marine reserve after 9 years, they cannot unequivocally be attributed to protection. Our results show that survival and behavioral responses to marine reserves in some cases may be more complex than previously anticipated and highlight the need for appropriately scaled management experiments and more integrated approaches to understand the effects of marine protected areas on harvested aquatic species.

Size-selective harvesting affects the immunocompetence of guppies exposed to the parasite Gyrodactylus

Harvesting is typically size-selective, targeting large individuals. This is expected to lead to reduced average body size and earlier maturation (i.e. faster life histories). Such changes can also affect traits seemingly unrelated to harvesting, including immunocompetence. Here we test four hypotheses on how harvesting affects immunocompetence based on the pace-of-life syndrome, habitat area limitation and energy allocation and acquisition, respectively. We empirically evaluate these hypotheses using an experimental system consisting of the ectoparasite Gyrodactylus turnbulli and lines of guppies Poecilia reticulata that had been subjected to either small, random or large size-selective harvest for over 12 years. We followed the infection progression of individually infected fish for 15 days. We found significant differences between the harvested lines: fish from the small-harvested lines had the highest parasite loads. During the early phase of the infection, parasite loads were the lowest in the large-harvested lines, whereas the terminal loads were the lowest for the random-harvested lines. These results agree with the predictions from the energetic trade-off and surface area hypotheses. To our knowledge, this is the first demonstration of the consequences of size-selective harvesting on immunocompetence.

Artificial selection in human-wildlife feeding interactions

The artificial selection of traits in wildlife populations through hunting and fishing has been well documented. However, despite their rising popularity, the role that artificial selection may play in non‐extractive wildlife activities, for example, recreational feeding activities, remains unknown.

If only a subset of a population takes advantage of human‐wildlife feeding interactions, and if this results in different fitness advantages for these individuals, then artificial selection may be at work. We have tested this hypothesis using a wild fallow deer population living at the edge of a capital city as our model population.

In contrast to previous assumptions on the randomness of human‐wildlife feeding interactions, we found that a limited non‐random portion of an entire population is continuously engaging with people. We found that the willingness to beg for food from humans exists on a continuum of inter‐individual repeatable behaviour; which ranges from risk‐taking individuals repeatedly seeking and obtaining food, to shyer individuals avoiding human contact and not receiving food at all, despite all individuals having received equal exposure to human presence from birth and coexisting in the same herds together. Bolder individuals obtain significantly more food directly from humans, resulting in early interception of food offerings and preventing other individuals from obtaining supplemental feeding.

Those females that beg consistently also produce significantly heavier fawns (300–500 g heavier), which may provide their offspring with a survival advantage. This indicates that these interactions result in disparity in diet and nutrition across the population, impacting associated physiology and reproduction, and may result in artificial selection of the begging behavioural trait.

This is the first time that this consistent variation in behaviour and its potential link to artificial selection has been identified in a wildlife population and reveals new potential effects of human‐wildlife feeding interactions in other species across both terrestrial and aquatic habitats.

Linking animal behavior to ecosystem change in disturbed environments

Environmental disturbances often cause individuals to change their behavior. The behavioral responses can induce a chain of reactions through the network of species interactions, via consumptive and trait mediated connections. Given that species interactions define ecosystem structure and functioning, changes to these interactions often have ecological repercussions. Here, we explore the transmission of behavioral responses through the network of species interactions, and how the responses influence ecological conditions. We describe the underlying mechanisms and the ultimate impact that the behavioral responses can have on ecosystem structure and functioning, including biodiversity and ecosystems stability and services. We explain why behavioral responses of some species have a larger impact than that of others on ecosystems, and why research should focus on these species and their interactions. With the work, we synthesize existing theory and empirical evidence to provide a conceptual framework that links behavior responses to altered species interactions, community dynamics, and ecosystem processes. Considering that species interactions link biodiversity to ecosystem functioning, a deeper understanding of behavioral responses and their causes and consequences can improve our knowledge of the mechanisms and pathways through which human activities alter ecosystems. This knowledge can improve our ability to predict the effects of ongoing disturbances on communities and ecosystems and decide on the interventions needed to mitigate negative effects.

