Occurrence and levels of indicators and selected pathogens in different sludges and biosolids

Potential pathogenic microorganisms in rural wastewater treatment process: Succession characteristics, concentration variation, source exploration, and risk assessment

Pathogenic microorganisms can cause infection, sepsis, and other diseases in humans. Although municipal wastewater plants are important sources and sinks for potential pathogenic microorganisms, data on rural wastewater treatment processes are limited. The proximity of rural wastewater facilities to human settlements and the trend toward wastewater resourcing could pose risks to humans. Here, a typical village in southern China was selected to analyze potential pathogenic microorganisms in wastewater, sewage sludge, and aerosols during the collection, treatment, and discharge of domestic wastewater. The succession characteristics and concentration variations of potential pathogenic microorganisms throughout the wastewater treatment process were identified using high-throughput sequencing and culture methods. Bacteria-associated health risks in facility aerosols were estimated based on average daily dose rates from inhalation and dermal exposure. Lower amounts of pathogenic bacteria and pathogenic fungi were detected in the effluent of the 1-ton treatment scale and the 10-ton treatment scale facilities, compared to those in the influent. Pathogen effluent concentrations were significantly lower than influent concentrations after treatment in rural wastewater facilities. 16 and 29 potential pathogenic bacteria and fungi were detected in aerosols from wastewater treatment facilities, respectively. Furthermore, the potential pathogen concentrations were higher than those in the background air. Aerobic units are the main source of pathogen emissions from aerosols. There were 42 potential pathogenic bacteria and 34 potential pathogenic fungi in the sewage sludge. Biochemical units were the main source of potential pathogens in sewage sludge, and more potential airborne pathogens originated from wastewater. In rural wastewater resourcing processes with greater pollutant exposure, the effluent of rural wastewater treatment facilities (WWTFs), downstream rivers, and facility aerosols, could be important potential sources of microbial risk. Inhalation is the main pathway of human exposure to airborne bacteria. Therefore, more attention should be focused on microbiological risk in rural wastewater treatment processes.

Fate of Clostridia and other spore-forming Firmicute bacteria during feedstock anaerobic digestion and aerobic composting

Pathogenic spore-forming Firmicutes are commonly present in animal and human wastes that are used as fertilizers in crop production. Pre-treatments of organic waste prior to land application offer the potential to abate enteric microorganisms, and therefore reduce the risk of contamination of crops or adjacent water resources with pathogens carried in these materials. The inactivation and reduction of gram-positive spore formers such as Clostridium spp., Clostridioides spp. and Bacillus spp. from animal and human waste can be challenging given the recalcitrance of the spores these bacteria produce. Given the significance of these organisms to human and animal health, information concerning spore-forming bacteria inactivation during anaerobic digestion (AD) and aerobic composting (AC) is required as the basis for recommending safe organic waste management practices. In this review, an assessment of the inactivation of spore-forming Firmicutes during AD and AC was conducted to provide guidance for practical management of organic matrices of animal or human origin. Temperature and pH may be the main factors contributing to the inactivation of spore-forming Firmicutes during batch lab-scale AD (log reduction <0.5-5 log). In continuous digesters, wet AD systems do not effectively inactivate spore-forming Firmicutes even under thermopholic conditions (log reduction -1.09 - 0.98), but dry AD systems could be a feasible management practice to inactivate spore-forming Firmicutes from organic materials with high solid content (log reduction 1.77-3.1). In contrast, composting is an effective treatment to abate spore-forming Firmicutes (log reduction 1.7-6.5) when thermophilic conditions last at least six consecutive days. Temperature, moisture content and composting scale are the key operating conditions influencing the inactivation of spore-forming Firmicutes during composting. Where possible, undertaking AD with subsequent composting to ensure the biosafety of digestate before its downstream processing and recycling is recommended to abate recalcitrant bacteria in digestate.

The applicability of the Sludge Biotic Index in a facility treating sugar refinery effluents and municipal wastewater

Protozoans are valuable indicators of the wastewater biological treatment process and are used in a variety of water resource recovery facilities (WRRF). The aim of this study was to determine the applicability of the Sludge Biotic Index (SBI) as an indicator of activated sludge purification efficiency during different influent loadings: municipal wastewater (M) and municipal wastewater combined with industrial wastewater from a sugar refinery (M + S). Despite the higher organic load during the M + S period, purification efficiency was higher for BOD₅ , compared with the M period. SBI values were high during both periods, indicating stable sludge, excellent biological activity, and good to very good performance. According to the share of indicator taxa, better conditions of activated sludge were found during the M + S period. Protozoan abundance differed between the two study periods, as well as purification efficiency for some parameters. Certain taxa showed a significant correlation with purification efficiency for specific parameters. Although SBI is a useful tool for estimating activated sludge health, it should be used in combination with additional indicator metrics and/or a species-specific approach. PRACTITIONER POINTS: Activated sludge can have high purification efficiency during the co-treatment of industrial and municipal wastewater. The Sludge Biotic Index is applicable as an indicator of activated sludge condition during the treatment of municipal and sugar refinery wastewaters. A combination of indicators and a species-specific approach can give better estimation of the health of activated sludge.

E. coli CB390 as an Indicator of Total Coliphages for Microbiological Assessment of Lime and Drying Bed Treated Sludge

The use of a single host strain that allows for an evaluation of the levels of total coliphages in any type of environmental sample would facilitate the detection of and reduction in complexity and costs, favoring countries or areas with technical and economic limitations. The CB390 strain is a candidate for this type of simultaneous determinations, mainly in water samples. The objective of the study was to establish the recovery capacity of the CB390 strain in solid and semi-solid samples and to evaluate the microbiological quality of the sludge generated and stabilized by lime and drying beds in two WWTPs in Colombia. The results of both matrices indicated that CB390 recovered similar numbers of total coliphages (p > 0.05) against the two host strains when evaluated separately. Only the drying bed treatment was able to reduce between 2.0 and 2.9 Log10 units for some microorganisms, while the addition of lime achieved a maximum reduction of 1.3 Log10 units for E. coli. In conclusion, the CB390 strain can be used in solid and semi-solid samples, and the treatment in a drying bed provided a product of microbiological quality. However, the results are influenced by the infrastructure of the WWTP, the treatment conditions, and the monitoring of the stabilization processes.

Bacteriophages as Fecal Pollution Indicators

Bacteriophages are promising tools for the detection of fecal pollution in different environments, and particularly for viral pathogen risk assessment. Having similar morphological and biological characteristics, bacteriophages mimic the fate and transport of enteric viruses. Enteric bacteriophages, especially phages infecting Escherichia coli (coliphages), have been proposed as alternatives or complements to fecal indicator bacteria. Here, we provide a general overview of the potential use of enteric bacteriophages as fecal and viral indicators in different environments, as well as the available methods for their detection and enumeration, and the regulations for their application.

Unravelling the removal mechanisms of bacterial and viral surrogates in aerobic granular sludge systems

The aerobic granular sludge (AGS) process is an effective wastewater treatment technology for organic matter and nutrient removal that has been introduced in the market rapidly. Until now, limited information is available on AGS regarding the removal of bacterial and viral pathogenic organisms present in sewage. This study focussed on determining the relation between reactor operational conditions (plug flow feeding, turbulent aeration and settling) and physical and biological mechanisms on removing two faecal surrogates, Escherichia coli and MS2 bacteriophages. Two AGS laboratory-scale systems were separately fed with influent spiked with 1.0 × 10⁶ CFU/100 mL of E. coli and 1.3 × 10⁸ PFU/100 mL of MS2 bacteriophages and followed during the different operational phases. The reactors contained only granular sludge and no flocculent sludge. Both systems showed reductions in the liquid phase of 0.3 Log₁₀ during anaerobic feeding caused by a dilution factor and attachment of the organisms on the granules. Higher removal efficiencies were achieved during aeration, approximately 1 Log₁₀ for E. coli and 0.6 Log₁₀ for the MS2 bacteriophages caused mainly by predation. The 18S sequencing analysis revealed high operational taxonomic units (OTUs) of free-living protozoa genera Rhogostoma and Telotrochidium concerning the whole eukaryotic community. Attached ciliates propagated after the addition of the E. coli, an active contribution of the genera Epistylis, Vorticella, and Pseudovorticella was found when the reactor reached stability. In contrast, no significant growth of predators occurred when spiking the system with MS2 bacteriophages, indicating a low contribution of protozoa on the phage removal. Settling did not contribute to the removal of the studied bacterial and viral surrogates.

