Clinical, haematological, metabolic and endocrine traits during the first three months of life of suckling simmentaler calves held in a cow-calf operation

The curse of the firstborn: Effects of dam primiparity on developmental programming in ruminant offspring

The first parity, or first pregnancy, of ruminant females has negative effects on offspring during fetal, perinatal, and pre-weaning periods which ultimately lead to diminished pre-weaning productivity. Offspring born to primiparous ruminant females can have decreased fetal and pre-weaning growth, resulting in lower body weights at birth and weaning in cattle, sheep, and goats. Moreover, mortality is greater during both neonatal and pre-weaning periods. Insults during these critical developmental windows likely also have long-term consequences on first-parity offspring through developmental programming, but less research has been done to investigate effects in the post-weaning period. Many potential physiological, metabolic, and behavioral mechanisms exist for the outcomes of dam primiparity. Although competition for nutrient partitioning between maternal and fetal growth or lactation is often cited as a major contributor, we hypothesize that the most important mechanism causing most first-parity outcomes is the relative physiological inexperience of reproductive tissues such as the uterus and mammary gland during the first pregnancy and lactation, or a "first use theory" of tissues. More research is necessary to explore these areas, as well as if primiparous dams respond differently to stressors than multiparous dams, and if stress during the first parity affects subsequent parities.

Hematologic parameters in female alpacas during age progression: a retrospective study

Alpacas, like all camelids, have elliptical red blood cells (RBCs) in contrast to other mammals. This particular shape is important for increased osmotic resistance and stability. Age-related changes in the RBC count are known in other species, with alterations in both red and white blood cells being described. In alpacas, there are few data on age-related changes, and only a comparison of crias with adult animals. We characterized age-related hematologic changes in a study of 21 female alpacas from a research herd. A total of 87 records of clinically healthy alpacas of different ages were statistically analyzed retrospectively from the hematologic records over a nine-year period. Significant positive correlations of age with hemoglobin (Hb), HCT, MCV, MCH, neutrophils, platelet-to-lymphocyte ratio (PLR), and neutrophil-to-lymphocyte ratio (NLR) were found as well as significant negative correlations of age with lymphocytes in addition to lymphocyte-to-monocyte ratio (LMR). A paired comparison of eight older animals in the herd at three different ages also showed significant differences in the parameters Hb, HCT, MCV, MCH, MCHC, lymphocytes, eosinophils and neutrophils. Similar changes in hematologic parameters have been reported in other species and should be taken into account when interpreting hematologic results in alpacas.

Effect of a Dietary Essential Oil Blend in Dairy Cows during the Dry and Transition Period on Blood and Metabolic Parameters of Dams and Their Calves

Cows face severe challenges of immunosuppression and negative energy balance during transition periods. The current study was designed to investigate the effects of essential oil blend supplementation in dairy cow's ration during dry periods on the health of the cow and calf. In the current study, 45 dry Holstein dairy cows were divided into three groups, each consisting of 15 animals. The control group was without any supplementation; the positive control group was only injected with 0.2 mg/kg levamisole (intramuscular) at 2 months before parturition and 1 month before parturition; and the treatment group was supplemented with 3 g/day for each cow essential oil blend mixed in total mixed ration (TMR). A mixed vaccine against E. coli, Rotavirus, and Coronavirus was administered to all cows before 42 days and after 21 days of calving. The day of the calving of the animal was accepted as day 0. Blood samples were collected from the coccygeal vein of all cows at -60, -45, -30, -15, -7, 0, 1 and 2 days, and the colostrum samples were taken on days 0, 1, and 2. Blood samples were also collected from the jugular vein (V. Jugularis) of the newborn calves on days 0, 1, and 2. The results of the hematological parameters revealed no difference in the total red blood cell count, hemoglobin amount, hematocrit, MCV, MCH, MCHC, RDW, PLT, MPV, and PCT values in both prenatal and postnatal blood of the cows (p > 0.05). In terms of immunological parameters, the total IgG level was significantly higher in the experimental group on the 7th day before birth compared to the other two groups, while the total leukocyte count, lymphocyte count, monocyte count and granulocyte counts were found to be lower after birth (p < 0005). Blood NEFA and BHBA levels were also lower in the experimental group compared to the other two groups (p < 0.005), and the blood glucose level was not different (p > 0.05). In calves, no difference was found between the groups in any of the parameters examined (p > 0.05). It is concluded that the dietary addition of an essential oil blend during the transition period enhanced the immune status and energy metabolism of cows without any effect on the health status of newborn calves.

Welfare of calves

This Scientific Opinion addresses a European Commission request on the welfare of calves as part of the Farm to Fork strategy. EFSA was asked to provide a description of common husbandry systems and related welfare consequences, as well as measures to prevent or mitigate the hazards leading to them. In addition, recommendations on three specific issues were requested: welfare of calves reared for white veal (space, group housing, requirements of iron and fibre); risk of limited cow–calf contact; and animal‐based measures (ABMs) to monitor on‐farm welfare in slaughterhouses. The methodology developed by EFSA to address similar requests was followed. Fifteen highly relevant welfare consequences were identified, with respiratory disorders, inability to perform exploratory or foraging behaviour, gastroenteric disorders and group stress being the most frequent across husbandry systems. Recommendations to improve the welfare of calves include increasing space allowance, keeping calves in stable groups from an early age, ensuring good colostrum management and increasing the amounts of milk fed to dairy calves. In addition, calves should be provided with deformable lying surfaces, water via an open surface and long‐cut roughage in racks. Regarding specific recommendations for veal systems, calves should be kept in small groups (2–7 animals) within the first week of life, provided with ~ 20 m²/calf and fed on average 1 kg neutral detergent fibre (NDF) per day, preferably using long‐cut hay. Recommendations on cow–calf contact include keeping the calf with the dam for a minimum of 1 day post‐partum. Longer contact should progressively be implemented, but research is needed to guide this implementation in practice. The ABMs body condition, carcass condemnations, abomasal lesions, lung lesions, carcass colour and bursa swelling may be collected in slaughterhouses to monitor on‐farm welfare but should be complemented with behavioural ABMs collected on farm.

Dam parity affects fetal growth, placental size, and neonatal metabolism in spring-born beef calves

To determine effects of dam parity on perinatal nutrient availability in beef cattle, data and samples were collected from 18 primiparous and 35 multiparous spring-calving Sim-Angus dams and their calves. Time to stand was recorded and neonatal vigor assessed. Jugular blood was collected from a subset of calves at 0 (post-standing and pre-suckling) 6, 12, 24, 48, and 72 h of age, and blood chemistry panels were completed. Expelled placentas were dissected, dried, and weighed. Prepartum maternal circulating glucose, non-esterified fatty acids (NEFA), triglycerides, and urea N were analyzed. All statistical models included the fixed effect of dam parity, and calf sex (when P ≤ 0.25) was included for calf and placental variables. Effects of sampling hour, and parity × hour were included for calf metabolites over time using repeated measures. Multiparous dams had greater body weight prepartum (P < 0.001) but similar (P = 0.25) body condition score. Maternal circulating urea N and triglycerides were greater (P ≤ 0.05) in multiparous dams pre-calving. Calves born to primiparous dams weighed 10% less (P ≤ 0.04) at birth with smaller (P ≤ 0.01) heart and abdominal girths. Cotyledonary, intercotyledonary, and total placental masses were less (P ≤ 0.05) for primiparous dams. Dam parity did not affect (P ≥ 0.58) calf time to stand, vigor score at 10 min, or rectal temperature. Serum glucose was greater (P = 0.03) at 0 h but less (P ≤ 0.04) at all other hours in calves from primiparous dams. Calves from primiparous dams had greater (P ≤ 0.02) serum NEFA at 6, 12, and 24 h although plasma triglycerides were greater (P < 0.001) at 6 h. Calves from primiparous dams had greater (P ≤ 0.04) serum urea N at 12 h and creatinine at 12 and 24 h. Plasma insulin was greater (P ≤ 0.04) in calves from multiparous dams at 12, 48, and 72 h, but parity did not affect (P ≥ 0.18) serum total protein or plasma cortisol. Serum aspartate aminotransferase was greater (P ≤ 0.04) at 6 and 24 h, creatine kinase was greater at 24 h, and gamma-glutamyl transpeptidase was less (P ≤ 0.04) at 6, 12, and 24 h, for calves from primiparous dams. Calves born to primiparous dams had greater (P ≤ 0.02) total bilirubin and direct bilirubin at 12 and 24 h. Data indicate that calves born to first-parity heifers had decreased perinatal nutrient availability, resulting in reduced fetal and placental growth, as well as greater energy reserve mobilization and metabolic indicators of stress as neonates.