Impacts of Cetylpyridinium Chloride on the Survival, Development, Behavior, and Oxidative Stress of Early-Life-Stage Zebrafish (Danio rerio)

Cetylpyridinium chloride (CPC) is a widely used surfactant that has been detected in various water ecosystems. However, knowledge on the toxicity of CPC to fish remains scarce. Here, we examined the survival, development, behavior, and oxidative stress in the early life stages of zebrafish exposed to CPC (0, 4, 40, 400, and 1200 μg/L) until 120 h post-fertilization (hpf). Results showed that CPC induced significant mortality at 400 and 1200 μg/L, with a 120 h-EC₅₀ value of 175.9 μg/L. CPC significantly decreased the heart rate of embryos (48 hpf; 4–400 μg/L) and larvae (72 hpf; 40 and 400 μg/L). At 120 hpf, CPC exhibited a dual effect on the locomotion activity (decreased at 400 μg/L and increased at 4 and 40 μg/L) and elevated the reactive oxygen species, superoxide dismutase, and glutathione levels in zebrafish larvae at 400 µg/L. In addition, a correlation analysis revealed that CPC-induced oxidative stress might play a critical role in mediating the cardiac and behavioral toxicity of CPC to zebrafish larvae. Our findings suggest that CPC may disturb the fish’s development, behavior, and oxidative status at environmentally relevant concentrations, which should not be ignored when assessing its potential risks to aquatic ecosystems.

Capture vulnerability of sea turtles on recreational fishing piers

Capture vulnerability of commercial and recreational fishes has been associated with behavioral, morphological, and life-history traits; however, relationships with non-target species, such as sea turtles, have not been adequately studied. We examined species composition, timing of captures, morphological variables including body size and head width, and body condition of sea turtles captured from a recreational fishing pier in the northern Gulf of Mexico and of sea turtles captured in the waters adjacent to the pier. From 2014 to 2019, 148 net captures and 112 pier captures of three sea turtle species were documented. Green turtles were captured most frequently in the net and on the pier. Turtles captured from the pier were larger than those captured in the net. There was no difference in head width between net-caught and pier-caught turtles; however, small sample sizes limited those comparisons. The body condition index was lower for pier-caught than net-caught Kemp';s ridleys but did not differ with green turtles or loggerheads. Differences were also observed in the timing of capture on the pier as compared to in the net. Finally, the relationship between size, body condition, and pier-capture vulnerability suggests these are complex interactions. Mortality of sea turtles captured from fishing piers could be selecting against bolder individuals, which may result in changes in sea turtle population demographics over a long time period.

Density influences the heritability and genetic correlations of fish behaviour under trawling-associated selection

Fishing-associated selection is one of the most important human-induced evolutionary pressures for natural populations. However, it is unclear whether fishing leads to heritable phenotypic changes in the targeted populations, as the heritability and genetic correlations of traits potentially under selection have received little attention. In addition, phenotypic changes could arise from fishing-associated environmental effects, such as reductions in population density. Using fish reared at baseline and reduced group density and repeatedly harvested by simulated trawling, we show that trawling can induce direct selection on fish social behaviour. As sociability has significant heritability and is also genetically correlated with activity and exploration, trawling has the potential to induce both direct selection and indirect selection on a variety of fish behaviours, potentially leading to evolution over time. However, while trawling selection was consistent between density conditions, the heritability and genetic correlations of behaviours changed according to the population density. Fishing-associated environmental effects can thus modify the evolutionary potential of fish behaviour, revealing the need to use a more integrative approach to address the evolutionary consequences of fishing.

