Genetic and attachment influences on adolescents' regulation of autonomy and aggressiveness

Parental attachment security and problematic internet use in children: The mediating role of maladaptive cognitive emotion regulation strategies

Problematic Internet Use (PIU) is a growing problem among children. Insecure attachment has been associated with PIU and emotion dysregulation. Furthermore, there is evidence suggesting that maladaptive Cognitive Emotion Regulation Strategies (CERS), such as Self-blame, Rumination, Catastrophizing and Other-blame, lead to PIU, nevertheless, the mediating role of CERS between attachment and PIU has not been explored. A sample of 641 children (M = 10.15; SD = .89) participated in the study. The findings showed that there were significant differences between problematic and non-problematic users in terms of secure attachment and emotion dysregulation. Results show a negative association between attachment security and PIU and a negative association between attachment and maladaptive CERS, whilst maladaptive CERS were positively related with PIU. Finally, maladaptive CERS, particularly Rumination, were found to mediate the relationship between attachment security and PIU. However, Catastrophizing and Other Blame partially mediated the relationship between maternal attachment, but not the relationship between Father attachment and PIU. Limitations and implications are discussed, motivating the promotion of prevention and intervention programs.

Determinants of adherence and consequences of the transition from adolescence to adulthood among young people with severe haemophilia (TRANSHEMO): A multicentric French national observational cross-sectional study based on the FranceCoag registry

INTRODUCTION

It is necessary to gain insights into adherence to healthcare in people with severe haemophilia (PwSH), especially during the transition from paediatric to adult care, which is an important phase in lives of young people with childhood chronic disease. This adherence can be considered as a marker of successful transition.

OBJECTIVES

The main objective of the quantitative phase of the TRANSHEMO project was to compare the adherence to healthcare between adolescents and young adults (YAs) with severe haemophilia. The secondary objective was to identify the determinants (facilitators and barriers) of this adherence and associations between these determinants.

METHODS

A multicentre, observational, cross-sectional study was conducted in 2017-2019 on PwSH aged between 14 and 17 years (adolescents) or between 20 and 29 years (YAs), included in the FranceCoag registry and having completed the questionnaires. The adherence to healthcare (treatment regimens and clinical follow-up) was compared between adolescents and YAs using the chi-squared test. The determinants of this adherence were analysed by structural equation modelling.

RESULTS

There were 277 participants, 107 adolescents, and 170 YAs. The rate of adolescents adhering to healthcare was 82.2%, while the rate of YAs was 61.2% (p < .001). The barriers to the adherence to healthcare were being YA, having repeated at least one school grade and presenting mental health concerns.

CONCLUSION

Adolescents had better adherence to healthcare than YAs. According to the determinants enlightened in this project, targeted supportive strategies and adapted therapeutic education programs can be developed for young PwSH to facilitate their adherence to healthcare.

Longitudinal Influences of DRD4 Polymorphism and Early Maternal Caregiving on Personality Development and Problem Behavior in Middle Childhood and Adolescence

Most studies examining gene-environment effects on self-regulation focus on outcomes early childhood or adulthood. However, only a few studies investigate longitudinal effects during middle childhood and adolescence and compare two domains of early caregiving. In a longitudinal follow-up with a sample of N = 87, we studied the effects of differences in the DRD4 tandem repeat polymorphisms and two domains of early maternal caregiving quality on children's personality development using Block's California Child Q-Set (CCQ) at age six and age 12 and on problem behavior at ages six and seven. Early maternal regulation quality predicted later ego-resiliency and aggressiveness. In addition, significant gene-environment interactions revealed that children with the 7+ DRD4 tandem repeat polymorphism and poor maternal regulation quality in infancy showed lower scores in ego-resiliency and higher scores in ego-undercontrol and CCQ aggressiveness. In contrast, children who had experienced effective maternal regulation in infancy showed a comparable level in personality traits and problem behavior as the DRD4 7- group independent of the levels of maternal regulatory behavior. Similarly, longitudinal caregiving × DRD4 interactions were found for behavior problems in middle childhood, especially for oppositional-aggression, inattentive-hyperactivity, and social competence. Early caregiving effects were only found for maternal regulation quality, but not for maternal responsiveness. Effective early maternal regulation in infancy can moderate the negative effect of DRD4 7+ on children's self-regulation in middle childhood and adolescence. However, maternal responsiveness has no comparable effects. It seems relevant to consider several dimensions of early caregiving and to also measure the environment in more detail in gene-environment studies.