Maternal nutrient restriction during late gestation reduces vigor and alters blood chemistry and hematology in neonatal beef calves

Fall-calving primiparous beef females [body weight: 451 ± 28 (SD) kg; body condition score: 5.4 ± 0.7] were individually-fed either 100% (control; CON; n = 13) or 70% (nutrient restricted; NR; n = 13) of metabolizable energy and metabolizable protein requirements for maintenance, pregnancy, and growth from day 160 of gestation to parturition. Calves were reared naturally by their dams and monitored for latency times from birth to first sternal recumbency, attempt to stand, and stand; vigor scores were assigned at 2, 5, 10, and 20 min of age. Rectal temperatures and jugular blood were obtained at 0 (pre-suckling), 6, 12, 24, and 48 h of age, and blood chemistry, hematology, cortisol, and insulin were determined. Data were analyzed with fixed effects of late gestational nutritional plane (single data point) or nutritional plane, hour, and their interaction (data over time, repeated measures). Calving date was a fixed effect; calf sex was included when P < 0.25. We previously reported that late gestational nutritional plane did not affect gestation length or calf size at birth, but calving assistance and fetal malpresentation occurred more often in NR. Nutritional plane did not affect (P = 0.65) duration of parturition, but calves born to NR dams had slower times to attempt to stand (P = 0.09), slower times to stand (P = 0.02), and poorer 20 min vigor scores (P = 0.05). Serum immunoglobulin G and A concentrations at 48 h were greater (P ≤ 0.03) for NR calves. Rectal temperature of NR calves was less (P = 0.02) at 0 h, but greater (P = 0.04) at 24 h compared with CON. Circulating glucose, non-esterified fatty acids, triglycerides, cortisol, and insulin were not affected by nutritional plane (P ≥ 0.18). Total protein and globulin from 6 to 48 h were greater (P ≤ 0.02) in NR calves. Calves from NR dams had greater (P ≤ 0.08) gamma-glutamyl transferase at 6, 12, and 48 h. Serum aspartate aminotransferase was greater (P ≤ 0.07) from 0 to 24 h and creatine kinase was greater (P ≤ 0.04) from 6 to 24 h in NR calves. At 0 h, potassium was greater (P = 0.03) in NR calves. Calves born to CON had greater chloride (P = 0.08; main effect), sodium (P ≤ 0.09) from 0 to 48 h, and anion gap (P = 0.02) at 6 h. Hematocrit from 6 to 24 h and red blood cells and hemoglobin at 6 and 12 h were greater (P ≤ 0.09) in CON calves. These data indicate that nutrient restriction during late gestation resulted in less vigorous calves with more indicators of trauma in early life.

Assessing Performance and Safety of Feeding a Standardized Macleaya cordata Extract to Calves

This study examined the effects of Sangrovit®, a Macleaya cordata plant extract (MCE) preparation on feed intake, growth, blood chemistry, and tissue-residue levels of calves. Twenty male and 20 female calves (~5 d of age) were assigned to one of four daily Sangrovit® doses: 0.0 and 0.0 (CTL), 2.0 and 4.0 (D1), 5.0 and 10.0 (D2), and 10.0 and 20.0 (D3) g/calf in pre-weaning (5 to 49 d of age) and post-weaning (50 to 95 d of age) periods, respectively. Sangrovit® doses were fed in milk replacer pre-weaning and top-dressed on calf starter post-weaning. Milk replacer and calf starter intake was recorded daily. Body weight, hematology, and serum chemistry were measured at 5, 49, and 95 d of age. Calves were slaughtered at 95 d of age for MCE tissue residue analysis. Compared to CTL, D1 increased milk-replacer intake (4.90 to 5.09 L/day), but decreased calf starter intake pre- (0.65 to 0.53 kg/d) and post-weaning (3.42 to 3.20 kg/d). No Sangrovit® dose affected average daily gain. The hematology and blood chemistry of all treatment groups fell within the ranges of healthy calves. Results showed no adverse effects of MCE on health and growth performance of calves when fed up to 10.0 g/calf/day pre-weaning and up to 20.0 g/calf/day post-weaning.

Effects of spring- versus fall-calving on perinatal nutrient availability and neonatal vigor in beef cattle

To determine the effect of calving season on perinatal nutrient availability and neonatal beef calf vigor, data were collected from 4 spring- (average calving date: February 14; n = 203 total) and 4 fall- (average calving date: September 20; n = 179 total) calving experiments. Time to stand was determined as minutes from birth to standing for 5 s. After birth, calf weight and size (length, heart and abdominal girth, and cannon circumference) were recorded. Jugular blood samples and rectal temperatures were obtained at 0, 6, 12, and 24 h postnatally in 6 experiments and at 48 h postnatally in Exp. 2 to 8. Data were analyzed with fixed effects of season (single point) or season, hour, and their interaction (over time, using repeated measures). Experiment was a random effect; calf sex was included when P ≤ 0.25. Within calving season, correlations were determined between calf size, vigor, and 48-h serum total protein. Fall-born calves tended to have lighter (P = 0.09) birth weight and faster (P = 0.05) time to stand than spring-born calves. Season did not affect (P ≥ 0.18) gestation length, other calf size measures, or 48-h serum total protein. Fall-born calves had greater (P ≤ 0.003) rectal temperature at 0, 24, and 48 h postnatal. Spring-born calves had greater (P ≤ 0.009) circulating glucose at 0 h, serum non-esterified fatty acids at 0 and 6 h, and plasma triglycerides at 0, 6, 12, and 48 h. Fall-born calves had greater (P ≤ 0.03) sodium from 6 to 48 h and magnesium from 0 to 24 h of age. Phosphorus was greater (P ≤ 0.02) at 6 and 12 h of age in spring-born calves. Spring-born calves had greater (P ≤ 0.04) aspartate aminotransferase at 12 and 24 h and creatine kinase at 0 and 12 h of age. Fall-born calves had greater (P ≤ 0.03) albumin, calcium, and chloride, had lower (P ≤ 0.03) bicarbonate and direct bilirubin, and tended to have greater (P = 0.10) anion gap (all main effects of calving season). Calf birth weight had a weak positive relationship (P ≤ 0.03) with 48-h serum total protein and time to stand in fall-born, but not spring-born, calves. Overall, fetal growth was restricted and neonatal dehydration was increased by warm conditions for fall-born calves, but vigor and metabolism were negatively affected by cold conditions in spring-born calves. These data suggest that calving season influences perinatal nutrient availability, which may impact the transition of beef calves to postnatal life.

Impacts of Reducing Protein Content in Milk Replacer on Growth Performance and Health of Young Calves

In the present study, a drinking amount of 10 L of milk replacer (MR) was allowed to dairy calves in order to approach the natural drinking behavior. The question is: how much protein is required by calves in order to achieve an intended growth rate? For this reason, sixty-eight pre-weaned Holstein calves were divided into two groups and fed with 10 L/d of MR containing either 22% protein (MR22) or 19% protein (MR19) at an almost comparable energy intake. Effects on performance, metabolic status, and health were compared. Feed intake, growth performance, and health status were monitored during the pre-transition, transition, and postweaning phase (until 157 d of age). Total feed intake, and intake of MR, body weight (BW), and average daily gain (ADG) were not significantly different between MR22 and MR19 during the entire experimental period (p > 0.05). At d 42, calves in MR19 group showed greater serum levels of growth hormone (16.2 vs. 22.2 ng/mL; p = 0.02), insulin-like growth factor 1 (262 vs. 291 ng/mL; p = 0.03), and urea (2.86 vs. 3.04 mmol/L; p < 0.01). The results of the present study suggested that when high amounts of MR are provided, the protein content in MR can be reduced to 19% without any adverse effects on growth performance as well as on health status of dairy calves.

An Overview of Waste Milk Feeding Effect on Growth Performance, Metabolism, Antioxidant Status and Immunity of Dairy Calves

Waste milk (WM) is a part of the milk produced on dairy farms, which is usually unsuitable for human consumption. The WM contains transition milk, mastitis milk, colostrum, milk with somatic cells, blood (Hemolactia), harmful pathogens, pathogenic and antibiotic residues. Due to the high cost of milk replacer (MR), dairy farmers prefer raw WM to feed their calves. It has been well established that WM has a greater nutritive value than MR. Hence WM can contribute to improved growth, rumen development, and immune-associated parameters when fed to dairy calves. However, feeding raw WM before weaning has continuously raised some critical concerns. The pathogenic load and antibiotic residues in raw WM may increase the risk of diseases and antibacterial resistance in calves. Thus, pasteurization has been recommended as an effective method to decrease the risk of diseases in calves by killing/inhibiting the pathogenic microorganisms in the raw WM. Altogether, the current review provides a brief overview of the interplay between the positive role of raw WM in the overall performance of dairy calves, limitations of raw WM as a feed source and how to overcome these issues arising from feeding raw WM.