Marine food web perspective to fisheries-induced evolution

Fisheries exploitation can cause genetic changes in heritable traits of targeted stocks. The direction of selective pressure forced by harvest acts typically in reverse to natural selection and selects for explicit life histories, usually for younger and smaller spawners with deprived spawning potential. While the consequences that such selection might have on the population dynamics of a single species are well emphasized, we are just beginning to perceive the variety and severity of its propagating effects within the entire marine food webs and ecosystems. Here, we highlight the potential pathways in which fisheries-induced evolution, driven by size-selective fishing, might resonate through globally connected systems. We look at: (i) how a size truncation may induce shifts in ecological niches of harvested species, (ii) how a changed maturation schedule might affect the spawning potential and biomass flow, (iii) how changes in life histories can initiate trophic cascades, (iv) how the role of apex predators may be shifting and (v) whether fisheries-induced evolution could codrive species to depletion and biodiversity loss. Globally increasing effective fishing effort and the uncertain reversibility of eco-evolutionary change induced by fisheries necessitate further research, discussion and precautionary action considering the impacts of fisheries-induced evolution within marine food webs.

Fisheries-induced changes of shoaling behaviour: mechanisms and potential consequences

We outline key mechanisms by which fishing can change the shoaling tendency and collective behaviour of exploited species - an issue that is rarely considered and poorly understood. We highlight potential consequences for fish populations and food webs, and discuss possible repercussions for fisheries and conservation strategies.

Selection on fish personality differs between a no-take marine reserve and fished areas

Marine reserves can protect fish populations by increasing abundance and body size, but less is known about the effect of protection on fish behaviour. We looked for individual consistency in movement behaviours of sea trout in the marine habitat using acoustic telemetry to investigate whether they represent personality traits and if so, do they affect survival in relation to protection offered by a marine reserve. Home range size had a repeatability of 0.21, suggesting that it represents a personality trait, while mean swimming depth, activity and diurnal vertical migration were not repeatable movement behaviours. The effect of home range size on survival differed depending on the proportion of time fish spent in the reserve, where individuals spending more time in the reserve experienced a decrease in survival with larger home ranges while individuals spending little time in the reserve experienced an increase in survival with larger home ranges. We suggest that the diversity of fish home range sizes could be preserved by establishing networks of marine reserves encompassing different habitat types, ensuring both a heterogeneity in environmental conditions and fishing pressure.

A World for Reactive Phenotypes

Humans currently occupy all continents and by doing so, modify the environment and create novel threats to many species; a phenomenon known as human-induced rapid environmental changes (HIREC). These growing anthropogenic disturbances represent major and relatively new environmental challenges for many animals, and invariably alter selection on traits adapted to previous environments. Those species that survive often have moved from their original habitat or modified their phenotype through plasticity or genetic evolution. Based on the most recent advances in this research area, we predict that wild individuals with highly plastic capacities, relatively high basal stress level, and that are generally shy—in other words, individuals displaying a reactive phenotype—should better cope with sudden and widespread HIREC than their counterparts' proactive phenotypes. If true, this selective response would have profound ecological and evolutionary consequences and can therefore impact conservation strategies, specifically with respect to managing the distribution and abundance of individuals and maintaining evolutionary potential. These insights may help design adaptive management strategies to maintain genetic variation in the context of HIREC.

Size-selective mortality induces evolutionary changes in group risk-taking behaviour and the circadian system in a fish

Intensive and trait-selective mortality of fish and wildlife can cause evolutionary changes in a range of life-history and behavioural traits. These changes might in turn alter the circadian system due to co-evolutionary mechanisms or correlated selection responses both at behavioural and molecular levels, with knock-on effects on daily physiological processes and behavioural outputs. We examined the evolutionary impact of size-selective mortality on group risk-taking behaviour and the circadian system in a model fish species. We exposed zebrafish Danio rerio to either large or small size-selective harvesting relative to a control over five generations, followed by eight generations during which harvesting was halted to remove maternal effects. Size-selective mortality affected fine-scale timing of behaviours. In particular, small size-selective mortality, typical of specialized fisheries and gape-limited predators targeting smaller size classes, increased group risk-taking behaviuor during feeding and after simulated predator attacks. Moreover, small size-selective mortality increased early peaks of daily activity as well as extended self-feeding daily activity to the photophase compared to controls. By contrast large size-selective mortality, typical of most wild capture fisheries, only showed an almost significant effect of decreasing group risk-taking behaviour during the habituation phase and no clear changes in fine-scale timing of daily behavioural rhythms compared to controls. We also found changes in the molecular circadian core clockwork in response to both size-selective mortality treatments. These changes disappeared in the clock output pathway because both size-selected lines showed similar transcription profiles. This switch downstream to the molecular circadian core clockwork also resulted in similar overall behavioural rhythms (diurnal swimming and self-feeding in the last hours of darkness) independent of the underlying molecular clock. To conclude, our experimental harvest left an asymmetrical evolutionary legacy in group risk-taking behaviour and in fine-scale daily behavioural rhythms. Yet, the overall timing of activity showed evolutionary resistance probably maintained by a molecular switch. Our experimental findings suggest that size-selective mortality can have consequences for behaviour and physiological processes.