Mismatches in resident and stranger serotonin transporter genotypes lead to escalated aggression, and the target for aggression is mediated by sex differences in male and female rhesus monkeys (Macaca mulatta)

A variety of studies show that the s-allele of the serotonin transporter genotype (5-HTT) is related to aggression. However, influences of sex and 5-HTT genotype of both subject and opponent have not received as much attention in aggression research. Using a nonhuman primate model, the present study explores differences in rates of aggression exhibited by 201 group-housed male and female rhesus monkeys (Macaca mulatta; 122 females; 79 males) exposed to an unfamiliar age- and sex-matched stranger while in the presence of other same-sex members of their social group. The study also assesses whether the rates of aggression increase when the home-cage resident, the unfamiliar stimulus animal, or both possess the short (s) allele of the 5-HTT. Results showed that, when compared to females, males exhibited higher rates of physical aggression toward the stranger, and when both the male resident and the male stranger possessed the s-allele, rates of physical aggression toward the stranger increased five-fold. Resident females also engaged in higher rates of physical aggression when they possessed the s-allele, although unlike the males, their physical aggression was directed toward familiar same-sex members of their social group. The findings of this study indicate that rates of physical aggression are modulated by 5-HTT resident and stranger suggest a role of sexual competition in the phenotype of the 5-HTT genotype. Importantly, when two males with impulse deficits, as a function of the s-allele, are placed together, rates of violence exhibited by the dyad escalate substantially.

Disorganized attachment in adolescence: Emotional and physiological dysregulation during the Friends and Family Interview and a conflict interaction

The current study examined the effects of attachment on autonomy, relatedness, and emotion regulation during an attachment interview (Friends and Family Interview; FFI) and a Parent×Child Conflict interaction (Family Interaction Task; FIT) in 49 adolescents (11 to 17 years old). Disorganized adolescents displayed behaviors promoting autonomy and relatedness less frequently and at a lower extent than organized ones in the FIT with mothers but not with fathers. Disorganized adolescents also showed a steeper decrease in heart rate variability (HRV) than organized ones, during both the FFI and the FITs. Moreover, disorganized adolescents responded with a more marked increase in skin conductance level to the FIT with mothers than organized individuals. Dismissing adolescents showed behaviors promoting autonomy and relatedness less frequently and to a lesser extent than secure ones, while displaying more often behaviors undermining autonomy and relatedness in the FITs. Dismissing adolescents also showed a more pronounced decrease in HRV during the FFI than secure and preoccupied individuals; no differences were found between these groups in HRV during the FITs. The results suggest that disorganized adolescents had more difficulties in regulating their emotions during both the FFI and the FITs, whereas dismissing individuals seemed effectively challenged only during the interview.

Inhibitory Control Across the Preschool Years: Developmental Changes and Associations with Parenting

The normative developmental course of inhibitory control between 2.5 and 6.5 years, and associations with maternal and paternal sensitivity and intrusiveness were tested. The sample consisted of 383 children (52.5% boys). During four annual waves, mothers and fathers reported on their children’s inhibitory control using the Children's Behavior Questionnaire. During the first wave, mothers’ and fathers’ sensitivity and intrusiveness were observed and coded with the Emotional Availability Scales. Inhibitory control exhibited partial scalar invariance over time, and increased in a decelerating rate. For both mothers and fathers, higher levels of sensitivity were associated with a higher initial level of children's inhibitory control, whereas higher levels of intrusiveness predicted a slower increase in children's inhibitory control.

Disentangling genes, attachment, and environment: A systematic review of the developmental psychopathology literature on gene-environment interactions and attachment

The role of genetics in relation to attachment is of continued interest to developmental psychology. Recent research has attempted to disentangle genetic main effects, environmental effects, and gene and environment (G × E) interactions in the development of attachment security/insecurity and disorganization. We systematically reviewed associations between gene markers and attachment, including G × E interactions, identifying 27 eligible studies. Inconsistent results emerged for associations between both gene effects and G × E interactions on attachment organization. Where G × E interactions used attachment as the environmental factor in the interaction, we observed more consistent results for differential susceptibility of G × E interactions on offspring behavior. Small sample size and heterogeneity in measurement of environmental factors impacted on comparability of studies. From these results, we propose that the future of research into the role of genetic effects in attachment lies in further exploration of G × E interactions, particularly where attachment acts as an environmental factor impacting on other child developmental outcomes emerging from the caregiving environment, consistent with differential susceptibility approaches to developmental psychopathology. In addition, from a methodological perspective, establishing the role of gene markers in such models will require a shift toward contemporary genomics, including genome-wide analysis (including novel genes and chromosomal loci), and epigenetic individual variations.