Monthly Dynamics of Plasma Elements, Hematology, Oxidative Stress Markers, and Hormonal Concentrations in Growing Male Shiba Goats (Capra hircus) Reared in Tokyo-Japan

Simple Summary

During the first stage of an animal’s life, various physiological alterations with the concomitant development of different body organs occur. This period is also accompanied by different kinds of stressors, including, but not limited to, the stress of weaning, metabolic change, and peri-puberty changes in reproductive functions. Shiba goats, the main goat breed in Japan, are not commonly used as food animals. However, male Shiba goats largely contribute to reproductive and cardiology research activities, as well as being used for educational purposes for elementary school children. The physiological data regarding laboratory measurements in Shiba goats are lacking, especially at a young age. In this study, we investigated the age-related changes in hematology, plasma mineral concentrations, hormones, and oxidative stress markers during the first five months (neonatal and peri-puberty age) in male Shiba goats.

Abstract

From a clinical point of view, the establishment of laboratory variables during the first few months of an animal’s life helps clinicians to make sure they base their medical decisions on laboratory values for the specific breed and age group. The present study aimed to investigate the monthly dynamics in some plasma elements, hematology, reproductive hormones, and oxidative stress marker profiles during the first five months of age (neonatal and peri-puberty stage) in male Shiba goat’s kids. Sixteen kids were investigated from the first to the fifth month (M1 to M5), and the data were presented as the statistical difference between them. Whole blood and plasma samples were collected monthly for analysis of basal hematology, plasma elements concentration (trace elements: Cu, Zn, Se, Fe, and Cr; macroelements: Ca and Mg), circulating hormones (cortisol, FSH, LH, IGF1, immunoreactive inhibin, testosterone, T3, and T4), and oxidative stress markers (MDA, CAT, SOD, and GPX). The results showed age-related changes in the observed parameters. The fifth month recorded the lowest level of almost all investigated minerals, except for Cr. Plasma hormone levels revealed age-dependent increases in IGF-1 and testosterone, age-related decreases in T3 and T4, and non-significant changes in cortisol and FSH. Besides, the concentrations of inhibin and LH were significantly higher at M1–M3 compared with M4–M5. Plasma SOD, GPX, and CAT were increased with age. In conclusion, age-related changes and a distinction of age in months was found necessary to interpret the laboratory results, specifically in terms of age in months and the peri-puberty stage in young goats, which are important to follow up the age-specific diseases, reproductive status, and treatment follow-ups in this stage.

Impact of insulin-like growth factor 1, immunoglobulin G and vitamin A in colostrum on growth of newborn Black Bengal goats and its crossbred

The study aims to investigate the relationships between colostral concentrations of insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1), immunoglobulin G (IgG) and vitamin A (Vit A) and growth (body weight and average daily gain) in Black Bengal (BB) and its crossbred. The colostrum from dams (n = 16) was collected at parturition to measure the concentrations of IGF-1, IgG and Vit A. The kid weight at birth (W-0), day 14 (W-14) and day 28 (W-28) were measured and the average daily gain during day 1-14 (ADG1-14) and day 14-28 (ADG14-28) were calculated. The average concentrations of IGF-1, IgG and Vit A in colostrum were 504.6 ± 74.9 ng/ml, 9.7 ± 0.6 mg/ml and 549.1 ± 72.5 µg/100 g, respectively. The average body weight of kids at birth, day 14 and 28 were 1.72 ± 0.08, 2.95 ± 0.11 and 3.94 ± 0.13 kg respectively. Kid's breed, IGF-1, IgG and Vit A had significant positive effects on ADG14-28 while parity, litter size and sex had no effect. The growth factors that were classified into 2 classes based upon the mean values of colostral contents in all kids showed that the kids receiving the higher concentrations of IGF-1, IgG and Vit A in colostrum had higher body weight gain than those receiving the lower concentrations (92.1 ± 7.8 vs. 59.8 ± 5.7 g/day; p = 0.002, 88.3 ± 7.8 vs. 60.3 ± 6.1 g/day; p = 0.009 and 91.1 ± 6.8 vs. 56.7 ± 5.8 g/day; p < 0.001 respectively). It is concluded that IGF-1, IgG and Vit A concentrations in colostrum of dams were associated with increased kid's body weight gain at the end of first month in BB and BB crossbred goats.

Calf and dam characteristics and calf transport age affect immunoglobulin titers and hematological parameters of veal calves

This study aimed to investigate effects of transport age of calves (14 vs. 28 d), and of calf and dam characteristics, on immunoglobulin titers and hematological variables of veal calves. Calves (n = 683) were transported to a veal farm at 14 or 28 d of age. Natural antibodies N-IgG, N-IgM, and N-IgA against phosphorylcholine conjugated to bovine serum albumin (PC-BSA) were measured in serum of the dams 1 wk before calving and in first colostrum. These antibodies were also measured in serum of calves 1 wk after birth, 1 d before transport, and in wk 2 and 10 posttransport at the veal farm. Hematological variables were assessed in calves 1 d before transport and in wk 2 posttransport. One day before transport, titers of N-IgG, N-IgM, N-IgA, and neutrophil counts were higher, and lymphocyte counts were lower in 14-d-old calves compared with 28-d-old calves. In wk 2 at the veal farm, calves transported at 14 d of age had higher N-IgG titers and neutrophil counts, but lower N-IgM and N-IgA titers, and lymphocyte counts than calves transported at 28 d. In wk 1 and 1 d before transport, N-Ig in calves were positively related to N-Ig in colostrum. In wk 2 and 10 at the veal farm, N-IgG in calves was positively related to N-IgG in colostrum. The N-IgG titers in calves at the dairy farm were negatively related to the likelihood of being individually treated with antibiotics or other medicines at the veal farm. Our results suggest that calves transported to the veal farm at 28 d of age showed a more advanced development of their adaptive immunity than calves transported at 14 d of age. Quality of colostrum might have long-term consequences for N-IgG titers and immunity in veal calves.

The Effects of Parenteral Iron Administration on Thyroid Hormones, Hematology, Oxidative Stress Characteristics, Performance, and Health in Neonatal Holstein Calves

The present study investigated the effect of iron supplementation on thyroid hormones concentrations, oxidative stress characteristics, complete blood count (CBC) and serum biochemistry, and performance and health in calves of two groups: test group (n = 17, intramuscular injection of 500 mg iron-dextran on the 2nd day of life) and control group (n = 17, intramuscular injection of normal saline at the same time). Blood samples were taken from all of the calves instantly after birth and at 7, 14, 21, 28, and 90 days of age. Duration of treatment for diseases, body weight, height, and length were measured at each sampling time to evaluate growth and health. The results indicated that age (sampling time) had a significant effect (p ≤ 0.05) on the values of all measured variables except for ferric reducing ability of plasma (FRAP) amount and band neutrophil number. The treatment (group) had no significant effect on the amount of measured variables. Significant interactions between sampling time and group were found for white blood cell count (WBC), adult neutrophil, and bilirubin amounts (p ≤ 0.05). Significant higher amounts of hematocrit (HCT) and hemoglobin (Hb) at day 28 and mean corpuscular volume (MCV) at day 7 were seen in the test group compared with control group. Test group in comparison with control group had significantly lower amount of WBC at day 7; mean corpuscular hemoglobin concentration (MCHC), band neutrophils, and lymphocytes at day 14; and number of platelets at day 28. Growth and total weight gain and mean daily gain had no significant differences between the two groups. The duration of treatment for pneumonia and diarrhea was not significantly different between trial groups. The results show that parenterally administration of iron to newborn calves had no effect on improving erythropoiesis, performance, thyroid metabolism, oxidative/antioxidative situation, and health of dairy calves.

Effect of a single, oral administration of selenitetriglycerides, at two dose rates, on blood selenium status and haematological and biochemical parameters in Holstein-Friesian calves

BACKGROUND

Selenitetriglycerides are biologically active, organic forms of selenium formed as a result of the modification of selenic acid and sunflower oil. Studies in rats have shown that they are well absorbed and of low toxicity. There are no published studies on selenitetriglycerides supplementation in calves.