Marine protected areas rescue a sexually selected trait in European lobster

Marine protected areas (MPAs) are increasingly implemented worldwide to maintain and restore depleted populations. However, despite our knowledge on the myriad of positive responses to protection, there are few empirical studies on the ability to conserve species' mating patterns and secondary sexual traits. In male European lobsters (Homarus gammarus), the size of claws relative to body size correlates positively with male mating success and is presumably under sexual selection. At the same time, an intensive trap fishery exerts selection against large claws in males. MPAs could therefore be expected to resolve these conflicting selective pressures and preserve males with large claws. We explored this hypothesis by contrasting claw size of males and females in three pairs of MPAs and nearby fished areas in southern Norway. By finding that male lobsters have up to 8% larger claws inside MPAs compared to similarly sized males in fished areas, our study provides evidence that MPAs rescue a secondary sexual trait. Recovery from harvest selection acting on claws is the most likely explanation; however, the higher abundance of lobster inside MPAs does not rule out a plastic response on claw size due to increased competition. Regardless of the underlying cause, our study demonstrates (a) the value of protected areas as a management tool for mitigating fisheries-induced evolution and (b) that MPAs help maintaining the scope for sexual selection in populations with vulnerable life histories and complex mating system.

Local adaptation of antipredator behaviors in populations of a temperate reef fish

The temperament of animals can vary among individuals and among populations, but it is often unclear whether spatial variation in temperament is the result of acclimation to local environmental conditions or genetic adaptation to spatial differences in natural selection. This study tested whether populations of a marine fish that experience different levels of mortality and fishing exhibited local adaptation in behaviors related to predator avoidance and evasion. First, we measured variation in reactivity to perceived risk in wild populations of black surfperch (Embiotoca jacksoni). We compared flight initiation distances (FID) between populations with significantly different mortality rates. After finding that FID values were substantially lower in the low-risk locations, we tested for local adaptation by rearing lab-born offspring from both high- and low-risk populations in a common environment before measuring their behavior. Lab-reared offspring from high- and low-risk populations exhibited significant differences in several behaviors related to reactivity. Between 23 and 43% of the total variation in behaviors we measured could be attributed to source population. These results thus suggest that a substantial amount of spatial variation in behaviors related to predator evasion may represent local adaptation. In addition, behaviors we measured had an average, broad-sense heritability of 0.24, suggesting that the behavioral tendencies of these populations have some capacity to evolve further in response to any changes in selection.

Ecosystem consequences of multi-trait response to environmental changes in Japanese medaka, Oryzias latipes