A systematic comparison of commercially produced struvite: Quantities, qualities and soil-maize phosphorus availability

Production of struvite (MgNH₄PO₄·6H₂O) from waste streams is increasingly implemented to recover phosphorus (P), which is listed as a critical raw material in the European Union (EU). To facilitate EU-wide trade of P-containing secondary raw materials such as struvite, the EU issued a revised fertilizer regulation in 2019. A comprehensive overview of the supply of struvite and its quality is presently missing. This study aimed: i) to determine the current EU struvite production volumes, ii) to evaluate all legislated physicochemical characteristics and pathogen content of European struvite against newly set regulatory limits, and iii) to compare not-regulated struvite characteristics. It is estimated that in 2020, between 990 and 1250 ton P are recovered as struvite in the EU. Struvite from 24 European production plants, accounting for 30% of the 80 struvite installations worldwide was sampled. Three samples failed the physicochemical legal limits; one had a P content of <7% and three exceeded the organic carbon content of 3% dry weight (DW). Mineralogical analysis revealed that six samples had a struvite content of 80-90% DW, and 13 samples a content of >90% DW. All samples showed a heavy metal content below the legal limits. Microbiological analyses indicated that struvite may exceed certain legal limits. Differences in morphology and particle size distribution were observed for struvite sourced from digestate (rod shaped; transparent; 82 mass% < 1 mm), dewatering liquor (spherical; opaque; 65 mass% 1-2 mm) and effluent from upflow anaerobic sludge blanket reactor processing potato wastewater (spherical; opaque; 51 mass% < 1 mm and 34 mass% > 2 mm). A uniform soil-plant P-availability pattern of 3.5-6.5 mg P/L soil/d over a 28 days sampling period was observed. No differences for plant biomass yield were observed. In conclusion, the results highlight the suitability of most struvite to enter the EU fertilizer market.

SARS-CoV-2 in environmental perspective: Occurrence, persistence, surveillance, inactivation and challenges

The unprecedented global spread of the severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) caused by SARS-CoV-2 is depicting the distressing pandemic consequence on human health, economy as well as ecosystem services. So far novel coronavirus (CoV) outbreaks were associated with SARS-CoV-2 (2019), middle east respiratory syndrome coronavirus (MERS-CoV, 2012), and SARS-CoV-1 (2003) events. CoV relates to the enveloped family of Betacoronavirus (βCoV) with positive-sense single-stranded RNA (+ssRNA). Knowing well the persistence, transmission, and spread of SARS-CoV-2 through proximity, the faecal-oral route is now emerging as a major environmental concern to community transmission. The replication and persistence of CoV in the gastrointestinal (GI) tract and shedding through stools is indicating a potential transmission route to the environment settings. Despite of the evidence, based on fewer reports on SARS-CoV-2 occurrence and persistence in wastewater/sewage/water, the transmission of the infective virus to the community is yet to be established. In this realm, this communication attempted to review the possible influx route of the enteric enveloped viral transmission in the environmental settings with reference to its occurrence, persistence, detection, and inactivation based on the published literature so far. The possibilities of airborne transmission through enteric virus-laden aerosols, environmental factors that may influence the viral transmission, and disinfection methods (conventional and emerging) as well as the inactivation mechanism with reference to the enveloped virus were reviewed. The need for wastewater epidemiology (WBE) studies for surveillance as well as for early warning signal was elaborated. This communication will provide a basis to understand the SARS-CoV-2 as well as other viruses in the context of the environmental engineering perspective to design effective strategies to counter the enteric virus transmission and also serves as a working paper for researchers, policy makers and regulators.

Quantitative microbial risk assessment of occupational and public risks associated with bioaerosols generated during the application of dairy cattle wastewater as biofertilizer

The reuse or recycling of wastewater provides environmental and economic benefits, representing a sustainable and circular alternative for the management of liquid waste. However, the application of effluents to agricultural crops via spraying creates a potentially dangerous situation for individuals exposed to airborne pathogens. This study used Quantitative Microbial Risk Assessment (QMRA) tools to quantitatively assess the microbial risks of occupational and public exposures to bioaerosols in fertigation scenarios by spraying untreated and treated dairy cattle wastewater. Analyses of Escherichia coli (EC) and spores of Clostridium perfringens (CpSP) in raw and treated effluents as well as pathogen / indicator ratios from the literature were used to estimate the concentrations of Escherichia coli O157:H7 (EC O157:H7) and Cryptospodirium spp. (Crypto) in the air, and the results were applied to an atmospheric microbiological dispersion model. From the concentrations of pathogens in the air, infectious risks for downwind receptors were calculated. The risks of infection by EC O157:H7 to workers at 10 m and 50 m away from the emission source ranged between 3.81 × 10 1 and 2.68 × 10 3 pppy (per person per year), whereas to residents at 100 m and 500 m ranged from 4.59 × 10 1 to 1.51 × 10 4 pppy. Peak values (95th percentile) of occupational and public risks associated with the exposure to Crypto were 3.41 × 10 3 and 6.84 × 10 4 pppy at 10 m and 50 m from the source, respectively, and were lower than 1.48 × 10 6 pppy regarding exposures to CpSP. Anaerobic digestion reduced risks by approximately one order of magnitude. The distance from the source was inversely proportional to the risk of exposure. It is recommended that wastewater is treated prior to its reuse and the adoption of application methods with low aerosolization potential. In addition, the need for workers to use personal protective equipment (PPE) is highlighted.

Utilisation of appropriately treated wastewater for some further beneficial purposes: a review of the disinfection method of treated wastewater using UV radiation technology

Due to world population growth, global climate change and the deteriorated quality of water, water supply struggles to keep up the clean water demand to meet human needs. Ultraviolet (UV) technology holds a great potential in advancing water and wastewater treatment to improve the efficiency of safe treatment. Over the last 20 years, the UV light disinfection industry has shown a tremendous growth. Therefore, reuse of wastewater contributes significantly to an efficient and sustainable water usage. Disinfection is a requirement for wastewater reuse due to the presence of a swarm of pathogens (e.g. bacteria, viruses, worms and protozoa) in secondary effluents. UV technology is widely favoured due to its environmentally friendly, chemical-free ability to provide high-log reductions of all known microorganisms, including chlorine-resistant strains such as Cryptosporidium. The UV disinfection process does not create disinfection by-products and unlike the chlorine UV disinfection process, it is not reliant on water temperature and pH. UV disinfection can eliminate the need to generate, handle, transport or store toxic/hazardous or corrosive chemicals and requires less space than other methods. As UV does not leave any residual effect that can be harmful to humans or aquatic life, it is safer for plant operators.

Microplastics and pollutants in biosolids have contaminated agricultural soils: An analytical study and a proposal to cease the use of biosolids in farmlands and utilise them in sustainable bricks

Treated waste-water sludge (biosolids) are frequently recycled in agricultural lands; however, this practice has polluted soils with microplastics (MPs), nanoplastics (NPs), synthetics, heavy metals, pharmaceuticals and engineered nanoparticles. This study analyses many of the significant research outcomes in this area and proposes the urgent reduction of biosolids recycling in farmlands, aiming to eliminate their use altogether as soon as practicable, and instead, to utilise this material as a source of brick firing energy in the manufacturing of fired clay bricks and as a replacement for virgin brick soil. Based on a comprehensive data analysis, this study has calculated that in the European Union, the United States, China, Canada and Australia, approximately 26,042, 21,249, 13,660, 1,518 and 1,241 tonnes of microplastics, respectively, are added to farmlands annually as a result of biosolids application. The accumulation of microplastics produces detrimental effects on soil organisms and increases the accumulation of other micropollutants, such as heavy metals. The degradation of MPs over time is a source for the creation of nanoplastics, which pose a greater threat to ecosystems and human and animal health, as their size allows for their absorption into plant cells. On the other hand, the results of a comprehensive study at RMIT, including a comprehensive Life-Cycle Assessment, confirm that recycling biosolids in fired clay bricks (Bio-Bricks) is a promising sustainable alternative. This study proposes the mandatory addition of 7% biosolids in all brick manufacturing worldwide to utilize all biosolids production in fired clay bricks. This will reduce brick firing energy by over 12.5%.