RESULTS

In this study, selenitetriglycerides were administered once orally on the 2nd day of life at a dose of 0.5 or 1 mg Se/kg body weight to each of six Holstein-Friesian calves while six control calves were not supplemented. Blood for determination of selenium concentration, glutathione peroxidase activity, haematological parameters, aspartate aminotransferase, creatine kinase, and lactate dehydrogenase activities and glucose, total protein, albumin, triglycerides, cholesterol, urea, and creatinine concentration was collected before supplementation (day 0) and 1, 2, 5, 10 and 14 days after supplementation. Selenitetriglycerides administration increased (P < 0.01) serum selenium concentration in supplemented calves as early as day1, from a mean of 63.4 to 184.22 µg/l in calves receiving selenium at a dose of 0.5 mg/kg BW, and from 63.17 to 200.33 µg/l in calves receiving 1 mg/kg. Serum selenium concentrations remained significantly higher compared to the control group throughout the experiment. Glutathione peroxidase activity was higher in supplemented than control calves, significantly so in animals receiving the 1 mg/kg dose of Se on the 10th and 14th days (P < 0.05). There were no significant differences in the haematological and biochemical parameters between the groups.

CONCLUSIONS

This experiment showed that supplementation with selenitetriglycerides could significantly improve blood selenium status in calves without adverse effects on haematological or biochemical parameters. These findings are essential prerequisites for future studies on selenitetriglycerides supplementation to manage clinical selenium deficiency in calves.

Case Report: A Possible Case of Congenital Erythropoietic Porphyria in a Gir Calf: A Clinical, Pathological, and Molecular Approach

Congenital erythropoietic porphyria (CEP) is a rare hereditary autosomal recessive disease which has never been reported in Zebu cattle. A 3-day-old Gir calf showed teeth discoloration, fever, dehydration, and dyspnea. The main gross findings were pink-colored teeth, red-brown periosteum and bone marrow, and a fluorescent bright pink coloration of the bone marrow and articular surfaces under ultraviolet light. Aggregates of periodic acid-Schiff (PAS)-stained porphyrin pigments were evident in the lungs, kidneys, and the liver. An intron 8 single-nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) in both the Gir calf and control animals, along with the absence of the uroporphyrin III synthetase (UROS) gene mutation, was observed. Most SNPs were located in the intron regions of the UROS gene without relevance for CEP. A continuous loss of genetic variability and an increase in inbreeding in some herds may be related to CEP in Gir cattle, one of the most prominent Zebu breeds worldwide. In summary, this study describes a presumptive case of CEP in a Gir calf based on clinical and pathological findings. A definitive diagnosis would require the measurement of porphyrin levels in blood, urine, or tissues or the identification of UROS gene defects.

Supplementation of lysolecithin in milk replacer for Holstein dairy calves: Effects on growth performance, health, and metabolites

Lysolecithin is an antiinflammatory emulsifier associated with improved apparent digestibility of total dietary fat and improved feed efficiency in dairy cattle. However, it is unknown if lysolecithin (LYSO) improves performance in calves. Moreover, since many conventional milk replacers use vegetable-sourced fat (e.g., palm oil), nutrient absorption and fecal score may be affected in neonatal calves. Thus, the objective of this study was to evaluate the effects of LYSO supplemented in milk replacer on performance, metabolites, and gut health of preweaned dairy calves. Holstein calves (n = 32) with adequate passive transfer were assigned in pairs (16 blocks) balanced by birth weight, date of birth, and sex at 1 d of age to randomly receive either LYSO (mixed in 2 milk replacer feedings at a rate of 4 g/d Lysoforte, Kemin Industries Inc., Des Moines, IA) or a milk replacer control (nothing added). Both treatments were fed 6 L/d milk replacer [22.5% crude protein, 16.2% crude fat (vegetable oil fat source) on a dry matter basis with 14% solids] by bucket in 2 daily feedings for 56 d. Calves were individually housed in wooden hutches and offered a commercial calf starter (24.6% crude protein and 13.9% neutral detergent fiber) and water by bucket ad libitum. Feed refusals and calf health was assessed daily. Weights and blood metabolites (glucose, total serum protein, albumin, creatinine, triglycerides, and cholesterol) were sampled weekly, and calves completed the study before weaning at 56 d of age. The effects of LYSO on calf average daily gain, feed efficiency, and blood metabolites were evaluated using a linear mixed model with time as a repeated measure, calf as the subject, and block as a random effect in SAS (SAS Institute Inc., Cary, NC). The effect of LYSO to improve the odds of abnormal fecal score was evaluated using a logistic model. Supplementation of LYSO increased average daily gain (control 0.28 ± 0.03 kg; LYSO 0.37 ± 0.03 kg; least squares means ± standard error of the mean) and increased feed efficiency (gain-to-feed; control 0.25 ± 0.03; LYSO 0.32 ± 0.03). Similarly, LYSO calves had a higher final body weight at d 56 (control 52.11 ± 2.33 kg; LYSO 56.73 ± 2.33 kg). Interestingly, total dry matter intake was not associated with LYSO despite improved average daily gain (total dry matter intake control 1,088.7 ± 27.62 g; total dry matter intake LYSO 1,124.8 ± 27.62 g). Blood glucose, albumin, creatinine, triglycerides, and cholesterol were not associated with LYSO. Indeed, only total serum protein had a significant interaction with LYSO and age at wk 5 and 6. Moreover, control calves had a 13.57 (95% confidence interval: 9.25-19.90) times greater odds of having an abnormal fecal score on any given day during the diarrhea risk period from d 1 to 28. The inclusion of LYSO as an additive in milk replacer in a dose of 4 g/d may improve performance, and calf fecal score, preweaning. Further research should investigate the mechanisms behind the effects of LYSO on fat digestibility in calves fed 6 L/d of milk replacer with vegetable-sourced fat.

Observational Study on Variation of Longitudinal Platelet Counts in Calves over the First 14 Days of Life and Reference Intervals from Cross-Sectional Platelet and Leukocyte Counts in Dairy Calves up to Two Months of Age

Simple Summary

To define a healthy animal in an experimental setting or to differentiate and backup a diagnosis in cattle practice, reference intervals (RIs) in haematology diagnostics are necessary. The RIs in calves for blood cell counts, such as platelets and white blood cells, differ from RIs in adult cattle and are not widely studied. Blood results from dairy calves in the Netherlands were used to study the variation in platelet counts in young calves and to calculate an RI for platelet and white blood cell counts. In new-born calves up to six days of age, platelet counts were lower than in calves older than five days. From six days of age until 60 days of age we propose an RI platelet count of 287–1372 × 10⁹/L and for the first 60 days of life an RI for leukocyte count of 4.0–18.9 × 10⁹/L.

Abstract

Platelet and leukocyte count reference intervals (RIs) for cattle differ by age and while adult RIs are known, RIs for calves are studied less. The aims of this observational study are to evaluate variation of platelet counts of Holstein Friesian calves over the first 14 days of life and to propose RIs for platelet and leukocyte counts of Holstein Friesian calves aged 0–60 days. In a longitudinal study, 19 calves were blood sampled 17 times, in the first 14 days of their lives. Blood was collected in a citrate blood tube and platelet counts were determined. We assessed the course of platelet counts. In a field study, 457 healthy calves were blood sampled once. Blood was collected in an EDTA blood tube and platelet and leukocyte counts were determined. The RIs were calculated by the 2.5 and 97.5 percentiles. Platelet counts started to increase 24 h after birth (mean platelet count 381 × 10⁹/L ± 138 × 10⁹/L) and stabilized after five days (mean platelet count 642 × 10⁹/L ± 265 × 10⁹/L). In calves up to six days of age, platelet counts were lower than in calves older than five days. In conclusion, the RIs of platelet and leukocyte counts in calves were wider in range than the RIs for adult cattle, therefore, calf specific RIs for platelet and leukocyte counts should be used. From 6 until 60 days of age, we propose an RI for platelet counts of 287–1372 × 10⁹/L and for the first 60 days of life an RI for leukocyte counts of 4.0–18.9 × 10⁹/L.

24-h variations of blood serum metabolites in high yielding dairy cows and calves

BACKGROUND

Blood profile testing is commonly used to monitor herd health status, diagnose disorders, and predict the risk of diseases in cows and calves, with subsequent optimization the production of dairy herds. By understanding the physiological ranges of serum metabolites relative to age, lactation stage, and the sampling time in healthy cows and calves, the dairy practitioners can accurately diagnose abnormalities with a blood test. The effect of sampling time on the variation of serum metabolites within 24 h were evaluated in 83 cattle. All animals were originated from a dairy herd, where the animals, based on their ages and lactation stages, were classified into eight groups. The blood samples were collected from each animal every 4 h within a day.

RESULTS

The time of sampling within the day showed significant influences on the serum concentrations of glucose, β-hydroxybutyric acid (BHBA) and urea. BHBA was the most metabolite that showed day variation among cows' groups. Furthermore, the concentrations of total cholesterol were the most stable metabolite in all groups. The mean values of albumin, total proteins, glucose, non-esterified fatty acids (NEFA), BHBA, total cholesterol, total bilirubin, urea, and creatinine revealed significant variations among the different studied groups.