Unraveling middle childhood attachment-related behavior sequences using a micro-coding approach

Attachment theory states that children learn to trust in their parent's availability and support if they repeatedly experience that their parents respond sensitively to their needs during distress. Attachment is thus developed and shaped by day-to-day interactions, while at the same time, each interaction is a momentary expression of the attachment relation. How attachment-related behaviors of mother and child follow upon each other during interactions in middle childhood, and how these sequences differ in function of attachment quality, has hardly been studied up to now. To fill this gap, we analyzed the micro-coded interaction of 55 mother-child dyads (27 girls, 28 boys, mean age: 10.3) after a standardized stress-induction. Results reveal that all mother-child dyads show a loop between positive mother and child behaviors. This pattern is complemented with a loop of negative mother and child behaviors in low-trust and more avoidantly attached children: these children tend to handle negative mother behavior less well as they show more negative behavior and less positive behavior in response to negative maternal behavior. More anxiously attached children also show less positive behavior, but react positively on collaborative interactions. The micro-coded interactions thus reveal important insights that inform practitioners and advance attachment theory.

Attachment behavior and hostility as explanatory factors linking parent-adolescent conflict and adolescent adjustment

This study examined whether adolescents' behavior in a support-seeking context helped to explain associations between increases in mother-adolescent conflict during early adolescence and changes in adolescents' internalizing and externalizing symptoms. A sample of 194 adolescents aged 12 to 14 (51% female) and their mothers were followed over 1 year. Mother-adolescent pairs participated in a speech task introducing an external social stressor into the parent-child relationship. Using a latent difference score model, adolescents' observed attachment behavior and hostility were compared as potential explanatory processes. Analyses suggest specificity in the spillover process from conflict to adolescent behavior in a nonconflictual parent-child interaction context, with hostility uniquely linking increasing mother-adolescent conflict and externalizing problems, and disruptions in adolescent attachment behavior uniquely explaining the link with internalizing problems. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2019 APA, all rights reserved).

[Personality Assessment as Contribution to Diagnostic Differentiation Between ADHD and RAD in Middle Childhood]

Personality Assessment as Contribution to Diagnostic Differentiation Between ADHD and RAD in Middle Childhood Early and prolonged social and emotional deprivation can result in symptoms of both ADHD and attachment disorder (RAD). The present study compares children between 7 and 13 years of age diagnosed with either ADHD or RAD, regarding their disorder specific behavior by using the Conners Rating Scale, a RAD screening scale, the overall psychopathology in the CASCAP-D, and the children's personality using the California Child-Q-sort (CCQ). The RAD group showed an increased overall psychopathology score and both increased ADHD and RAD symptomatology. In addition, they also were characterized as lower in self-regulatory personality characteristics (e. g. ego-resiliency). The results suggest that children with a RAD diagnosis do not show two comorbid disorders (RAD plus ADHD) but are characterized by an even more intense deficit of self-regulation in social and emotional contexts, compared to the children of the pure ADHD group. This should be considered in diagnosis and treatment.

Serotonergic gene polymorphisms (5-HTTLPR, 5HTR1A, 5HTR2A), and population differences in aggression: traditional (Hadza and Datoga) and industrial (Russians) populations compared

Background

Current knowledge on genetic basis of aggressive behavior is still contradictory. This may be due to the fact that the majority of studies targeting associations between candidate genes and aggression are conducted on industrial societies and mainly dealing with various types of psychopathology and disorders. Because of that, our study was carried on healthy adult individuals of both sex (n = 853).

Methods

Three populations were examined: two traditional (Hadza and Datoga) and one industrial (Russians), and the association of aggression with the following polymorphisms 5-HTTLPR, rs6295 (5HTR1A gene), and rs6311 (5HTR2A gene) were tested. Aggression was measured as total self-ratings on Buss-Perry Aggression Questionnaire.