Review: Indicator bacteriophages in sludge, biosolids, sediments and soils

Solid or semisolid matrices polluted with fecal remnants can be highly loaded with pathogens, especially viruses, and play a substantial role in the persistence and dispersion of pathogens in the water cycle. Water quality regulations and guidelines are increasingly including bacteriophages infecting enteric bacteria as indicators of fecal and/or viral pollution. However, more data are needed about viral indicators in contaminated solids to develop effective sanitation strategies for the management of raw and treated sludge, fecal sludge, manures and slurries. Also, the exact role of sediments and soil in the transmission cycle of viral pathogens still needs to be determined. This review aims to provide an update on available data for concentrations of indicator bacteriophages in different solid matrices as well as their resistance to treatments and persistence in solids. The conclusion reached is that there is a need for improved and standardized methodologies for bacteriophage extraction, detection and enumeration in solids. Reports indicate that these contain higher levels of somatic coliphages in comparison with traditional bacterial indicators and F-specific RNA coliphages. Water body sediments and soil have been found to be notable reservoirs of somatic coliphages, which are more persistent in nature and resistant to sludge treatments than Escherichia coli and fecal coliforms and F-specific RNA coliphages. Thus, somatic coliphages show up as excellent complementary indicators for the prediction of pathogenic viruses in solids.

Removal of bacterial and viral indicator organisms in full-scale aerobic granular sludge and conventional activated sludge systems

The aim of this study was to evaluate the effectiveness of the novel aerobic granular sludge (AGS) wastewater treatment technology in removing faecal indicator organisms (FIOs) compared to the conventional activated sludge (CAS) treatment system. The work was carried out at two full-scale wastewater treatment plants (WWTP) in the Netherlands, Vroomshoop and Garmerwolde. Both treatment plants have a CAS and AGS system operated in parallel. The parallel treatment lines are provided with the same influent wastewater. The concentrations of the measured FIOs in the influent of the two WWTPs were comparable with reported literature values as follows: F-specific RNA bacteriophages at 10⁶ PFU/100 mL, and Escherichia coli (E. coli), Enterococci, and Thermotolerant coliforms (TtC) at 10⁵ to 10⁶ CFU/100 mL. Although both systems (CAS and AGS) are different in terms of design, operation, and microbial community, both systems showed similar FIOs removal efficiency. At the Vroomshoop WWTP, Log₁₀ removals for F-specific RNA bacteriophages of 1.4 ± 0.5 and 1.3 ± 0.6 were obtained for the AGS and CAS systems, while at the Garmerwolde WWTP, Log₁₀ removals for F-specific RNA bacteriophages of 1.9 ± 0.7 and 2.1 ± 0.7 were found for the AGS and CAS systems. Correspondingly, E. coli, Enterococci, and TtC Log₁₀ removals of 1.7 ± 0.7 and 1.1 ± 0.7 were achieved for the AGS and CAS systems at Vroomshoop WWTP. For Garmerwolde WWTP Log₁₀ removals of 2.3 ± 0.8 and 1.9 ± 0.7 for the AGS and CAS systems were found, respectively. The measured difference in removal rates between the plants was not significant. Physicochemical water quality parameters, such as the concentrations of organic matter, nutrients, and total suspended solids (TSS) were also determined. Overall, it was not possible to establish a direct correlation between the physicochemical parameters and the removal of FIOs for any of the treatment systems (CAS and AGS). Only the removal of TSS could be positively correlated to the E. coli removal for the AGS technology at the evaluated WWTPs.

Assessment of the methodologies used in microbiological control of sewage sludge

Sewage sludge usually contains potentially polluting substances such as heavy metals, organic pollutants and various organisms including bacteria, protozoa, helminths, viruses and algae, some of which may be pathogenic. Certain of these pathogens could be transferred to the soil if the sludge is used on agricultural or land recovery applications. For its application on agricultural land, sewage sludge must comply with the limits established in the legislation, which in Europe does not include quality standards regarding microbiological parameters. Nevertheless, the presence of pathogens could limit its agricultural use, as it could pose a risk to human, animal and environmental health. This study compares 4 different methodologies used in microbiological analysis in order to identify the most efficient and reliable method on determining bacteria in sewage sludge. Escherichia coli and Enterococcus faecium are used as bacterial indicators. The results obtained in this work indicate that results obtained with three different plate count methods cannot be comparable with those obtained with the MPN method. The membrane filtration method is recommended for its high precision and sensitivity, both in low and high bacterial loads. It is also concluded that it would be necessary to establish the quality standard in concordance with the method used.

Is anaerobic digestion a reliable barrier for deactivation of pathogens in biosludge?

As World Health Organization advocates, the global burden of sanitation related disease and access to safely managed sanitation and safely treated wastewater should be monitored strictly. However, the spread of pathogens through various agricultural applications or direct discharge of sewage sludge generated in municipal wastewater treatment plants poses a serious challenge on the environment and public health. Anaerobic digestion (AD), the principal method of stabilizing biosolids, can efficiently and largely deactivate viable pathogens, including parasite, virus, and the pathogens harboring antibiotic resistance genes. This review aims to provide a critical overview regarding the deactivation of sludge-associated pathogens by AD, through which a serious concern on the effectiveness and rationality of AD towards sludge pathogens control was raised. Meanwhile, the underlying deactivation mechanisms and affecting factors were all discussed, with the focus on pathogen-associated modeling, engineering design and technological aspects of AD. Lastly, a matric method incorporating the operating strategy of AD with the risk assessment was proposed for evaluating the reliability of AD-based pathogen deactivation, while the research agenda forward was also outlined.

Comparative Assessment of BGM and PLC/PRF/5 Cell Lines for Enteric Virus Detection in Biosolids

The buffalo green monkey (BGM) cell line is required for the detection of enteric viruses in biosolids through a total culturable viral assay (TCVA) by the United States Environmental Protection Agency. In the present study, BGM and PLC/PRF/5 cell lines were evaluated for TCVA and for their use in determining the incidence of adenoviruses and enteroviruses in raw sludge and Class B biosolids. Six raw sludge and 17 Class B biosolid samples were collected from 13 wastewater treatment plants from seven U.S. states. Samples were processed via organic flocculation and concentrate volumes equivalent to 4 g total solids were assayed on BGM and PLC/PRF/5 cells. Cell monolayers were observed for cytopathic effect (CPE) after two 14-days passages. Cell lysates were tested for the presence of adenoviruses and enteroviruses by PCR or RT-PCR. The PLC/PRF/5 cells detected more culturable viruses than the BGM cells by CPE (73.9% vs. 56.5%, respectively). 52% of the samples were positive for CPE using both cell lines. No viruses were detected in either cell line by PCR in flasks in which CPE was not observed. No adenoviruses were detected in 13 CPE-positive samples from BGM lysates. In contrast, of the 17 samples exhibiting CPE on PLC/PRF/5 cells, 14 were positive for adenoviruses (82.4%). In conclusion, PLC/PRF/5 cells were superior for the detection of adenoviruses in both raw sludge and Class B biosolids. Thus, the use of BGM cells alone for TCVA may underestimate the viral concentration in sludge/biosolid samples.