CONCLUSIONS

A certain suitable time of blood sample collection cannot be recommended. However, care shall be taken for the time of sampling for measurements of glucose, NEFA, BHBA and urea, otherwise the comparative values of these metabolites at different sampling time points may differ significantly from each other's, without a disease cause. It may be recommended, for metabolic assessment of dairy herds, classification the subjects into different groups based on lactation stages and ages of animals.

Review: Importance of colostrum supply and milk feeding intensity on gastrointestinal and systemic development in calves

Feeding management of the postnatal and preweaning calf has an important impact on calf growth and development during this critical period and affects the health and well-being of the calves. After birth, an immediate and sufficient colostrum supply is a prerequisite for successful calf rearing. Colostrum provides high amounts of nutrient as well as non-nutrient factors that promote the immune system and intestinal maturation of the calf. The maturation and function of the neonatal intestine enable the calf to digest and absorb the nutrients provided by colostrum and milk. Therefore, colostrum intake supports the start of anabolic processes in several tissues, stimulating postnatal body growth and organ development. After the colostrum feeding period, an intensive milk feeding protocol, that is, at least 20% of BW milk intake/day, is required to realise the calf potential for growth and organ development during the preweaning period. Insufficient milk intake delays postnatal growth and may have detrimental effects on organ development, for example, the intestine and the mammary gland. The somatotropic axis as the main postnatal endocrine regulatory system for body growth is stimulated by the intake of high amounts of colostrum and milk and indicates the promotion of anabolic metabolism in calves. The development of the forestomach is an important issue during the preweaning period in calves, and forestomach maturation is best achieved by solid feed intake. Unfortunately, intensive milk-feeding programmes compromise solid feed intake during the first weeks of life. In the more natural situation for beef calves, when milk and solid feed intake occurs at the same time, calves benefit from the high milk intake as evidenced by enhanced body growth and organ maturation without impaired forestomach development during weaning. To realise an intensive milk-feeding programme, it is recommended that the weaning process should not start too early and that solid feed intake should be at a high extent despite intensive milk feeding. A feeding concept based on intensive milk feeding prevents hunger and abnormal behaviour of the calves and fits the principles of animal welfare during preweaning calf rearing. Studies on milk performance in dairy cows indicate that feeding management during early calf rearing influences lifetime performance. Therefore, an intensive milk-feeding programme affects immediate as well as long-term performance, probably by programming metabolic pathways during the preweaning period.

Feeding colostrum or a 1:1 colostrum:milk mixture for 3 days postnatal increases small intestinal development and minimally influences plasma glucagon-like peptide-2 and serum insulin-like growth factor-1 concentrations in Holstein bull calves

This study evaluated how feeding colostrum- or a colostrum-milk mixture for 3 d postnatal affects plasma glucagon-like peptide-2 (GLP-2), serum insulin-like growth factor-1 (IGF-1), and small intestinal histomorphology in calves. Holstein bulls (n = 24) were fed colostrum at 2 h postnatal and randomly assigned to receive either colostrum (COL), whole milk (WM), or a 1:1 COL:WM mixture (MIX) every 12 h from 12 to 72 h. A jugular venous catheter was placed at 1 h postnatal to sample blood frequently for the duration of the experiment. Samples were collected at 1, 2, 3, 6, 9, 11, and 12 h. Following the 12-h meal, blood was collected at half-hour intervals until 16 h and then at 1-h intervals from 16 to 24 h. A 27-h sample was taken, then blood was sampled every 6 h from 30 to 60 h. Again, blood was taken at half-intervals from 60 to 64 h, then at 65 and 66 h, following which, a 2-h sampling interval was used until 72 h. Plasma GLP-2 (all time points) and serum IGF-1 (at time points: 1, 6, 12, 18, 24, 36, 48, and 72 h) were both analyzed. Duodenal, jejunal, and ileal tissues were collected at 75 h of age to assess histomorphology and cellular proliferation. Feeding COL, rather than WM, increased plasma GLP-2 by 60% for 2 h and tended to increase GLP-2 by 49.4% for 4 h after the 60-h meal. Insulin-like growth factor-1 area under the curve (from 12 to 72 h) tended to be 27% greater for COL than WM calves but was otherwise unaffected by treatment. Ileal crypts tended to proliferate more with MIX than WM, whereas ileal crypt proliferation did not differ for COL compared with MIX or WM and was not different between treatments in the proximal jejunum. Villi height was increased 1.8 and 1.5× (COL and MIX vs. WM) in the proximal and distal jejunum, respectively, whereas MIX duodenal and ileal villi height tended to be 1.5 and 1.4× that of WM. Crypt depth did not differ in any region. Surface area of the gastrointestinal tract was reduced for WM by 60 and 58% (proximal jejunum) and 38 and 52% (ileum) relative to COL and MIX and was 54% less than MIX in the distal jejunum. Overall, extended COL feeding minimally increased plasma GLP-2 and serum IGF-1 compared with WM feeding. As COL and MIX similarly promoted small intestinal maturation, feeding calves transition milk to promote intestinal development could be a strategy for producers.

Colostrum-supplemented transition milk positively affects serum biochemical parameters, humoral immunity indicators and the growth performance of calves

The aim of this study was to determine the effect of colostrum-supplemented transition milk on the growth rate of newborn calves. Thirty-six day-old female Holstein calves with a birth weight of 43.4 ± 5.5 kg were randomly assigned to a treatment group and a control group. On day 1, all calves received one portion (3 kg) of colostrum within 2 h after birth. Between the second feeding and the age of 5 days, control calves received only transition milk that had been collected from dams shortly before feeding, and the treatment group received 1.5 kg of colostrum collected from dams on day 1 and 1.5 kg of transition milk from subsequent milkings. Monthly body weight and average daily gain were used to measure growth performance. Blood samples were collected from the jugular vein at multiple time points to evaluate the biochemical and immune status of calves. Colostrum-supplemented transition milk increased the concentrations of serum immunoglobulins, triacylglycerols, cholesterol and total protein. The activity of lactate-dehydrogenase and ceruloplasmin decreased, whereas lysozyme activity increased with time in the control group. It can be concluded that additional five days of colostrum feeding positively influences non-specific humoral immunity indicators and serum biochemical parameters in dairy calves.

Changes of the erythrocyte phenotype and blood biochemistry in dairy calves during the first ten weeks of age

Background

Bovine erythrocytes undergo important changes in their morphology and chemical composition during the first weeks of age, which must be understood to accurately interpret hematology results in calves. The objectives of this prospective cohort study were to describe physiological changes of calf erythrocytes and to investigate mechanisms potentially causing these changes.

Methods

Blood samples from 30 clinically healthy dairy calves were obtained from birth to the tenth week of age in weekly intervals. Hematological and plasma biochemical parameters as well as the mineral electrolyte content of erythrocytes were determined and followed over time. The changes of parameters characterizing the erythrocyte phenotype over time were compared to the changes of plasma and erythrocyte biochemical parameters and possible associations were investigated using correlation and stepwise regression analyses.

Results

Although the erythrocyte mean corpuscular volume (MCV) declined from 43.6 ± 3.7 fL to 35.6 ± 3.2 fL between the first and seventh week, the red blood cell count (RBC) increased from 7.2 ± 1.1 × 10¹²/L to 9.3 ± 1.0 × 10¹²/L until the fifth week of age. The blood hemoglobin (Hb) concentration increased from 0.96 ± 0.16 g/L to 1.16 ± 0.11 g/L in the first three weeks of age and remained at this level until the end of the study. Changes in MCV were accompanied by a decline of the erythrocyte potassium content (K_ERY) from 91.9 ± 13.5 to 24.6 ± 7.2 mmol/L and a concomitant increase of the erythrocyte sodium content from 45.0 ± 32.0 to 102.7 ± 26.5 mmol/L. MCV was found to be associated with K_ERY, the primary determinant of the intra-erythrocyte osmotic pressure from the sixth week of age and with blood hemoglobin, the primary determinant of the intra-erythrocyte oncotic pressure from the eighth week of age, when K_ERY, blood Hb and MCV already had reached or approached normal levels of adult cattle. The plasma iron concentration was not found to be associated to any of the studied hematological parameters.

Conclusion

A volume reduction of 20% in bovine neonatal erythrocytes is a physiological change occurring during the first weeks of age and is neither associated with sideropenia nor with anemia in healthy calves. The mechanism driving the observed erythrocyte volume change could not be identified. Results of the correlation and regression analyses indicate that changes in intra-erythrocyte osmotic or oncotic pressure are improbable underlying causes. Results reported here show that K_ERY is an unreliable indicator for the K homeostasis of the intracellular space in neonatal calves and that a decrease in MCV in early life per-se is an unreliable indicator for the development of microcytic anemia.