Intraspecific trait variation has large effects on the ecosystem and is greatly affected by human activities. To date, most studies focused on single-trait analyses, while considering multiple traits is expected to better predict how an individual interacts with its environment. Here, we used a mesocosm experiment with fish Oryzias latipes to test whether individual growth, boldness and functional traits (feeding rate and stoichiometric traits) formed one functional pace-of-life syndrome (POLS). We then tested the effects of among-individual mean and variance of fish functional POLSs within mesocosms on invertebrate community (e.g. zoobenthos and zooplankton abundances) and ecosystem processes (e.g. ecosystem metabolism, algae stock, nutrient concentrations). Stoichiometric traits correlated with somatic growth and behaviours, forming two independent functional POLS (i.e. two major covariance axes). Mean values of the first syndrome were sex- and environment-dependent and were associated with (i) long-term (10 generations; 4 years) selection for small or large body size resulting in contrasting life histories and (ii) short-term (6 weeks) effects of experimental treatments on resource availability (through manipulation of light intensity and interspecific competition). Specifically, females and individuals from populations selected for a small body size presented fast functional POLS with faster growth rate, higher carbon body content and lower boldness. Individuals exposed to low resources (low light and high competition) displayed a slow functional POLS. Higher mesocosm mean and variance values in the second functional POLS (i.e. high feeding rate, high carbon:nitrogen body ratio, low ammonium excretion rate) were associated to decreased prey abundances, but did not affect any of the ecosystem processes. We highlighted the presence of functional multi-trait covariation in medaka, which were affected by sex, long-term selection history and short-term environmental conditions, that ultimately had cascading ecological consequences. We stressed the need for applying this approach to better predict ecosystem response to anthropogenic global changes.

Hypoxia alters vulnerability to capture and the potential for trait-based selection in a scaled-down trawl fishery

Lay summary Selective harvest of wild organisms by humans can influence the evolution of plants and animals, and fishing is recognized as a particularly strong driver of this process. Importantly, these effects occur alongside environmental change. Here we show that aquatic hypoxia can alter which individuals within a fish population are vulnerable to capture by trawling, potentially altering the selection and evolutionary effects stemming from commercial fisheries.

Hunters select for behavioral traits in a large carnivore

Human harvest can induce selection on life history and morphological traits, leading to ecological and evolutionary responses. Our understanding of harvest-induced selection on behavioral traits is, however, very limited. Here, we assessed whether hunters harvest, consciously or not, individuals with specific behavioral traits. We used long-term, detailed behavioral and survival data of a heavily harvested brown bear (Ursus arctos) population in Sweden. We found that hunters harvested male bears that were less active during legal hunting hours and had lower movement rates. Also, hunters harvested male and female bears that used habitats closer to roads. We provide an empirical example that individual behavior can modulate vulnerability to hunting and that hunters could exert a selective pressure on wildlife behaviors. This study increases our understanding of the complex interactions between harvest method, human behavior, and animal behavior that are at play in harvest-induced selection and provides better insight into the full effects of human harvest on wild populations.

Fishing constrains phenotypic responses of marine fish to climate variability

Fishing and climate change are profoundly impacting marine biota through unnatural selection and exposure to potentially stressful environmental conditions. Their effects, however, are often considered in isolation, and then only at the population level, despite there being great potential for synergistic selection on the individual. We explored how fishing and climate variability interact to affect an important driver of fishery productivity and population dynamics: individual growth rate. We projected that average growth rate would increase as waters warm, a harvest-induced release from density dependence would promote adult growth, and that fishing would increase the sensitivity of somatic growth to temperature. We measured growth increments from the otoliths of 400 purple wrasse (Notolabrius funicola), a site-attached temperate marine reef fish inhabiting an ocean warming hotspot. These were used to generate nearly two decades of annually resolved growth estimates from three populations spanning a period before and after the onset of commercial fishing. We used hierarchical models to partition variation in growth within and between individuals and populations, and attribute it to intrinsic (age, individual-specific) and extrinsic (local and regional climate, fishing) drivers. At the population scale, we detected predictable additive increases in average growth rate associated with warming and a release from density dependence. A fishing-warming synergy only became apparent at the individual scale where harvest resulted in the 50% reduction of thermal growth reaction norm diversity. This phenotypic change was primarily caused by the loss of larger individuals that showed a strong positive response to temperature change after the onset of size-selective harvesting. We speculate that the dramatic loss of individual-level biocomplexity is caused by either inadvertent fisheries selectivity based on behaviour, or the disruption of social hierarchies resulting from the selective harvesting of large, dominant and resource-rich individuals. Whatever the cause, the removal of individuals that display a positive growth response to temperature could substantially reduce species' capacity to adapt to climate change at temperatures well below those previously thought stressful.