Sludge disinfection using electrical thermal treatment: The role of ohmic heating

Electrical heating has been proposed as a potential method for pathogen inactivation in human waste sludge, especially in decentralized wastewater treatment systems. In this study, we investigated the heat production and E. coli inactivation in wastewater sludge using electrical thermal treatment. Various concentrations of NaCl and NH4Cl were tested as electrolyte to enhance conductivity in sludge mixtures. At same voltage input (18V), sludge treated with direct current (DC) exhibited slower ascent of temperature and lower energy efficiencies for heat production comparing to that using alternate current (AC). However, DC power showed better performance in E. coli inactivation due to electrochemical inactivation in addition to thermal inactivation. Greater than 6log10 removal of E. coli was demonstrated within 2h using 0.15M of NaCl as electrolyte by AC or DC power. The heat production in sludge was modeled using Maxwell-Eucken and effective medium theory based on the effective electrical conductivity in the two-phase (liquid and solid) sludge mixtures. The results showed that the water and heat loss is a critical consideration in modeling of sludge temperature using ohmic heating. The experimental data also suggested that the models are less applicable to DC power because the electrochemical reactions triggered by DC reduce the concentration of NH4+ and other ions that serve as electrolyte. The results of this study contribute to the development of engineering strategies for human waste sludge management.

Occurrence and genetic diversity of Cryptosporidium and Giardia in urban wastewater treatment plants in north-eastern Spain

This study was designed to investigate the presence and removal efficiency of Cryptosporidium and Giardia in wastewater treatment plants at the 20 most populated towns in Aragón (north-eastern Spain). Samples of influent and effluent wastewater and dewatered sewage sludge were collected seasonally from 23 plants and processed according to USEPA Method 1623. All samples from raw and treated wastewater tested positive for Giardia, at an average concentration of 3247±2039cysts/l and 50±28cysts/l, respectively. Cryptosporidium was identified in most samples from both raw (85/92) and treated (78/92) wastewaters in a concentration significantly lower than Giardia, at both influent (96±105oocysts/l) and effluent samples (31±70oocysts/l) (P<0.001). The (oo)cyst counts peaked in summer in most plants. The removal efficiency was higher for Giardia (1.06-log to 2.34-log) than Cryptosporidium (0.35-log to 1.8-log). Overall, high removal efficiency values were found for Giardia after secondary treatment based on activated sludge, while tertiary treatment (microfiltration, chlorination and/or ultraviolet irradiation) was needed to achieve the greatest removal or inactivation of Cryptosporidium. Most samples of treated sludge were positive for Giardia (92/92) and Cryptosporidium (45/92), at an average concentration of 20-593cysts/g and 2-44oocyst/g, respectively. The molecular characterization of Cryptosporidium oocysts and Giardia cysts were attempted at the SSU rRNA/GP60 and bg/tpi loci, respectively. G. duodenalis sub-assemblage AII was identified in all plants, with a large proportion of samples (15/47) harboring mixed assemblages (AII+B). Nine Cryptosporidium species and six subtypes were identified, with C. parvum IIaA15G2R1 being the most prevalent. The presence of significant numbers of (oo)cysts in samples of final effluents and treated sludge reveals the limited efficacy of conventional treatments in removing (oo)cysts and highlights the potential environmental impact and public health risks associated with disposal and reclamation of wastewater.

Mobilisation of microbial indicators, microbial source tracking markers and pathogens after rainfall events

Climate change is expected to affect the Mediterranean region by causing an increase in the number of heavy rainfall events. The aim of this study was to assess the effect of extreme river flow variations due to rainfall on the persistence and mobilisation of various microorganisms. These included faecal pollution indicators (Escherichia coli (EC), somatic coliphages (SOMCPH) and sulphite reducing clostridia spores (SRC)), microbial source tracking indicators (Bacteroides thetaiotaomicron GA17 strain phages (GA17PH) and sorbitol fermenting bifidobacteria (SFBIF)), and two pathogens (Salmonella spp and Enterovirus). Water and sediment samples were taken at different distances from the river before and after heavy rainfall events. The microbial load was higher in sediment samples closer to the river course. The concentration of some faecal indicators (EC and SFBIF) increased in sediments and river water after rainfall events, whereas the most conservative parameter (SRC) showed almost no variation. After rainfall, the indicators persisted at a different rate. Salmonella spp and Enterovirus were detected in some samples but always at lower concentrations than the microbial indicators. In conclusion, sediments are reservoirs of faecal and MST indicators and pathogens and could therefore pose a risk of pathogen dissemination.

Assessing the usefulness of clostridia spores for evaluating sewage sludge hygienization

The capability of clostridia spores to act as pathogen indicators in sewage sludge treatment was investigated. Sulfite-reducing clostridia and E. coli levels were monitored during waste activated sludge pre-treatments (alkali and ultrasound) and its subsequent mesophilic anaerobic digestion. E. coli was maintained or reduced depending on treatment type and intensity. However, alkali pre-treatment (35.3gNaOH/kgTS) by itself and alkali (157gNaOH/kgTS) and ultrasound (27,000kJ/kgTS) pre-treatments followed by anaerobic digestion provoked reproducible clostridia increases. Specifically, up to 2.7log₁₀ after 35.3gNaOH/kgTS pre-treatment and up to 1.9 and 1.1log₁₀ after digesting the 157gNaOH/kg TS and 27,000kJ/kgTS pre-treated sludge, respectively. Having rejected the hypotheses of sporulation and floc dissipation, the most plausible explanation for these clostridia increases is re-growth. These results question the suitability of clostridia spores as indicators of sludge treatment and other biological treatments where clostridia may have a role.

Prevalence of Cryptosporidium oocysts and Giardia cysts in raw and treated sewage sludges

Treated sludge from wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) is commonly used in agriculture as fertilizers and to amend soils. The most significant health hazard for sewage sludge relates to the wide range of pathogenic microorganisms such as protozoa parasites.The objective of this study was to collect quantitative data on Cryptosporidium oocysts and Giardia cysts in the treated sludge in wastewater treatment facilities in Spain. Sludge from five WWTPs with different stabilization processes has been analysed for the presence of Cryptosporidium and Giardia in the raw sludge and after the sludge treatment. A composting plant (CP) has also been assessed. After a sedimentation step, sludge samples were processed and (oo)cysts were isolated by immunomagnetic separation (IMS) and detected by immunofluorescence assay (IFA). Results obtained in this study showed that Cryptosporidium oocysts and Giardia cysts were present in 26 of the 30 samples (86.6%) of raw sludge samples. In treated sludge samples, (oo)cysts have been observed in all WWTP's analysed (25 samples) with different stabilization treatment (83.3%). Only in samples from the CP no (oo)cysts were detected. This study provides evidence that (oo)cysts are present in sewage sludge-end products from wastewater treatment processes with the negative consequences for public health.

Quantification of viable helminth eggs in samples of sewage sludge

For the application of sewage sludge as fertilizer, it is of fundamental importance the absence of pathogenic organisms, such as viable helminth eggs. Thus, the quantification of these organisms has to be carried out by means of the application of reliable and accurate methodologies. Nevertheless, until the present date, there is no consensus with regard to the adoption of a universal methodology for the detection and quantification of viable helminth eggs. It is therefore necessary to instigate a debate on the different protocols currently in use, as well as to assemble relevant information in order to assist in the development of a more comprehensive and accurate method to quantify viable helminth eggs in samples of sewage sludge and its derivatives.

Real scale environmental monitoring of zoonotic protozoa and helminth eggs in biosolid samples in Brazil

Biosolid is the product of the activated sludge treatment system and its final disposition is subject of ongoing discussion as this residue can therefore harbor a great number and variety of pathogens. This study was aimed to (1) monitor the presence of Giardia and Cryptosporidium in biosolid samples from a treatment plant in Campinas, SP, Brazil, (2) observe Giardia cyst wall morphological integrity in treated samples using scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and (3) verify the presence and viability of helminth eggs. Cysts were present in 33.3 % of the samples, whereas oocysts were detected in 8.3 %. Viable Ascaris sp. Toxocara sp. and similar to Trichuris sp. eggs were found through the use of Mexican Official Norm. Results demonstrate the difficulties inherent in working with biosolid as factors such as temperature, ionic strength and pH influenced the recovery of cysts and oocysts. Pores and ruptures were not observed in cyst wall visualized by SEM following 45 days of exposure to sunlight, only minimal morphological changes. These observations emphasize both the importance of adequate treatment of sewage sludge and the need to develop appropriate techniques for the detection of Giardia and Cryptosporidium in this type of sample. This is the first time that a study was done in a real scale for biosolid samples in determining the presence of pathogenic protozoa as Giardia and Cryptosporidium in Brazil, and also observed minimal cyst wall damage after sunlight treatment.