Effects of ad libitum milk replacer feeding and butyrate supplementation on the epithelial growth and development of the gastrointestinal tract in Holstein calves

Intensive milk feeding and butyrate supplementation in calves stimulate body growth and affect gastrointestinal development. The aim of the present study was to investigate the synergistic effects of ad libitum milk replacer (MR) feeding and butyrate supplementation of MR on rumen and small intestinal growth and on gene expression in the small intestine related to growth and energy metabolism at weaning. Male Holstein calves (n = 32) received colostrum from birth to d 3 of age and MR either ad libitum (Adl) or restrictively (Res; 6 L of MR/d; 12.5% solids) with (AdlB+, ResB+) or without (AdlB-, ResB-) 0.24% butyrate from d 4 until wk 8 of age. From wk 9 to 10, all calves were weaned and were fed 2 L/d until the end of the trial. Concentrate, hay, and water were freely available. At d 80, calves were slaughtered, volatile fatty acids were measured in rumen fluid, and rumen and small intestine samples were taken for histomorphometric measurements. The expression of mRNA associated with the local insulin-like growth factor (IGF) system and glucose metabolism as well as lactase and maltase activities were measured in the intestinal mucosa. The small intestine was 3 m longer in Adl than in Res. In the atrium ruminis, papilla width was greater in Res than in Adl. Villus circumference, cut surface, and height in the duodenum, proximal jejunum, and ileum were greater in Adl than in Res and in the proximal, mid, and distal jejunum and ileum were greater in calves treated with butyrate. Crypt depth in the duodenum and proximal jejunum was greater in Adl than in Res and in the ileum was smaller in calves treated with butyrate. The villus height:crypt depth ratio was greatest in AdlB+ calves. In the proximal and mid jejunum, IGF1 mRNA abundance was lower in calves treated with butyrate. In the proximal jejunum, INSR mRNA abundance was greater in Res than in Adl. The abundance of PCK2 mRNA was greater in Res than in Adl in the duodenum and was greatest in ResB- in the mid jejunum. Lactase activity tended to be greater in Res than in Adl and after butyrate treatment in the proximal jejunum. The results indicated an elevated growth of the small intestinal mucosa at weaning due to intensive milk feeding and butyrate supplementation, and the local IGF system was involved in intestinal growth regulation. Rumen development was not affected by butyrate supplementation of MR and was slightly delayed due to ad libitum MR feeding.

Age-Related Serum Biochemical Reference Intervals Established for Unweaned Calves and Piglets in the Post-weaning Period

The purpose of the present study is to establish the influence of age on serum biochemistry reference intervals (RIs) for unweaned calves and recently-weaned piglets using large number of animals sampled at different ages from populations under different season trials. Specifically, milk replacer (MR)-fed calves from April-July 2017 (n = 60); from December 2016-March 2017 (n = 76) and from April-August 2018 (n = 57) and one group of healthy weaned piglets (n = 72) were subjected to the study. Serum enzymes and metabolites of calves at age of 24 h (24 h after colostrum intake), 2, 5, and 7 weeks from merged trials and piglets at 0, 7, and 14 days post-weaning (at 21, 28, and 35 days of age) were studied. The main variable is age whereas no major trial- or sex-biased differences were noticed. In calves, ALT, AST, GGT, GPx, SOD, NEFAs, triglycerides, glucose, creatinine, total protein, and urea were greatly elevated (p < 0.001) at 24 h compared with other ages; glucose, creatinine, total protein, and urea constantly decreased through the age; cholesterol's lowest level (p < 0.001) was found in 24 h compared with other ages and the levels of haptoglobin remained unchanged (p > 0.1) during the study. In comparison with the adult RIs, creatinine from 24 h, NEFAs from 2 w, GGT from 5 w, and urea from 7 w are fully comparable with RIs or lie within RIs determined for adult. In piglets, no changes were noticed on glucose (p > 0.1) and haptoglobin (p > 0.1) and there were no major changes on hepatic enzymes (ALT, AST, and GGT), total protein, creatinine and urea even though several statistical differences were noticed on 7 days post-weaning. Cholesterol, triglycerides, NEFAs, cortisol and PigMAP were found increased (p < 0.05) while TNF-alpha was found less concentrated (p < 0.001) at 0 days post-weaning compared with other times. Moreover, the RIs of creatinine and GGT are fully comparable with RIs or lie within RIs determined for adult. In conclusion, clinical biochemistry analytes RIs were established for unweaned calves and recently-weaned piglets and among them some can vary at different ages.

Quantifying subclinical trauma associated with calving difficulty, vigour, and passive immunity in newborn beef calves

This cross-sectional study quantifies subclinical trauma associated with calving difficulty, calf vigour, and passive immunity (PI) in newborn beef calves. The degree of calving difficulty was categorised as: unassisted, easy assist (one or two people manually pulling to deliver the calf) and difficult assist (more than two people pulling, a fetal extractor (ie, calf jack), or caesarean section). Vigour assessment occurred at 10 minutes and blood sampling at 24 hours after birth in 77 beef calves. The measured blood parameters associated with trauma were creatine kinase (CK), aspartate aminotransferase (AST), and haptoglobin. Serum IgG concentration was measured, and an IgG concentration at least 24 g/l was considered as adequate PI. Calving difficulty was associated with elevated levels of CK (P=0.002) and AST (P=0.01), weak suckle reflex (P=0.001), abnormal mucous membrane colour (P<0.0001), and decreased odds of adequate PI (P=0.004). Elevated levels of CK and AST were associated with abnormal mucous membrane colour, incomplete tongue withdrawal and weak suckle reflex at birth (P<0.001). An incomplete tongue withdrawal (P=0.005) and weak suckle reflex (P=0.02) were associated with decreased IgG concentrations. Abnormal mucous membrane colour, incomplete tongue withdrawal, and a weak suckle reflex were associated with decreased odds of having adequate PI (P<0.05). Haptoglobin was not associated with any of the parameters measured. Subclinical trauma was associated with calving difficulty, decreased vigour and decreased odds of having adequate PI. Understanding the impacts of a traumatic birth may aid the development of management strategies for compromised newborn beef calves.

Applicability of the Protein-lipid Profile and Activity of Lactate Dehydrogenase Isoenzymes for Diagnosing Nutritional Muscular Dystrophy in Calves

INTRODUCTION

In calves, hyposelenosis degenerates skeletal muscles in different parts of the body. The extent of damage to muscle cells can be diagnosed by determining the activity of creatine kinase (CK), aspartate aminotransferase (AST), and lactate dehydrogenase (LDH). The aim of this study was to analyse variations in the serum levels of LDH isoenzymes in calves with nutritional muscular dystrophy (NMD), to determine the applicability of this parameter for diagnosing NMD, and to describe the influence of hyposelenosis on total protein (TP), triglyceride (TG), and cholesterol (CHOL) levels.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

Two groups of calves (n = six animals per group) were used. After birth, control group calves (SC) were intramuscularly administered 10 ml of a preparation containing selenium (Se) and vitamin E, and experimental group animals (SE) that were not injected. Blood was collected after 5, 15, and 25 days, and the concentrations of Se, vitamin E, TP, TG, and CHOL and the activity of glutathione peroxidase (GSH-Px), CK, and LDH fractions were determined.

RESULTS

Hypocholesterolaemia and elevated TG levels were found in SE group calves whose LDH fractions revealed a significant increase in LDH4 and LDH5 activity and a decrease in LDH1 activity when electrophoretically separated.

CONCLUSION

Nutritional muscular dystrophy is accompanied by hypocholesterolaemia and elevated TG levels caused by muscle lipolysis. LDH4 and LDH5 activity parameters assist early diagnosis of NMD in calves.

Discovery of urinary biomarkers to discriminate between exogenous and semi-endogenous thiouracil in cattle: A parallel-like randomized design

In the European Union, the use of thyreostats for animal fattening purposes has been banned and monitoring plans have been established to detect potential abuse. However, this is not always straightforward as thyreostats such as thiouracil may also have a semi-endogenous origin. Therefore, this study aimed at defining urinary metabolites, which may aid in defining the origin of detected thiouracil. Hereto, a parallel-like randomized in vivo study was conducted in which calves (n = 8) and cows (n = 8) were subjected to either a control treatment, rapeseed-enriched diet to induce semi-endogenous formation, or thiouracil treatment. Urine samples (n = 330) were assessed through metabolic fingerprinting, employing liquid-chromatography and Q-Exactive^TM Orbitrap mass spectrometry. Urinary fingerprints comprised up to 40,000 features whereby multivariate discriminant analysis was able to point out significant metabolome differences between treatments (Q²(Y) ≥ 0.873). Using the validated models, a total of twelve metabolites (including thiouracil) were assigned marker potential. Combining these markers into age-dependent biomarker panels rendered a tool by which sample classification could be improved in comparison with thiouracil-based thresholds, and this during on-going thiouracil treatment (specificities ≥ 95.2% and sensitivities ≥ 85.7%), post-treatment (sensitivities ≥ 80% for ≥ 24 h after last administration), and simulated low-dose thiouracil treatment (exogenous thiouracil below 30 ng μL^-1). Moreover, the metabolic relevance of revealed markers was supported by the suggested identities, for which a structural link with thiouracil could be determined in most cases. The proposed biomarker panels may contribute to a more justified decision-making in monitoring thiouracil abuse.