Human-induced reductions in fish predator boldness decrease their predation rates in kelp forests

Humans have restructured food webs and ecosystems by depleting biomass, reducing size structure and altering traits of consumers. However, few studies have examined the ecological impacts of human-induced trait changes across large spatial and temporal scales and species assemblages. We compared behavioural traits and predation rates by predatory fishes on standard squid prey in protected areas of different protection levels and ages, and found that predation rates were 6.5 times greater at old, no-take (greater than 40 years) relative to new, predominantly partial-take areas (approx. 8 years), even accounting for differences in predatory fish abundance, body size and composition across sites. Individual fishes in old protected areas consumed prey at nearly twice the rate of fishes of the same species and size at new protected areas. Predatory fish exhibited on average 50% longer flight initiation distance and lower willingness to forage at new protected areas, which partially explains lower foraging rates at new relative to old protected areas. Our experiments demonstrate that humans can effect changes in functionally important behavioural traits of predator guilds at large (30 km) spatial scales within managed areas, which require protection for multiple generations of predators to recover bold phenotypes and predation rates, even as abundance rebounds.

Shoal familiarity modulates effects of individual metabolism on vulnerability to capture by trawling

Impacts of fisheries-induced evolution may extend beyond life history traits to more cryptic aspects of biology, such as behaviour and physiology. Understanding roles of physiological traits in determining individual susceptibility to capture in fishing gears and how these mechanisms change across contexts is essential to evaluate the capacity of commercial fisheries to elicit phenotypic change in exploited populations. Previous work has shown that metabolic traits related to anaerobic swimming may determine individual susceptibility to capture in trawls, with fish exhibiting higher anaerobic performance more likely to evade capture. However, high densities of fish aggregated ahead of a trawl net may exacerbate the role of social interactions in determining an individual fish's behaviour and likelihood of capture, yet the role of social environment in modulating relationships between individual physiological traits and vulnerability to capture in trawls remains unknown. By replicating the final moments of capture in a trawl using shoals of wild minnow (Phoxinus phoxinus), we investigated the role of individual metabolic traits in determining susceptibility to capture among shoals of both familiar and unfamiliar conspecifics. We expected that increased shoal cohesion and conformity of behaviour in shoals of familiar fish would lessen the role of individual metabolic traits in determining susceptibility to capture. However, the opposite pattern was observed, with individual fish exhibiting high anaerobic capacity less vulnerable to capture in the trawl net, but only when tested alongside familiar conspecifics. This pattern is likely due to stronger cohesion within familiar shoals, where maintaining a minimal distance from conspecifics, and thus staying ahead of the net, becomes limited by individual anaerobic swim performance. In contrast, lower shoal cohesion and synchronicity of behaviours within unfamiliar shoals may exacerbate the role of stochastic processes in determining susceptibility to capture, disrupting relationships between individual metabolic traits and vulnerability to capture.

Selective fragmentation and the management of fish movement across anthropogenic barriers

Disruption of movement patterns due to alterations in habitat connectivity is a pervasive effect of humans on animal populations. In many terrestrial and aquatic systems, there is increasing tension between the need to simultaneously allow passage of some species while blocking the passage of other species. We explore the ecological basis for selective fragmentation of riverine systems where the need to restrict movements of invasive species conflicts with the need to allow passage of species of commercial, recreational, or conservation concern. We develop a trait-based framework for selective fish passage based on understanding the types of movements displayed by fishes and the role of ecological filters in determining the spatial distributions of fishes. We then synthesize information on trait-based mechanisms involved with these filters to create a multidimensional niche space based on attributes such as physical capabilities, body morphology, sensory capabilities, behavior, and movement phenology. Following this, we review how these mechanisms have been applied to achieve selective fish passage across anthropogenic barriers. To date, trap-and-sort or capture-translocation efforts provide the best options for movement filters that are completely species selective, but these methods are hampered by the continual, high cost of manual sorting. Other less effective methods of selective passage risk collateral damage in the form of lower or higher than desired levels of passage. Fruitful areas for future work include using combinations of ecological and behavioral traits to passively segregate species; using taxon-specific chemical or auditory cues to direct unwanted species away from passageways and into physical or ecological traps while attracting desirable species to passageways; and developing automated sorting mechanisms based on fish recognition systems. The trait-based approach proposed for fish could serve as a template for selective fragmentation in other ecological systems.