Ammonia as an In Situ Sanitizer: Influence of Virus Genome Type on Inactivation

Treatment of human excreta and animal manure (HEAM) is key in controlling the spread of persistent enteric pathogens, such as viruses. The extent of virus inactivation during HEAM storage and treatment appears to vary with virus genome type, although the reasons for this variability are not clear. Here, we investigated the inactivation of viruses of different genome types under conditions representative of HEAM storage or mesophilic digestion. The goals were to characterize the influence of HEAM solution conditions on inactivation and to determine the potential mechanisms involved. Specifically, eight viruses representing the four viral genome types (single-stranded RNA [ssRNA], double-stranded RNA [dsRNA], single-stranded DNA [ssDNA], and double-stranded DNA [dsDNA]) were exposed to synthetic solutions with well-controlled temperature (20 to 35°C), pH (8 to 9), and ammonia (NH3) concentrations (0 to 40 mmol liter(-1)). DNA and dsRNA viruses were considerably more resistant than ssRNA viruses, resulting in up to 1,000-fold-longer treatment times to reach a 4-log inactivation. The apparently slower inactivation of DNA viruses was rationalized by the higher stability of DNA than that of ssRNA in HEAM. Pushing the system toward harsher pH (>9) and temperature (>35°C) conditions, such as those encountered in thermophilic digestion and alkaline treatments, led to more consistent inactivation kinetics among ssRNA and other viruses. This suggests that the dependence of inactivation on genome type disappeared in favor of protein-mediated inactivation mechanisms common to all viruses. Finally, we recommend the use of MS2 as a conservative indicator to assess the inactivation of ssRNA viruses and the stable ΦX174 or dsDNA phages as indicators for persistent viruses.

IMPORTANCE

Viruses are among the most environmentally persistent pathogens. They can be present in high concentrations in human excreta and animal manure (HEAM). Therefore, appropriate treatment of HEAM is important prior to its reuse or discharge into the environment. Here, we investigated the factors that determine the persistence of viruses in HEAM, and we determined the main mechanisms that lead to their inactivation. Unlike other organisms, viruses can have four different genome types (double- or single-stranded RNA or DNA), and the viruses studied herein represent all four types. Genome type appeared to be the major determinant for persistence. Single-stranded RNA viruses are the most labile, because this genome type is susceptible to degradation in HEAM. In contrast, the other genome types are more stable; therefore, inactivation is slower and mainly driven by the degradation of viral proteins. Overall, this study allows us to better understand the behavior of viruses in HEAM.

Field study of the composition of greywater and comparison of microbiological indicators of water quality in on-site systems

Thirty on-site greywater systems were sampled to determine greywater characteristics and practices in the field. Kitchen greywater was present at eight sites and urine was included at seven sites. These non-traditional sources resulted in significantly higher concentrations of enterococci and 5-day biochemical oxygen demand (BOD5) in greywater. Even with the removal of these sources, the concentrations of microbial indicators indicated high levels of contamination could occur across all greywater sources, including "light" greywater. Using multiple microbial indicators showed that all samples had the potential for faecal contamination. Bacteroidales markers were confirmed in treated greywater and in each greywater source, highlighting the potential for human faecal contamination. Although Escherichia coli was absent in treated greywater recycled to the house, other microbial indicators were present; hence, caution is required in using E. coli concentrations as the sole indicator of microbiological water quality. High BOD5 or total suspended solid concentrations exceeded the levels recommended for effective disinfection. Subsurface irrigation, which is assumed to provide a five-log reduction in exposure, is a suitable reuse option for non-disinfected greywater. Only half the occupants had a good understanding of their greywater systems and 25 % of systems were poorly maintained. Elevated microbial indicator contamination of greywater sludge is a potential hazard during maintenance.

Elimination of viruses from domestic wastewater: requirements and technologies

Domestic wastewater contains various pathogens, which, if not sufficiently eliminated, may enter the receiving water bodies and cause water-transmitted diseases. Among the waterborne pathogens, viruses may occur, survive and/or decay much differently from bacteria in water. In many cases, the diseases caused by viruses are more severe. Therefore, research efforts are mainly directed at the behavior of viruses in water environments, as well as the elimination of viruses from wastewater. In this paper, an overview of the occurrence of viruses in wastewater is presented, together with their categories, methods of detection and potential to cause waterborne diseases. As wastewater treatment plants are critical nodes for the influx and termination of virus transmission, the behavior of viruses at each stage of treatment is reviewed. Particular attention is paid to the unit operations, which play crucial roles in virus removals, such as coagulation and membrane filtration, and that for virus inactivation, such as chemical disinfection and UV irradiation. Future needs for the development of new technologies for virus elimination, source control, and finding more suitable indicators of viral pathogens are also highlighted.

Two-stage anaerobic and post-aerobic mesophilic digestion of sewage sludge: Analysis of process performance and hygienization potential

Sequential anaerobic-aerobic digestion has been demonstrated to be effective for enhanced sludge stabilization, in terms of increased solid reduction and improvement of sludge dewaterability. In this study, we propose a modified version of the sequential anaerobic-aerobic digestion process by operating the aerobic step under mesophilic conditions (T=37 °C), in order to improve the aerobic degradation kinetics of soluble and particulate chemical oxygen demand (COD). Process performance has been assessed in terms of "classical parameters" such as volatile solids (VS) removal, biogas production, COD removal, nitrogen species, and polysaccharide and protein fate. The aerobic step was operated under intermittent aeration to achieve nitrogen removal. Aerobic mesophilic conditions consistently increased VS removal, providing 32% additional removal vs. 20% at 20 °C. Similar results were obtained for nitrogen removal, increasing from 64% up to 99% at the higher temperature. Improved sludge dewaterability was also observed with a capillary suction time decrease of ~50% during the mesophilic aerobic step. This finding may be attributable to the decreased protein content in the aerobic digested sludge. The post-aerobic digestion exerted a positive effect on the reduction of microbial indicators while no consistent improvement of hygienization related to the increased temperature was observed. The techno-economic analysis of the proposed digestion layout showed a net cost saving for sludge disposal estimated in the range of 28-35% in comparison to the single-phase anaerobic digestion.

Somatic coliphages as surrogates for enteroviruses in sludge hygienization treatments

Conventional bacterial indicators present serious drawbacks giving information about viral pathogens persistence during sludge hygienization treatments. This calls for the search of alternative viral indicators. Somatic coliphages' (SOMCPH) ability for acting as surrogates for enteroviruses was assessed in 47 sludge samples subjected to novel treatment processes. SOMCPH, infectious enteroviruses and genome copies of enteroviruses were monitored. Only one of these groups, the bacteriophages, was present in the sludge at concentrations that allowed the evaluation of treatment's performance. An indicator/pathogen relationship of 4 log10 (PFU/g dw) was found between SOMCPH and infective enteroviruses and their detection accuracy was assessed. The obtained results and the existence of rapid and standardized methods encourage the inclusion of SOMCPH quantification in future sludge directives. In addition, an existing real-time quantitative polymerase chain reaction (RT-qPCR) for enteroviruses was adapted and applied.

Hygienization performances of innovative sludge treatment solutions to assure safe land spreading

The present research aims at the evaluation of the hygienization performances of innovative sludge treatment processes applied for the separated treatment of secondary sludge. Namely, two digestion pretreatments (sonication and thermal hydrolysis) and two sequential biological processes (mesophilic/thermophilic and anaerobic/aerobic digestion) were compared to the mesophilic (MAD) and thermophilic anaerobic digestion (TAD). Microbial indicators (Escherichia coli, somatic coliphages and Clostridium perfringens spores) and pathogens (Salmonella and enteroviruses), which show different resistances to treatment processes, were monitored in untreated and treated sludge. Overall, microbial load in secondary sludge was shown to be similar or lower than previously reported in literature for mixed sludge. Notably, the anaerobic/aerobic digestion process increased the removal of E. coli and somatic coliphages compared to the simple MAD and always achieved the hygienization requirement (2-log-unit removal of E. coli) proposed by EU Commission in the 3rd Working Document on sludge (April 2000) for the use of treated sludges in agriculture with restriction on their application. The microbial quality limits for the unrestricted use of sludge in agriculture (no Salmonella in 50 g wet weight (WW) and E. coli <500 CFU/g) were always met when thermal digestion or pretreatment was applied; however, the required removal level (6-log-unit removal of E. coli) could not be assessed due to the low level of this microorganism in raw sludge. Observed levels of indicator removal showed a higher resistance of viral particles to thermal treatment compared with bacterial cells and confirmed the suitability of somatic coliphages as indicators in thermal treatment processes.