Results

Distributions of allelic frequencies of 5-HTTLPR and 5HTR1A polymorphisms were significantly different among the three populations. Consequently, the association analyses for these two candidate genes were carried out separately for each population, while for the 5HTR2A polymorphism, it was conducted on the pooled data that made possible to introduce ethnic factor in the ANOVA model. The traditional biometrical approach revealed no sex differences in total aggression in all three samples. The three-way ANOVA (μ + 5-HTTLPR + 5HTR1A + 5HTR2A +ε) with measures of self-reported total aggression as dependent variable revealed significant effect of the second serotonin receptor gene polymorphism for the Hadza sample. For the Datoga, the interaction effect between 5-HTTLPR and 5HTR1A was significant. No significant effects of the used polymorphisms were obtained for Russians. The results of two-way ANOVA with ethnicity and the 5HTR2A polymorphism as main effects and their interactions revealed the highly significant effect of ethnicity, 5HTR2A polymorphism, and their interaction on total aggression.

Conclusions

Our data provided obvious confirmation for the necessity to consider the population origin, as well as cultural background of tested individuals, while searching for associations between genes and behavior, and demonstrated the role of cultural attitudes towards the use of in-group aggression. Our data partly explained the reasons for disagreement in results of different teams, searching for candidate-gene associations with behavior without considerations of culturally desirable norms. Previous studies suggested that the 5HTR2A gene polymorphism associates with aggression and criminality. Our data extended these findings, demonstrating the role of rs6311 (5HTR2A gene) in aggression in adult healthy men and women from our samples. We found that G-allele carriers were rated higher on total aggression.

Gene-environment correlations in the cross-generational transmission of parenting: Grandparenting moderates the effect of child 5-HTTLPR genotype on mothers' parenting

Evidence suggests that parenting is associated cross-generationally and that children's genes may elicit specific parenting styles (evocative gene-environment correlation). This study examined whether the effect of children's genotype, specifically 5-HTTLPR, on mothers' parenting behaviors was moderated by her own parenting experiences from her mother. Two independent samples of three-year-olds (N = 476 and 405) were genotyped for the serotonin transporter gene, and observational measures of parenting were collected. Mothers completed measures of the parenting they received as children. The child having a short allele on 5-HTTLPR was associated with more maternal hostility (sample 1 and 2) and with less maternal support (sample 1), but only if the mother reported lower quality grandmothers' parenting (abuse and indifference in Sample 1 and lower levels of grandmother care in Sample 2). Results support the possibility of a moderated evocative gene-environment correlation.

A process model of the implications of spillover from coparenting conflicts into the parent-child attachment relationship in adolescence

Drawing on a two-wave, multimethod, multi-informant design, this study provides the first test of a process model of spillover specifying why and how disruptions in the coparenting relationship influence the parent-adolescent attachment relationship. One hundred ninety-four families with an adolescent aged 12-14 (M age = 12.4) were followed for 1 year. Mothers and adolescents participated in two experimental tasks designed to elicit behavioral expressions of parent and adolescent functioning within the attachment relationship. Using a novel observational approach, maternal safe haven, secure base, and harshness (i.e., hostility and control) were compared as potential unique mediators of the association between conflict in the coparenting relationship and adolescent problems. Path models indicated that, although coparenting conflicts were broadly associated with maternal parenting difficulties, only secure base explained the link to adolescent adjustment. Adding further specificity to the process model, maternal secure base support was uniquely associated with adolescent adjustment through deficits in adolescents' secure exploration. Results support the hypothesis that coparenting disagreements undermine adolescent adjustment in multiple domains specifically by disrupting mothers' ability to provide a caregiving environment that supports adolescent exploration during a developmental period in which developing autonomy is a crucial stage-salient task.

Dimensions of Emotional Intelligence and Online Gaming Addiction in Adolescence: The Indirect Effects of Two Facets of Perceived Stress

This study tested a parallel two-mediator model in which the relationship between dimensions of emotional intelligence and online gaming addiction are mediated by perceived helplessness and perceived self-efficacy, respectively. The sample included 931 male adolescents (mean age = 16.18 years, SD = 0.95) from southern China. Data on emotional intelligence (four dimensions, including self-management of emotion, social skills, empathy and utilization of emotions), perceived stress (two facets, including perceived self-efficacy and perceived helplessness) and online gaming addiction were collected, and bootstrap methods were used to test this parallel two-mediator model. Our findings revealed that perceived self-efficacy mediated the relationship between three dimensions of emotional intelligence (i.e., self-management, social skills, and empathy) and online gaming addiction, and perceived helplessness mediated the relationship between two dimensions of emotional intelligence (i.e., self-management and emotion utilization) and online gaming addiction. These findings underscore the importance of separating the four dimensions of emotional intelligence and two facets of perceived stress to understand the complex relationship between these factors and online gaming addiction.