Evolutionary effects of fishing gear on foraging behavior and life-history traits

Fishing gears are designed to exploit the natural behaviors of fish, and the concern that fishing may cause evolution of behavioral traits has been receiving increasing attention. The first intuitive expectation is that fishing causes evolution toward reduced boldness because it selectively removes actively foraging individuals due to their higher encounter rate and vulnerability to typical gear. However, life-history theory predicts that fishing, through shortened life span, favors accelerated life histories, potentially leading to increased foraging and its frequent correlate, boldness. Additionally, individuals with accelerated life histories mature younger and at a smaller size and therefore spend more of their life at a smaller size where mortality is higher. This life-history evolution may prohibit increases in risk-taking behavior and boldness, thus selecting for reduced risk-taking and boldness. Here, we aim to clarify which of these three selective patterns ends up being dominant. We study how behavior-selective fishing affects the optimal behavioral and life-history traits using a state-dependent dynamic programming model. Different gear types were modeled as being selective for foraging or hiding/resting individuals along a continuous axis, including unselective fishing. Compared with unselective harvesting, gears targeting hiding/resting individuals led toward evolution of increased foraging rates and elevated natural mortality rate, while targeting foraging individuals led to evolution of decreased foraging rates and lower natural mortality rate. Interestingly, changes were predicted for traits difficult to observe in the wild (natural mortality and behavior) whereas the more regularly observed traits (length-at-age, age at maturity, and reproductive investment) showed only little sensitivity to the behavioral selectivity.

Metabolic phenotype is not associated with vulnerability to angling in bluegill sunfish (Lepomis macrochirus)

Prior work has described a link between an individual’s metabolic rate and a willingness to take risks. One context in which high metabolic rates and risk-prone behaviors may prove to be maladaptive is in fish that strike fishing lures only to be captured by anglers. It has been shown that metabolic phenotype may be altered by angling; however, little work has assessed metabolic rate in fish and its relationship to angling vulnerability in a realistic angling trial. To address this, we subjected a set of bluegill sunfish (Lepomis macrochirus Rafinesque, 1819) to a series of angling sessions. Following this, a subset of 23 fish that had been captured at least once and 25 fish that had not been captured were assessed for metabolic phenotype (standard and maximum metabolic rates, postexercise oxygen consumption, and recovery time) via intermittent flow respirometry. Contrary to predictions, captured and uncaptured fish did not differ in any measurement of metabolic rate. These results suggest that metabolic phenotype is not a determinant of angling vulnerability within the studied context. It is possible, therefore, that previously described alterations in metabolic phenotype owing to angling pressure may be context-specific and may not apply to all species and angling contexts.

Shoal size as a key determinant of vulnerability to capture under a simulated fishery scenario

Group living is widespread among animals and has a range of positive effects on individual foraging and predator avoidance. For fishes, capture by humans constitutes a major source of mortality, and the ecological effects of group living could carry-over to harvest scenarios if fish are more likely to interact with fishing gears when in social groups. Furthermore, individual metabolic rate can affect both foraging requirements and social behaviors, and could, therefore, have an additional influence on which fish are most vulnerable to capture by fishing. Here, we studied whether social environment (i.e., social group size) and metabolic rate exert independent or interactive effects on the vulnerability of wild zebrafish (Danio rerio) to capture by a baited passive trap gear. Using video analysis, we observed the tendency for individual fish to enter a deployed trap when in different shoal sizes. Fish in larger groups were more vulnerable to capture than fish tested individually or at smaller group sizes. Specifically, focal fish in larger groups entered traps sooner, spent more total time within the trap, and were more likely to re-enter the trap after an escape. Contrary to expectations, there was evidence that fish with a higher SMR took longer to enter traps, possibly due to a reduced tendency to follow groupmates or attraction to conspecifics already within the trap. Overall, however, social influences appeared to largely overwhelm any link between vulnerability and metabolic rate. The results suggest that group behavior, which in a natural predation setting is beneficial for avoiding predators, could be maladaptive under a trap harvest scenario and be an important mediator of which traits are under harvest associated selection.