Bacterial community structure in treated sewage sludge with mesophilic and thermophilic anaerobic digestion

Stabilized sewage sludge is applied to agricultural fields and farmland due to its high organic matter content. The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of two types of sludge stabilization, mesophilic anaerobic digestion (MAD) and thermophilic anaerobic digestion (TAD), on bacterial communities in sludge, including the presence of pathogenic microorganisms. Bacterial community structure and phylogenetic diversity were analyzed in four sewage sludge samples from the Czech Republic. Analysis of 16S ribosomal RNA (rRNA) genes showed that investigated sludge samples harbor diverse bacterial populations with only a few taxa present across all samples. Bacterial diversity was higher in sludge samples after MAD versus TAD treatment, and communities in MAD-treated sludge shared the highest genetic similarities. In all samples, the bacterial community was dominated by reads affiliated with Proteobacteria. The sludge after TAD treatment had considerably higher number of reads of thermotolerant/thermophilic taxa, such as the phyla Deinococcus-Thermus and Thermotogae or the genus Coprothermobacter. Only one operational taxonomic unit (OTU), which clustered with Rhodanobacter, was detected in all communities at a relative abundance >1 %. All of the communities were screened for the presence of 16S rRNA gene sequences of pathogenic bacteria using a database of 122 pathogenic species and ≥98 % identity threshold. The abundance of such sequences ranged between 0.23 and 1.57 % of the total community, with lower numbers present after the TAD treatment, indicating its higher hygienization efficiency. Sequences clustering with nontuberculous mycobacteria were present in all samples. Other detected sequences of pathogenic bacteria included Streptomyces somaliensis, Acinetobacter calcoaceticus, Alcaligenes faecalis, Gordonia spp., Legionella anisa, Bordetella bronchiseptica, Enterobacter aerogenes, Brucella melitensis, and Staphylococcus aureus.

Monitoring Bacteroides spp. markers, nutrients, metals and Escherichia coli in soil and leachate after land application of three types of municipal biosolids

A lysimeter-based field study was done to monitor the transfer of culturable Escherichia coli, general (ALLBAC), human (Hf183) and swine (PIG-BAC-1) specific 16S rRNA Bacteroides spp. markers, nutrients and metals through soils and leachate over time following land application of a CP1/Class A as well as two CP2/Class B municipal biosolids (MBs). Hf183 markers were detected up to six days following application in soils receiving dewatered and liquid MBs, but not in leachate, suggesting their use in source tracking is better suited for recent pollution events. The CP2/Class B biosolids and swine manure contributed the highest microbial load with E. coli loads (between 2.5 and 3.7 log CFU (100 mL)(-1)) being greater than North American concentration recommendations for safe recreational water. ALLBAC persisted in soils and leachate receiving all treatments and was detected prior to amendment application demonstrating its unsuitability for identifying the presence of fecal pollution. A significant increase in NO₃-N (for Lystek and dewatered MBs) and total-P (for dewatered and liquid MBs) in leachate was observed in plots receiving the CP1/Class A and CP2/Class B type MBs which exceeded North American guidelines, suggesting impact to surface water. Metal (As, Cd, Cr, Co, Cu, Pb, Mo, Ni, Se, Zn and Hg) transfer was negligible in soil and leachate samples receiving all treatments. This study is one of the first to examine the fate of E. coli and Bacteroides spp. markers in situ following the land application of MBs where surface runoff does not apply.

United States National Sewage Sludge Repository at Arizona State University--a new resource and research tool for environmental scientists, engineers, and epidemiologists

Processed municipal sewage sludges (MSS) are an abundant, unwanted by-product of wastewater treatment, increasingly applied to agriculture and forestry for inexpensive disposal and soil conditioning. Due to their high organic carbon and lipid contents, MSS not only is rich in carbon and nutrients but also represents a "sink" for recalcitrant, hydrophobic, and potentially bioaccumulative compounds. Indeed, many organics sequestered and concentrated in MSS meet the US Environmental Protection Agency's definition of being persistent, bioaccumulative, and toxic (PBT). In a strategic effort, our research team at the Biodesign Institute has created the National Sewage Sludge Repository (NSSR), a large repository of digested MSSs from 164 wastewater treatment plants from across the USA, as part of the Human Health Observatory (H2O) at Arizona State University (ASU). The NSSR likely represents the largest archive of digested MSS specimens in the USA. The present study summarizes key findings gleaned thus far from analysis of NSSR samples. For example, we evaluated the content of toxicants in MSS and computed estimates of nationwide inventories of mass produced chemicals that become sequestrated in sludge and later are released into the environment during sludge disposal on land. Ongoing efforts document co-occurrence of a variety of PBT compounds in both MSS and human samples, while also identifying a large number of potentially harmful MSS constituents for which human exposure data are still lacking. Finally, we summarize future opportunities and invite collaborative use of the NSSR by the research community. The H2O at ASU represents a new resource and research tool for environmental scientists and the larger research community. As illustrated in this work, this repository can serve to (i) identify and prioritize emerging contaminants, (ii) provide spatial and temporal trends of contaminants, (iii) inform and evaluate the effectiveness of environmental policy-making and regulations, and (iv) approximate, ongoing exposures and body burdens of mass-produced chemicals in human society.

Determining pathogen and indicator levels in class B municipal organic residuals used for land application

Biosolids are nutrient-rich organic residuals that are currently used to amend soils for food production. Treatment requirements to inactivate pathogens for production of Class A biosolids are energy intensive. One less energy intensive alternative is to treat biosolids to Class B standards, but it could result in higher pathogen loads. Quantitative microbial risk assessments models have been developed on land application of Class B biosolids but contain many uncertainties because of limited data on specific pathogen densities and the use of fecal indicator organisms as accurate surrogates of pathogen loads. To address this gap, a 12-mo study of the levels and relationships between , , and human adenovirus (HAdV) with fecal coliform, somatic, and F-RNA coliphage levels in Class B biosolids from nine wastewater treatment plants throughout the United States was conducted. Results revealed that fecal coliform, somatic, and F-RNA coliphage densities were consistent throughout the year. More important, results revealed that HAdV ( = 2.5 × 10 genome copies dry g) and ( = 4.14 × 10 cysts dry g) were in all biosolids samples regardless of treatment processes, location, or season. oocysts were also detected (38% positive; range: 0-1.9 × 10 oocysts dry g), albeit sporadically. Positive correlations among three fecal indicator organisms and HAdV, but not protozoa, were also observed. Overall, this study reveals that high concentrations of enteric pathogens (e.g., , , and HAdV) are present in biosolids throughout the United States. Microbial densities found can further assist management and policymakers in establishing more accurate risk assessment models associated with land application of Class B biosolids.

Enhancing methane production from waste activated sludge using combined free nitrous acid and heat pre-treatment

Methane production from anaerobic digestion of waste activated sludge (WAS) is often limited by the slow degradation and poor substrate availability of WAS. Our previous study revealed that WAS pre-treatment using free nitrous acid (FNA, i.e. HNO2) is an economically feasible and environmentally friendly method for promoting methane production. In order to further improve methane production from WAS, this study presents a novel strategy based on combined FNA and heat pre-treatment. WAS from a full-scale plant was treated for 24 h with FNA alone (0.52-1.43 mg N/L at 25 °C), heat alone (35, 55 and 70 °C), and FNA (0.52-1.11 mg N/L) combined with heat (35, 55 and 70 °C). The pre-treated WAS was then used for biochemical methane potential tests. Compared to the control (no FNA or heat pre-treatment of WAS), biochemical methane potential of the pre-treated WAS was increased by 12-16%, 0-6%, 17-26%, respectively; hydrolysis rate was improved by 15-25%, 10-25%, 20-25%, respectively, for the three types of pre-treatment. Heat pre-treatment at 55 and 70 °C, independent of the presence or absence of FNA, achieved approximately 4.5 log inactivation of pathogens (in comparison to ∼1 log inactivation with FNA treatment alone), thus capable of producing Class A biosolids. The combined FNA and heat pre-treatment is an economically and environmentally attractive technology for the pre-treatment of WAS prior to anaerobic digestion, particularly considering that both FNA and heat can be produced as by-products of anaerobic sludge digestion.