Developmental Patterns of Child Emotion Dysregulation as Predicted by Serotonin Transporter Genotype and Parenting

Individual differences in emotion regulation are central to social, academic, occupational, and psychological development, and emotion dysregulation (ED) in childhood is a risk factor for numerous developmental outcomes. The present study aimed to (a) describe the developmental trajectory of ED across early childhood (3-6 years) and (b) examine its sensitivity to youth serotonin transporter genotype, positive and negative parenting behaviors, and their interaction. Participants were 99 families in the Collaborative Family Study, a longitudinal study of children with or without developmental delays. Child ED and early parenting were coded from parent-child interactions. To examine serotonin transporter genotype as a moderator between parenting and child emotion dysregulation (ED), children with the homozygous short (SS) genotype were compared to children with the homozygous long (LL) or heterozygous (SL) genotype. We used latent growth curve modeling (LGCM) to model yearly change in ED from child age 3 to 6 years. LGCM revealed that ED decreased overall across early childhood. In addition, we observed separate Genotype × Positive and Genotype × Negative parenting behavior interactions in predictions of ED growth curves. Children with the SL/LL genotype had ED trajectories that were minimally related to positive and negative parenting behavior, whereas ED decreased more precipitously among children with the SS genotype when exposed to low negative parenting or high positive parenting. These findings provide evidence for Gene × Environment interactions (G×Es) in the development of ED in a manner that is conceptually consistent with vantage sensitivity, and they improve inferences afforded by prospective designs.

What we have changed our minds about: Part 1. Borderline personality disorder as a limitation of resilience

This paper sets out a recent transition in our thinking in relation to psychopathology associated with personality disorder, in an approach that integrates our thinking about attachment, mentalizing (understanding ourselves and others in terms of intentional mental states) and epistemic trust (openness to the reception of social communication that is personally relevant and of generalizable significance) with recent findings on the structure of both adult and child psychopathology and resilience. In this paper - the first of two parts - we review evidence suggesting that a general psychopathology or p factor underlies vulnerability for psychopathology. We link this p factor to a lack of resilience using Kalisch and colleagues' positive appraisal style theory of resilience (PASTOR). We argue that vulnerability for (severe) psychopathology results from impairments in three central mechanisms underlying resilience - positive situation classification, retrospective reappraisal of threat, and inhibition of retraumatizing triggers - which in turn result from a lack of flexibility in terms of social communicative processes. We suggest that, from this perspective, personality disorders, and borderline personality disorder (BPD) in particular, can be considered to be the prototype of disorders characterized by a lack of resilience. Part 2 proposes an evolutionary developmental psychopathology account linking this inflexibility in social communication to problems with the development of epistemic trust - that is, an evolutionary pre-wired social communication system that normally facilitates resilience through salutogenesis, that is, the capacity to learn and derive benefit from the (social) environment.

Disorganization, COMT, and Children's Social Behavior: The Norwegian Hypothesis of Legacy of Disorganized Attachment

Why is disorganized attachment associated with punitive-controlling behavior in some, but caregiving-controlling in others? Hygen et al. (2014) proposed that variation in the Catechol-O-methyl transferase(COMT) Val158Met genotype explains this variation, providing preliminary data to this effect. We offer a conceptual replication, analyzing data on 560 children (males: 275) drawn from the NICHD Study of Early Child Care and Youth Development. As predicted, competitive model-fitting indicated that disorganized infants carrying Met alleles engage in more positive behavior and less negative behavior than other children at age 5 and 11, with the reverse true of Val/Val homozygotes, seemingly consistent with caregiving-controlling and punitive-controlling styles, respectively, but only in the case of maternal and not teacher reports, thereby confirmating a relationship-specific hypothesis.

Aggressive behavior in humans: Genes and pathways identified through association studies

Aggressive behavior has both genetic and environmental components. Many association studies have been performed to identify genetic factors underlying aggressive behaviors in humans. In this review we summarize the previous work performed in this field, considering both candidate gene (CGAS) and genome-wide association studies (GWAS), excluding those performed in samples where the primary diagnosis is a psychiatric or neurological disorder other than an aggression-related phenotype. Subsequently, we have studied the enrichment of pathways and functions in GWAS data. The results of our searches show that most CGAS have identified associations with genes involved in dopaminergic and serotonergic neurotransmission and in hormone regulation. On the other hand, GWAS have not yet identified genome-wide significant associations, but top nominal findings are related to several signaling pathways, such as axon guidance or estrogen receptor signaling, and also to neurodevelopmental processes and synaptic plasticity. Future studies should use larger samples, homogeneous phenotypes and standardized measurements to identify genes that underlie aggressive behaviors in humans. © 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Effects of Gene × Attachment Interaction on Adolescents' Emotion Regulation and Aggressive Hostile Behavior Towards their Mothers during a Computer Game