Establishing blood gas ranges in healthy bovine neonates differentiated by age, sex, and breed type

Calf mortality and morbidity commonly occurs within the first month of life postpartum. Standard health ranges are invaluable aids in diagnostic veterinary medicine to confirm normal or the degree and nature of abnormal parameters in (sub)clinically ill animals. Extensive research has indicated significant differences between the physiologies of neonate and adult cattle, particularly for blood parameters such as pH, base excess, anion gap, and bicarbonate (HCO₃^-). The objective of this research was to determine the influence of age, sex, and breed type, in addition to environmental factors, on the normal blood gas profiles of neonatal calves, and thus develop a scientifically validated reference range accounting for any significant factors. The study was conducted on healthy neonatal calves (n = 288), and completed over a 2-yr period. Individual calf blood gas analysis was conducted for parameters of pH, base excess, Na⁺, K⁺, Ca²⁺, Cl^-, glucose, total hemoglobin, HCO₃^-, pCO₂, anion gap, strong ion difference, and hematocrit levels. Regression procedures examined the combined effect of year, farm, age, breed type, sex, and hours postfeeding on each variable. Significant effects were observed for age, sex, and breed type on several of the blood gas variables. Furthermore, year, farm, and hours postfeeding appeared to have less of an influence on neonatal bovine blood gas profiles. Consequently, specific ranges based on the neonate's age, sex, and breed type will allow for more detailed and accurate diagnosis of health and ill health in neonatal calves.

Effect of suckler cow vaccination against glycoprotein E (gE)-negative bovine herpesvirus type 1 (BoHV-1) on passive immunity and physiological response to subsequent bovine respiratory disease vaccination of their progeny

The study objectives were: 1) to characterise the development of immunocompetence in beef suckler calves from birth to three months of age, and 2) to trace glycoprotein E (gE)-negative bovine herpesvirus type 1 (BoHV-1) antibodies from dam to calf and subsequent vaccination against pneumonia. Thirty multiparous beef suckler, spring-calving cows, consisting of two genotypes were involved; Limousin × Friesian (LF) and Charolais × Limousin (CL). Cows were immunised against the inactivated antigen strain of BoHV-1 (gE- (IBR marker vaccine) at day − 84 and received a booster at day − 56 relative to the expected calving date (d 0). Calves were immunised at 14 and 42 days of age against PI-3 virus, BRSV and Mannheimia (Pasteurella) haemolytica serotype A1 using a commercial vaccine administered subcutaneously. Additionally, calves were immunised against BoHV-1 at 42 days of age, using 1 dose of a live commercial vaccine administered intranasally. Blood samples were collected from all calves (n = 30) via jugular venipuncture at birth, prior to colostrum feeding (0 h), at 12 h (h), 24 h, 72 h and 168 h after the initial feeding of colostrum, and at d 7, 14, 28, 42, 56 and 84 post birth. The mean ratio of gE negative antibodies circulating in the blood of LF and CL dams pre-partum scored negative to gE ab (S/N ≥ 0.70). Antibody levels of BoHV-1 (wild type (wt)) peaked at 12 h post-birth in calves and declined thereafter, as the maternal antibodies decayed. There was no difference in BoHV-1 and BRSV antibody levels in calves post vaccination.

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Greater decrease in cow serum IgG concentration in LF cows than CL cows pre-partum.

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Progeny of LF cows have a greater pre-weaning ADG than the progeny of CL cows.

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Maternally derived antibodies affects response to vaccination in suckled beef calves.

Effect of supplementing milk replacer with aromatic oregano (Oreganum onites L.) water on performance, immunity and general health profiles of Holstein calves

The purpose of this study was to examine the effects of supplementing milk replacer (MR) with aromatic oregano (Origanum onite L.) water on weaning age, performance during the pre- and post-weaning periods, immune systems, blood parameters and general health of 40 Holstein Friesian calves. The calves fed with oregano water (OW)-supplemented MR were weaned earlier than those in the Control group. There were no statistical differences in the liveweight and body measurements among the groups at the weaning age and post-weaning period. The feed intake of the calves fed with OW was higher than that of calves in the Control group in the pre-weaning period. The OW supplementation significantly increased the faecal firmness of calves (P < 0.05). It also decreased the number of E. coli, Coliforms and Enterobacteriaceae pathogens, but only the amount of Enterobacteriaceae was significantly decreased (P < 0.05). Non-pathogens, such as Lactic acid bacteria, were not affected by OW supplementation. The OW supplementation had no significant effect on hematologic and biochemical blood values. There was significant interaction between age and groups in gamma-glutamyl transpeptidase (P < 0.05). The immunoglobulins (IgA, IgG and IgM) values of calves were steadily higher than those of the calves in the Control group. The general health profiles of the calves improved. It can be concluded that MR containing 1–2% OW fed to calves in the early weaning period is a promising treatment to improve their wellbeing and shorten the weaning period.

Relationships between oxidative stress, haematology and iron profile in anaemic and non-anaemic calves

The aim of this study was to investigate the relationships between oxidative stress, haematology and iron profile in neonatal dairy calves. Serum and haemolysate malondialdehyde (MDA), serum total antioxidant capacity, thiol groups, iron, total iron binding capacity, transferrin saturation and red blood cell (RBC) parameters were assessed in two groups: anaemic calves (n=14) and non-anaemic calves (n=16). Blood samples were collected from all of the calves within 24-48 hours after birth and at 7, 14, 21 and 28 days of age. A significant decrease in serum iron amount and transferrin saturation value (P<0.05) and a significant increase in haemolysate MDA concentration (P<0.05) in the anaemic calves were observed, when compared with non-anaemic calves. Total antioxidant capacity and thiol groups showed a significant positive correlation with iron profile and RBC parameters (haematocrit and haemoglobin) in the anaemic calves at day 21 (P<0.05). On the other hand, the concentration of haemolysate MDA was inversely correlated with the value of serum total antioxidant capacity (P<0.05). The results of the present study revealed that anaemic calves showed more severe oxidative stress than non-anaemic calves. In addition, iron insufficiency may be linked to the impairment of antioxidant defence system and oxidative damage of erythrocytes in the neonatal calves.

Ad libitum milk replacer feeding, but not butyrate supplementation, affects growth performance as well as metabolic and endocrine traits in Holstein calves

The enhanced growth performance of calves fed a higher plane of nutrition pre-weaning is well documented, and the effect of butyrate on the development of the gastrointestinal tract in calves has been evaluated. The aim of this study was to examine the synergistic effects of ad libitum milk replacer (MR) feeding and butyrate supplementation on growth performance and energy metabolism in calves. Sixty-four (32 male, 32 female) Holstein calves were examined from birth until wk 11 of life. Calves received MR either ad libitum (Adl) or restrictively (Res) with (AdlB+, ResB+) or without (AdlB-, ResB-) 0.24% butyrate supplementation. Colostrum and transition milk were fed in predefined amounts (Res or Adl) for the first 3 d postpartum. Ad libitum and restrictive MR feeding with or without butyrate was performed from d 4 until wk 8 of age. From wk 9 to 10, all calves were gradually weaned and were fed 2 L/d until the end of the trial. Concentrate (CON), hay, and water were freely available. Intakes of MR and CON were measured daily. Calves were weighed at birth and weekly thereafter. Blood was drawn on d 1 before the first colostrum intake; on d 2, 4, and 7; and weekly thereafter until the end of the study to measure plasma concentrations of metabolites and hormones. Liver samples were taken at d 50 and at the end of the study to determine gene expression related to glucose metabolism. Milk, MR, and total nutrient intake were greater, but CON intake was lower in Adl than in Res calves, resulting in a greater body weight, but partially lower gain to feed ratio in Adl than in Res. Plasma concentrations of glucose and insulin were higher during the ad libitum milk-feeding period, whereas plasma β-hydroxybutyrate was lower in Adl than in Res. Plasma concentrations of nonesterified fatty acids, lactate, total bilirubin, and cortisol were lower, but triglyceride and cholesterol concentrations were higher in Adl than in Res at specific time points. Feed intake, growth performance, and metabolic and endocrine changes were insignificantly affected by butyrate, and hepatic gene expression of enzymes related to endogenous glucose production was barely influenced by ad libitum MR feeding and butyrate supplementation. Intensive MR feeding indicated greater stimulation of growth and anabolic metabolism, but butyrate supplementation did not further improve postnatal growth or anabolic processes either in intensive or restrictive MR-fed calves.