Fitness consequences of fish circadian behavioural variation in exploited marine environments

The selective properties of fishing that influence behavioural traits have recently gained interest. Recent acoustic tracking experiments have revealed between-individual differences in the circadian behavioural traits of marine free-living fish; these differences are consistent across time and ecological contexts and generate different chronotypes. Here, we hypothesised that the directional selection resulting from fishing influences the wild circadian behavioural variation and affects differently to individuals in the same population differing in certain traits such as awakening time or rest onset time. We developed a spatially explicit social-ecological individual-based model (IBM) to test this hypothesis. The parametrisation of our IBM was fully based on empirical data; which represent a fishery formed by patchily distributed diurnal resident fish that are exploited by a fleet of mobile boats (mostly bottom fisheries). We ran our IBM with and without the observed circadian behavioural variation and estimated selection gradients as a quantitative measure of trait change. Our simulations revealed significant and strong selection gradients against early-riser chronotypes when compared with other behavioural and life-history traits. Significant selection gradients were consistent across a wide range of fishing effort scenarios. Our theoretical findings enhance our understanding of the selective properties of fishing by bridging the gaps among three traditionally separated fields: fisheries science, behavioural ecology and chronobiology. We derive some general predictions from our theoretical findings and outline a list of empirical research needs that are required to further understand the causes and consequences of circadian behavioural variation in marine fish.

A physiological perspective on fisheries-induced evolution

There is increasing evidence that intense fishing pressure is not only depleting fish stocks but also causing evolutionary changes to fish populations. In particular, body size and fecundity in wild fish populations may be altered in response to the high and often size‐selective mortality exerted by fisheries. While these effects can have serious consequences for the viability of fish populations, there are also a range of traits not directly related to body size which could also affect susceptibility to capture by fishing gears—and therefore fisheries‐induced evolution (FIE)—but which have to date been ignored. For example, overlooked within the context of FIE is the likelihood that variation in physiological traits could make some individuals within species more vulnerable to capture. Specifically, traits related to energy balance (e.g., metabolic rate), swimming performance (e.g., aerobic scope), neuroendocrinology (e.g., stress responsiveness) and sensory physiology (e.g., visual acuity) are especially likely to influence vulnerability to capture through a variety of mechanisms. Selection on these traits could produce major shifts in the physiological traits within populations in response to fishing pressure that are yet to be considered but which could influence population resource requirements, resilience, species’ distributions and responses to environmental change.

Toward a mechanistic understanding of vulnerability to hook-and-line fishing: Boldness as the basic target of angling-induced selection

In passively operated fishing gear, boldness-related behaviors should fundamentally affect the vulnerability of individual fish and thus be under fisheries selection. To test this hypothesis, we used juvenile common-garden reared carp (Cyprinus carpio) within a narrow size range to investigate the mechanistic basis of behavioral selection caused by angling. We focused on one key personality trait (i.e., boldness), measured in groups within ponds, two morphological traits (body shape and head shape), and one life-history trait (juvenile growth capacity) and studied mean standardized selection gradients caused by angling. Carp behavior was highly repeatable within ponds. In the short term, over seven days of fishing, total length, not boldness, was the main predictor of angling vulnerability. However, after 20 days of fishing, boldness turned out to be the main trait under selection, followed by juvenile growth rate, while morphological traits were only weakly related to angling vulnerability. In addition, we found juvenile growth rate to be moderately correlated with boldness. Hence, direct selection on boldness will also induce indirect selection on juvenile growth and vice versa, but given that the two traits are not perfectly correlated, independent evolution of both traits is also possible. Our study is among the first to mechanistically reveal that energy-acquisition-related behaviors, and not growth rate per se, are key factors determining the probability of capture, and hence, behavioral traits appear to be the prime targets of angling selection. We predict an evolutionary response toward increased shyness in intensively angling-exploited fish stocks, possibly causing the emergence of a timidity syndrome.