Including pathogen risk in life cycle assessment of wastewater management. 1. Estimating the burden of disease associated with pathogens

The environmental performance of wastewater and sewage sludge management is commonly assessed using life cycle assessment (LCA), whereas pathogen risk is evaluated with quantitative microbial risk assessment (QMRA). This study explored the application of QMRA methodology with intent to include pathogen risk in LCA and facilitate a comparison with other potential impacts on human health considered in LCA. Pathogen risk was estimated for a model wastewater treatment system (WWTS) located in an industrialized country and consisting of primary, secondary, and tertiary wastewater treatment, anaerobic sludge digestion, and land application of sewage sludge. The estimation was based on eight previous QMRA studies as well as parameter values taken from the literature. A total pathogen risk (expressed as burden of disease) on the order of 0.2-9 disability-adjusted life years (DALY) per year of operation was estimated for the model WWTS serving 28,600 persons and for the pathogens and exposure pathways included in this study. The comparison of pathogen risk with other potential impacts on human health considered in LCA is detailed in part 2 of this article series.

Decay of enteric microorganisms in biosolids-amended soil under wheat (Triticum aestivum) cultivation

There is a growing need for better assessment of health risks associated with land-applied biosolids. This study investigated in-situ decay of seeded human adenovirus (HAdV), Salmonella enterica, Escherichia coli, and bacteriophage (MS2) in biosolids-amended soil under wheat cultivation. The biosolids seeded with microorganisms were placed in decay chambers which were then placed in the topsoil (10 cm depth) at three different sites. Sites were selected in arid wheat-growing regions of Australia with loamy-sand soil type (Western Australia) and sandy soil (South Australia). Seeded E. coli and S. enterica had a relatively short decay time (T90 = 4-56 days) in biosolids-amended soil compared to un-amended soil (T90 = 8-83 days). The decreasing soil moisture over the wheat-growing season significantly (P < 0.05) influenced survival time of both bacteria and MS2 at Western Australia (Moora) and South Australia (Mt Compass) sites, particularly in the un-amended soils. Increasing soil temperature also significantly (P < 0.05) influenced the decay of MS2 at these sites. In this study, no notable decline in HAdV numbers (PCR detectable units) was observed in both biosolids-amended and the un-amended soils at all three sites. The HAdV decay time (T90 ≥ 180 days) in biosolids-amended and un-amended soils was significantly higher than MS2 (T90 = 22-108 days). The results of this study suggest that adenovirus could survive for a longer period of time (>180 days) during the winter in biosolids-amended soil. The stability of adenovirus suggests that consideration towards biosolids amendment frequency, time, rates and appropriate withholding periods are necessary for risk mitigation.

Sludge as a potential important source of antibiotic resistance genes in both the bacterial and bacteriophage fractions

The emergence and prevalence of antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs) in the environment is a serious global health concern. ARGs found in bacteria can become mobilized in bacteriophage particles in the environment. Sludge derived from secondary treatment in wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) constitutes a concentrated pool of bacteria and phages that are removed during the treatment process. This study evaluates the prevalence of ARGs in the bacterial and phage fractions of anaerobic digested sludge; five ARGs (blaTEM, blaCTX-M, qnrA, qnrS, and sul1) are quantified by qPCR. Comparison between the wastewater and sludge revealed a shift in the prevalence of ARGs (blaTEM and sul1 became more prevalent in sludge), suggesting there is a change in the bacterial and phage populations from wastewater to those selected during the secondary treatment and the later anaerobic mesophilic digestion of the sludge. ARGs densities were higher in the bacterial than in the phage fraction, with high densities in both fractions; particularly for blaTEM and sul1 (5 and 8 log10 gene copies (GC)/g, respectively, in bacterial DNA; 5.5 and 4.4 log10 GC/g, respectively, in phage DNA). These results question the potential agricultural uses of treated sludge, as it could contribute to the spread of ARGs in the environment and have an impact on the bacterial communities of the receiving ecosystem.

Surveillance of enteric viruses and coliphages in a tropical urban catchment

An assessment of the occurrence and concentration of enteric viruses and coliphages was carried out in highly urbanized catchment waters in the tropical city-state of Singapore. Target enteric viruses in this study were noroviruses, adenoviruses, astroviruses and rotaviruses. In total, 65 water samples were collected from canals and the reservoir of the Marina catchment on a monthly basis over a period of a year. Quantitative PCR (qPCR) and single agar layer plaque assay (SAL) were used to enumerate target enteric viruses and coliphages in water samples, respectively. The most prevalent pathogen were noroviruses, detected in 37 samples (57%), particularly norovirus genogroup II (48%), with a mean concentration of 3.7 × 10(2) gene copies per liter. Rotavirus was the second most prevalent virus (40%) with a mean concentration of 2.5 × 10(2) GC/L. The mean concentrations of somatic and male-specific coliphages were 2.2 × 10(2) and 1.1 × 10(2) PFU/100 ml, respectively. The occurrence and concentration of each target virus and the ratio of somatic to male-specific coliphages varied at different sampling sites in the catchment. For sampling sites with higher frequency of occurrence and concentration of viruses, the ratio of somatic to male-specific coliphages was generally much lower than other sampling sites with lower incidences of enteric viruses. Overall, higher statistical correlation was observed between target enteric viruses than between enteric viruses and coliphages. However, male-specific coliphages were positively correlated with norovirus concentrations. A multi-level integrated surveillance system, which comprises the monitoring of bacterial indicators, coliphages and selected enteric viruses, could help to meet recreational and surface water quality criteria in a complex urbanized catchment.

Bacteriophages infecting Bacteroides as a marker for microbial source tracking

Bacteriophages infecting certain strains of Bacteroides are amid the numerous procedures proposed for tracking the source of faecal pollution. These bacteriophages fulfil reasonably well most of the requirements identified as appropriate for a suitable marker of faecal sources. Thus, different host strains are available that detect bacteriophages preferably in water contaminated with faecal wastes corresponding to different animal species. For phages found preferably in human faecal wastes, which are the ones that have been more extensively studied, the amounts of phages found in waters contaminated with human fecal samples is reasonably high; these amounts are invariable through the time; their resistance to natural and anthropogenic stressors is comparable to that of other relatively resistant indicator of faecal pollution such us coliphages; the abundance ratios of somatic coliphages and bacteriophages infecting Bacteroides thetaiotaomicron GA17 are unvarying in recent and aged contamination; and standardised detection methods exist. These methods are easy, cost effective and provide data susceptible of numerical analysis. In contrast, there are some uncertainties regarding their geographical stability, and consequently suitable hosts need to be isolated for different geographical areas. However, a feasible method has been described to isolate suitable hosts in a given geographical area. In summary, phages infecting Bacteroides are a marker of faecal sources that in our opinion merits being included in the "toolbox" for microbial source tracking. However, further research is still needed in order to make clear some uncertainties regarding some of their characteristics and behaviour, to compare their suitability to the one of emerging methods such us targeting Bacteroidetes by qPCR assays; or settling molecular methods for their determination.