Adolescence is a time of increased emotionality and major changes in emotion regulation often elicited in autonomy-relevant situations. Both genetic as well as social factors may lead to inter-individual differences in emotional processes in adolescence. We investigated whether both 5-HTTLPR and attachment security influence adolescents’ observed emotionality, emotional dysregulation, and their aggressive hostile autonomy while interacting with their mothers. Eighty-eight adolescents at age 12 were observed in interaction with their mothers during a standardized, emotion eliciting computer game task. They were genotyped for the 5-HTTLPR, a repeat polymorphism in the promoter region of the serotonin transporter gene. Concurrent attachment quality was assessed by the Late Childhood Attachment Interview (LCAI). Results revealed a significant gene × attachment effect showing that ss/sl carriers of 5-HTTLPR show increased emotional dysregulation and aggressive hostile autonomy towards their mothers. The results of the study suggest that secure attachment in adolescence moderates the genetically based higher tendency for emotional dysregulation and aggressive reactions to restrictions of autonomy during emotional social interactions with their mothers.

Serotonin transporter linked polymorphic region (5-HTTLPR) genotype moderates the longitudinal impact of early caregiving on externalizing behavior

We examined caregiver report of externalizing behavior from 12 to 54 months of age in 102 children randomized to care as usual in institutions or to newly created high-quality foster care. At baseline no differences by group or genotype in externalizing were found. However, changes in externalizing from baseline to 42 months of age were moderated by the serotonin transporter linked polymorphic region genotype and intervention group, where the slope for short-short (S/S) individuals differed as a function of intervention group. The slope for individuals carrying the long allele did not significantly differ between groups. At 54 months of age, S/S children in the foster care group had the lowest levels of externalizing behavior, while children with the S/S genotype in the care as usual group demonstrated the highest rates of externalizing behavior. No intervention group differences were found in externalizing behavior among children who carried the long allele. These findings, within a randomized controlled trial of foster care compared to continued care as usual, indicate that the serotonin transporter linked polymorphic region genotype moderates the relation between early caregiving environments to predict externalizing behavior in children exposed to early institutional care in a manner most consistent with differential susceptibility.

Genetics of aggressive behavior: An overview

The Research Domain Criteria (RDoC) address three types of aggression: frustrative non-reward, defensive aggression and offensive/proactive aggression. This review sought to present the evidence for genetic underpinnings of aggression and to determine to what degree prior studies have examined phenotypes that fit into the RDoC framework. Although the constructs of defensive and offensive aggression have been widely used in the animal genetics literature, the human literature is mostly agnostic with regard to all the RDoC constructs. We know from twin studies that about half the variance in behavior may be explained by genetic risk factors. This is true for both dimensional, trait-like, measures of aggression and categorical definitions of psychopathology. The non-shared environment seems to have a moderate influence with the effects of shared environment being unclear. Human molecular genetic studies of aggression are in an early stage. The most promising candidates are in the dopaminergic and serotonergic systems along with hormonal regulators. Genome-wide association studies have not yet achieved genome-wide significance, but current samples are too small to detect variants having the small effects one would expect for a complex disorder. The strongest molecular evidence for a genetic basis for aggression comes from animal models comparing aggressive and non-aggressive strains or documenting the effects of gene knockouts. Although we have learned much from these prior studies, future studies should improve the measurement of aggression by using a systematic method of measurement such as that proposed by the RDoC initiative.

The Relationship Between Autonomy and Relatedness and Adolescents' Adrenocortical and Cardiovascular Stress Response

Developing autonomy and maintaining relatedness within the parent-adolescent relationship marks a realignment process that shifts adolescents' decision making and regulation from parents to youth. This process may be stressful for some adolescents, particularly those who perceive their daily lives as stressful. This study examined the associations of autonomy, relatedness and perceived stress with adolescents' cortisol and blood pressure response to conflict in a mother-adolescent interaction task among 100 adolescents (M age = 15.09; 68 % girls, 78 % Caucasian). Few direct associations were found, but results indicated that perceived stress moderated the effect of autonomy and relatedness such that youth who reported more perceived stress and whose mothers' restricted their autonomy and undermined their relatedness evidenced increased cortisol and systolic blood pressure when compared to youth lower in perceived stress. The results highlight the importance of examining individual differences in the association between normative developmental transitions and adolescents' neurobiological response to stress.