Effects of feeding untreated, pasteurized and acidified waste milk and bunk tank milk on the performance, serum metabolic profiles, immunity, and intestinal development in Holstein calves

BACKGROUND

The present experiment was performed to assess the effects of different sources of milk on the growth performance, serum metabolism, immunity, and intestinal development of calves. Eighty-four Holstein male neonatal calves were assigned to one of the following four treatment groups: those that received bunk tank milk (BTM), untreated waste milk (UWM), pasteurized waste milk (PWM), and acidified waste milk (AWM) for 21 d.

RESULTS

Calves in the BTM and AWM groups consumed more starter (P < 0.05) than those in the UWM group. Average daily gain in the UWM group was the highest (P < 0.05). Calves exhibited the highest (P < 0.05) serum total protein, albumin, total cholesterol, high density lipoprotein, triglycerides, growth hormone, immunoglobulin (Ig) A and IgM concentrations in the UWM group, highest malondialdehyde and tumor necrosis factor-α in the PWM group (P < 0.05), and highest glutathione peroxidase and IgG in the BTM group (P < 0.05). The jejunum and ileum of the calves in all treatments presented a slight inflammatory response. The jejunal inflammation scores were higher (P < 0.05) in the UWM and AWM groups than the BTM group; the ileal inflammation scores increased more (P < 0.05) in the AWM group than the BTM group. Jejunal immunohistochemical scores (IHS) were higher (P < 0.05) in the PWM and AWM groups than the BTM group. Compared to the other three groups, calves feeding on BTM had lower (P < 0.05) ileal IHS. Jejunal interleukin(IL)-1β, IL-8, and IL-10 mRNA expression in the UWM group was the highest (P < 0.05). Calves fed AWM increased (P < 0.05) mRNA expression of IL-8 and toll like receptor 4 (TLR-4) in the jejunum and IL-8, IL-1β, IL-6, IL-8, and IL-10 in the mesenteric lymph nodes.

CONCLUSIONS

Overall, bunk tank milk is the best choice for calf raising compared to waste milk. The efficiency of feeding pasteurized and acidified waste milk are comparable, and the acidification of waste milk is an acceptable labor-saving and diarrhea-preventing feed for young calves.

Effects of Feeding Milk Replacer Ad Libitum or in Restricted Amounts for the First Five Weeks of Life on the Growth, Metabolic Adaptation, and Immune Status of Newborn Calves

The pre-weaning period is critical for calf health and growth, and intensive milk feeding programs may assist postnatal development by improving body growth and organ maturation. The aim of the present work was to study the effects of ad libitum milk replacer (MR) feeding on the growth, metabolic adaptation, health, and immune status of newborn calves. Twenty-eight newborn Holstein and Holstein x Charolais crossbred calves were fed ad libitum (ADLIB) or in restricted amounts (6 liters per day; RES) during the first five weeks of life. The MR intake in the ADLIB treatment was gradually reduced at weeks 6 and 7, and all calves then received 6 liters of MR per day until day 60. Blood samples were collected to measure the plasma concentrations of metabolites, insulin, insulin-like growth factor (IGF)-I and IGF binding proteins (IGFBP), immunoglobulins, and acute phase proteins. The expression of mRNA associated with both the somatotropic axis and gluconeogenic enzymes was measured in the liver on day 60. Intensive feeding improved MR intake and growth in ADLIB without influencing concentrate intake. Carcass weight, perirenal fat, and muscle mass were greater in ADLIB. Plasma concentrations of glucose, triglycerides, insulin, and IGF-I were greater, whereas plasma concentrations of β-hydroxybutyrate, total protein, albumin, urea, IGFBP-2 and -4, and fibrinogen were lower at distinct time points in ADLIB. The hepatic mRNA expression of cytosolic phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase was greater in ADLIB. Most metabolic and endocrine differences occurred during the MR feeding period, but a slightly greater concentrate intake was associated with increased plasma IGF-I and insulin at the end of the study. The immune and health status of the calves were not affected by MR feeding. However, increased plasma fibrinogen in the RES group suggested differences in the acute phase response.

Desempenho de bezerros leiteiros recebendo probiótico contendo Bacillus subtilis e Bacillus licheniformis

RESUMO Foram utilizados 24 bezerros que receberam 4L/dia de sucedâneo, além de livre acesso a água e concentrado até a 8a semana. Os animais foram distribuídos em delineamento de blocos casualizados, em dois tratamentos: 1) Controle: sem a suplementação de probiótico; 2) Suplementação de 2g/d de Bacillus subtilis e Bacillus licheniformis via sucedâneo lácteo. Semanalmente os animais foram pesados e foram aferidas as medidas corporais; também foram realizadas colheitas de sangue para determinação de glicose, proteína total, ureia e albumina, além de hematócrito. Foram colhidas amostras de fezes semanalmente para contagem de bactérias ácido láticas e enterobactérias e determinação de pH fecal. O peso corporal, o ganho de peso médio diário e as medidas corporais não foram alteradas pela suplementação; muito embora tenham apresentado efeito significativo de idade dos animais. O escore fecal, pH fecal e consumo de concentrado diário também não foram afetados pela suplementação. No entanto, o consumo de concentrado e o pH fecal sofreram influência da idade em resposta ao crescimento natural dos bezerros. A contagem de bactérias ácido láticas foi maior em número do que a contagem de enterobactérias durante todo o período. Apenas as enterobactérias sofreram efeito da idade, enquanto as bactérias ácido láticas permaneceram variando, porém dentro de um padrão constante. Os parâmetros sanguíneos também não foram afetados pela suplementação com probiótico mas todos, com a exceção da albumina, tiveram influência da idade. A suplementação com o probiótico não apresentou benefícios no desempenho ou no metabolismo de bezerros leiteiros, também não reduziu a ocorrência de casos de diarreia.

Calves sucking colostrum and milk from their dams or from an automatic feeding station starting in the neonatal period: metabolic and endocrine traits and growth performance

Metabolic and endocrine traits and growth performance from birth up to day 28 in calves sucking colostrum and milk at a computer-programmed automatic feeding station (GrA, no. = 7) were compared with calves sucking their dams (GrS, no. = 7). Body weight tended to be higher on day 28 in GrS than in GrA (74 (s.e. 4) and 70 (s.e. 2) kg, respectively; P 0·1), but not weight gain from 0 to 28 days. Intakes in GrA increased from days 1 to 4 and then remained at 11·1 (s.e. 1·0) l/day. From days 2 to 11 calves visited the automatic feeding station 9 (s.e. 1) times per day. Plasma concentrations of urea (days 3 and 21), glucagon (day 3) and growth hormone (day 3) were higher in GrA than in GrS (P < 0·05), whereas plasma concentrations of total protein (days 1 to 28), immunoglobulin G (days 1 to 28), albumin (days 1 to 14), glucose (day 3), lactate (days 1 and 28), triglycerides (day 3), cholesterol (days 21 and 28), insulin (day 3), and insulin-like growth factor-1 (day 21) were lower in GrA than in GrS (P < 0·05). Metabolic and endocrine group differences were mainly seen in week 1. However, growth performance during the first 3 weeks of life was comparable in calves of the two groups but resulted in slightly enhanced body weight (by 4 ± 3·5 kg) at the end of the 1st month of life in GrS.

Invited review: Influence of climatic conditions on the development, performance, and health of calves

The objective of this review is to provide the reader with an overview of thermoregulatory mechanisms and the influence of climatic conditions in different housing systems on the development, performance, and health of calves. Thermic stress is observed in association with extreme temperatures and large temperature variations, but other variables such as relative humidity and wind speed can also contribute to thermic stress. Thermoregulation in calves is similar to that in adult cattle, but especially dystocial calves are more prone to heat loss. Heat or cold stress results in direct economic losses because of increased calf mortality and morbidity, as well as indirect costs caused by reduced weight gain, performance, and long-term survival. The climatic conditions in a variety of housing systems, associated health problems, and strategies to mitigate thermic stress are discussed in this review. The goal of housing is to alleviate the effect of climate on calves and provide a microclimate. Adequate ventilation with fresh air is essential to reduce respiratory disease. Common practices such as raising calves in individual outdoor enclosures have been challenged lately. Recent research seeks to evaluate the suitability of group housing under practical, economic, and animal welfare considerations. Limited results for reducing thermic stress can be achieved by simple measures such as shades or shelter, but additional heat or cold stress relieving strategies can be required depending on the housing system.