A year-long study of Cryptosporidium species and subtypes in recreational, drinking and wastewater from the central area of Spain

A year-long longitudinal study was undertaken to evaluate the presence of Cryptosporidium spp. in drinking water treatment plants (DWTPs), wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) and freshwater bathing beaches (FBBs) from the central area of Spain. Water samples were collected according to USEPA Method 1623, and concentrated by the IDEXX Filta-Max® system. Cryptosporidium species were detected based on PCR-restriction fragment length polymorphism and sequence analyses of the ssuRNA gene. C. hominis and/or C. parvum isolates were subtyped by DNA sequencing of the Gp60 gene. Among 150 samples, 23 (15.3%) were positive by IFAT and 40 (26.7%) by PCR. Cryptosporidium spp. was more frequent in WWTPs (26.2 and 50.8%) and FBBs (12.5 and 17.5%) by IFAT and PCR respectively. Effluent waters from DWTPs were negative for this parasite suggesting that they are suitable for public use. Tertiary treatment in the WWTPs demonstrated a high removal efficiency of Cryptosporidium in the samples evaluated. Cryptosporidium species identified included C. hominis, C. parvum, C. ubiquitum, C. andersoni and C. muris. Subtyping analysis revealed C. hominis IbA10G2 and IeA11G3T3 alleles, which is the first report of the latter in water samples. Cryptosporidium highest frequency was observed in winter and spring. Our data provide information about the occurrence and diversity of Cryptosporidium in water of human use from the central area of Spain.

Thermophilic co-digestion of pig manure and crude glycerol: process performance and digestate stability

Anaerobic co-digestion has been widely used to enhance biogas production of digesters and, therefore, to improve the anaerobic plants economic feasibility. In the present study, glycerol, a by-product of the biodiesel industry, was used as a co-substrate for pig manure. The results showed that the thermophilic anaerobic co-digestion of pig manure supplemented with 3% of glycerol, on weight basis, was satisfactory. The specific biogas production of the co-digester was 180% higher than the one obtained by the reference digester, which was only fed with pig manure. The improvement was related to the double of the organic loading rate, the high biodegradability of the crude glycerol, the slight reduction of the free ammonia concentration and the optimisation of the carbon-to-nitrogen ratio. Moreover, the analysis of the organic matter (protein, lipids, carbohydrates and fibers) of the influent and the effluent of both digesters together with their biogas flow rates indicated that the microorganisms in the co-digester obtained large amounts of nutrients from the glycerol, whereas the microorganisms of the reference digester mainly produced biogas from the particulate matter. However, the digestate obtained from the co-digester cannot be directly applied as soil fertiliser or conditioner due to the presence of high levels of biodegradable matter, which may exert negative impacts on the plant-soil system. Thus, a longer hydraulic retention time, a reduction of the glycerol concentration and/or a post-treatment is required if the digestate is to be used as soil fertiliser or conditioner. In contrast, pig manure digestate can be directly applied on land.

Balancing hygienization and anaerobic digestion of raw sewage sludge

The anaerobic digestion of raw sewage sludge was evaluated in terms of process efficiency and sludge hygienization. Four different scenarios were analyzed, i.e. mesophilic anaerobic digestion, thermophilic anaerobic digestion and mesophilic anaerobic digestion followed by a 60 °C or by an 80 °C hygienization treatment. Digester performance (organic matter removal, process stability and biogas yield) and the hygienization efficiency (reduction of Escherichia coli, somatic coliphages and F-specific RNA phages) were the main examined factors. Moreover, a preliminary economical feasibility study of each option was carried out throughout an energy balance (heat and electricity). The obtained results showed that both thermophilic anaerobic digestion and mesophilic anaerobic digestion followed by a hygienization step were able to produce an effluent sludge that fulfills the American and the European legislation for land application. However, higher removal efficiencies of indicators were obtained when a hygienization post-treatment was present. Regarding the energy balance, it should be noted that all scenarios have a significant energy surplus. Particularly, positive heat balances will be obtained for the thermophilic anaerobic digestion and for the mesophilic anaerobic digestion followed by 60 °C hygienization post-treatment if an additional fresh-sludge/digested sludge heat exchanger is installed for energy recovery.

Land application of manure and Class B biosolids: an occupational and public quantitative microbial risk assessment

Land application is a practical use of municipal Class B biosolids and manure that also promotes soil fertility and productivity. To date, no study exists comparing biosolids to manure microbial risks. This study used quantitative microbial risk assessment to estimate pathogen risks from occupational and public exposures during scenarios involving fomite, soil, crop, and aerosol exposures. Greatest one-time risks were from direct consumption of contaminated soil or exposure to fomites, with one-time risks greater than 10. Recent contamination and high exposures doses increased most risks. and enteric viruses provided the greatest single risks for most scenarios, particularly in the short term. All pathogen risks were decreased with time, 1 d to14 mo between land application and exposure; decreases in risk were typically over six orders of magnitude beyond 30 d. Nearly all risks were reduced to below 10 when using a 4-mo harvest delay for crop consumption. Occupational, more direct risks were greater than indirect public risks, which often occur after time and dilution have reduced pathogen loads to tolerable levels. Comparison of risks by pathogen group confirmed greater bacterial risks from manure, whereas viral risks were exclusive to biosolids. A direct comparison of the two residual types showed that biosolids use had greater risk because of the high infectivity of viruses, whereas the presence of environmentally recalcitrant pathogens such as and maintained manure risk. Direct comparisons of shared pathogens resulted in greater manure risks. Overall, it appears that in the short term, risks were high for both types of residuals, but given treatment, attenuation, and dilution, risks can be reduced to near-insignificant levels. That being said, limited data sets, dose exposures, site-specific inactivation rates, pathogen spikes, environmental change, regrowth, and wildlife will increase risk and uncertainty and remain areas poorly understood.

Comparing extraction buffers to identify optimal method to extract somatic coliphages from sewage sludges

Somatic coliphages are present in high numbers in sewage sludge. Since they are conservative indicators of viruses during wastewater treatment processes, they are being used to evaluate the effectiveness of sludge treatment processes. However, efficient methods to extract them from sludge are lacking. The objective was to compare different virus extraction procedures and develop a method to extract coliphages from sewage sludge. Twelve different extraction buffers and procedures varying in composition, pH, and sonication were compared in their ability to recover indigenous phages from sludges. The 3% buffered beef extract (BBE) (pH 9.0), the 10% BBE (pH 9.0), and the 10% BBE (pH 7.0) with sonication were short-listed and their recovery efficiency was determined using coliphage-spiked samples. The highest recovery was 16% for the extraction that involved 10% BBE at pH 9.0. There is a need to develop methods to extract somatic phages from sludges for monitoring sludge treatment processes.

Net energy production associated with pathogen inactivation during mesophilic and thermophilic anaerobic digestion of sewage sludge

The potential for anaerobic digester energy production must be balanced with the sustainability of reusing the resultant biosolids for land application. Mesophilic, thermophilic, temperature-phased, and high temperature (60 or 70 °C) batch pre-treatment digester configurations have been systematically evaluated for net energy production and pathogen inactivation potential. Energy input requirements and net energy production were modeled for each digester scheme. First-order inactivation rate coefficients for Escherichia coli, Enterococcus faecalis and bacteriophage MS-2 were measured at each digester temperature and full-scale pathogen inactivation performance was estimated for each indicator organism and each digester configuration. Inactivation rates were found to increase dramatically at temperatures above 55 °C. Modeling full-scale performance using retention times based on U.S. EPA time and temperature constraints predicts a 1-2 log inactivation in mesophilic treatment, and a 2-5 log inactivation in 50-55 °C thermophilic and temperature-phased treatments. Incorporating a 60 or 70 °C batch pre-treatment phase resulted in dramatically higher potency, achieving MS-2 inactivation of 14 and 16 logs respectively, and complete inactivation (over 100 log reduction) of E. coli and E. faecalis. For temperatures less than 70 °C, viability staining of thermally-treated E. coli showed significantly reduced inactivation relative to standard culture enumeration. Due to shorter residence times in thermophilic reactors, the net energy production for all digesters was similar (less than 20% difference) with the 60 or 70 °C batch treatment configurations producing the most net energy and the mesophilic treatment producing the least. Incorporating a 60 or 70 °C pre-treatment phase can dramatically increase pathogen inactivation performance without decreasing net energy capture from anaerobic digestion. Energy consumption is not a significant barrier against improving the pathogen quality of biosolids.