Review of the genetic basis of emotion dysregulation in children and adolescents

Previous evidence suggests that emotion dysregulation may have different biological correlates between adults and children/adolescents. Although the role of genetic factors has been extensively studied in adult-onset emotion dysregulation, the genetic basis for pediatric-onset emotion dysregulation remains elusive. The current review article presents a summary of previous studies that have suggested a few genetic variants associated with pediatric emotion dysregulation. Among these candidate loci, many prior studies have been focused on serotonin transporter promoter gene polymorphism 5-HTTLPR. Certain alleles of the 5-HTTLPR gene polymorphism have been found to be associated with traits associated with emotion dysregulation, such as aggression, affect reactivity, and insecure attachment. Additionally, genetic variants involving dopamine and neurophysiological biomarkers like the COMT Val158Met (rs460) and dopamine receptor D2/ ankyrin repeat and kinase domain containing one polymorphisms may play a role in emotion dysregulation. Inconsistent findings have been noted, possibly due to the heterogeneity in study designs and characteristics of different populations. Further research on the role of genetic predetermination of emotion dysregulation in children and adolescents is warranted.

Serotonin Transporter Genotype (5HTTLPR) Moderates the Longitudinal Impact of Atypical Attachment on Externalizing Behavior

OBJECTIVE

To test whether genotype of the serotonin transporter-linked polymorphic region (5HTTLPR) and atypical attachment interact to predict externalizing psychopathology prospectively in a sample of children with a history of early institutional care.

METHODS

Caregiver report of externalizing behavior at 54 months was examined in 105 children initially reared in institutional care and enrolled in the Bucharest Early Intervention Project, a randomized controlled trial of high quality foster care. 5HTTLPR genotype, attachment status at 42 months of age (typical [secure, avoidant, or ambivalent] or atypical [disorganized-controlling, insecure-other]), and their interaction were examined as predictors of externalizing behavior at age 54 months.

RESULTS

5HTTLPR genotype and atypical attachment at age 42 months interacted to predict externalizing behavior at age 54 months. Specifically, children with the s/s genotype with an atypical attachment had the highest externalizing scores. However, s/s children with a typical attachment demonstrated the lowest externalizing scores, even after controlling for intervention group status. There was no association between attachment status and externalizing behavior among children carrying at least 1 copy of the l allele.

CONCLUSION

These findings indicate that genetic variation in the serotonergic system moderates the association between atypical attachment status and externalizing in young children. Our findings suggest that children, as a result of genetic variability in the serotonergic system, demonstrate differential sensitivity to the attachment relationship.

Early experience, structural dissociation, and emotional dysregulation in borderline personality disorder: the role of insecure and disorganized attachment

Persistent problems in emotional regulation and interpersonal relationships in borderline patients can be understood as developing from difficulties in early dyadic regulation with primary caregivers. Early attachment patterns are a relevant causal factor in the development of Borderline Personality Disorder (BPD). Links between attachment issues, early history of neglect, and traumatic experiences, and symptoms observed in patients with BPD as per the DSM-5 classification (American Psychiatric Association: Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders: DSM-5 (Fifth ed.). Washington, D.C; (2013)) are described in this article, while delineating possible pathways from attachment disruptions to the specific symptomatology of these patients. The theory of structural dissociation of the personality (TSDP) provides an essential framework for understanding the processes that may lead from insecure early attachment to the development and maintenance of BPD symptoms. Dyadic parent-child interactions and subsequent modulation of emotion in the child and future adult are considered closely related, but other factors in the development of BPD, such as genetic predisposition and traumatic experiences, should also be considered in conceptualizing and organizing clinical approaches based on a view of BPD as a heterogeneous disorder.

Catechol-O-methyltransferase Val158Met genotype moderates the effect of disorganized attachment on social development in young children

Children with histories of disorganized attachment exhibit diverse problems, possibly because disorganization takes at least two distinctive forms as children age: controlling-punitive and controlling-caregiving. This variation in the developmental legacy of disorganization has been attributed primarily to variations in children's rearing experiences. Here an alternative explanation of these divergent sequelae of disorganization is evaluated: one focused on genotype. Structural equation modeling was applied to data on 704 Norwegian children to test whether the catechol-O-methyltransferase Val158Met genotype moderates the effect of disorganized attachment, which was measured dimensionally at 4 years of age using the Manchester Child Attachment Story Task, on changes in aggressive behavior and social competence from ages 4 to 6. Children who scored high on disorganization and were homozygous for the valine allele displayed significantly greater increases in aggression and decreases in self-oriented social skills (e.g., self-regulation and assertiveness) over time than did their disorganized counterparts carrying the methionine allele, whereas disorganized children carrying the methionine allele increased their other-oriented social skill (e.g., cooperation and responsibility) scores more than did valine-homozygous children. These results are consistent with the controlling-punitive and controlling-caregiving behaviors observed in disorganized children, suggesting that the children's genotype contributed to variations in the social development of disorganized children.

Candidate genes for aggression and antisocial behavior: a meta-analysis of association studies of the 5HTTLPR and MAOA-uVNTR

Variation in central serotonin levels due to genetic mutations or experimental modifications has been associated with the manifestation of aggression in humans and animals. Many studies have examined whether common variants in serotonergic genes are implicated in aggressive or antisocial behaviors (ASB) in human samples. The two most commonly studied polymorphisms have been the serotonin transporter linked polymorphic region of the serotonin transporter gene (5HTTLPR) and the 30 base pair variable number of tandem repeats of the monoamine oxidase A gene (MAOA-uVNTR). Despite the aforementioned theoretical justification for these polymorphisms, findings across studies have been mixed and are thus difficult to interpret. A meta-analysis of associations of the 5HTTLPR and MAOA-uVNTR with ASB was conducted to determine: (1) the overall magnitude of effects for each polymorphism, (2) the extent of heterogeneity in effect sizes across studies and the likelihood of publication bias, and (3) whether sample-level or study-level characteristics could explain observed heterogeneity across studies. Both the 5HTTLPR and the MAOA-uVNTR were significantly associated with ASB across studies. There was also significant and substantial heterogeneity in the effect sizes for both markers, but this heterogeneity was not explained by any sample-level or study-level characteristics examined. We did not find any evidence for publication bias across studies for the MAOA-uVNTR, but there was evidence for an oversampling of statistically significant effect sizes for the 5HTTLPR. These findings provide support for the modest role of common serotonergic variants in ASB. Implications regarding the role of serotonin in antisocial behavior and the conceptualization of antisocial and aggressive phenotypes are discussed.

Emotional and adrenocortical regulation in early adolescence

The aim of the present study was to examine differences in emotion expression and emotion regulation in emotion-eliciting situations in early adolescence from a bio-psycho-social perspective, specifically investigating the influence of early mother-infant attachment and attachment disorganization on behavioural and adrenocortical responses. The sample consisted of 96 children of the Regensburg Longitudinal Study IV. At age 12 months, attachment security and disorganization were assessed in the Strange Situation. At age 12 years, the adolescents were observed together with their mother during a computer game (eliciting anger) and the “Talk Show Task” (eliciting fear). Analyses included self-ratings and mother-ratings of the adolescents’ emotions (anger and fear), observations of the adolescents’ emotional expression and emotional regulation (social regulation, effective regulation) as well as concurrent maternal emotional support. In addition, adrenocortical activity was assessed from saliva samples before and after observation. The findings revealed different patterns of social-emotional responses depending on early attachment security. Adolescents with secure infant attachment reported more anger, when anger was induced, were rated as less anxious by their mothers, and their emotion self-ratings were more similar to their mothers’ ratings compared to adolescents with an early insecure attachment. An increased adrenocortical response was only found in the group of adolescents with attachment disorganization in infancy, especially with increased fear.

Emotion regulation from early adolescence to emerging adulthood and middle adulthood

Despite the growing research on emotion regulation, the empirical evidence for normative age-related emotion regulation patterns is rather divergent. From a life-span perspective, normative age changes in emotion regulation may be more salient applying the same methodological approach on a broad age range examining both growth and decline during development. In addition, emotion-specific developmental patterns might show differential developmental trends. The present study examined age differences in seven emotion regulation strategies from early adolescence (age 11) to middle adulthood (age 50) for the three emotions of sadness, fear, and anger. The results showed specific developmental changes in the use of emotion regulation strategies for each of the three emotions. In addition, results suggest age-specific increases and decreases in many emotion regulation strategies, with a general trend to increasing adaptive emotion regulation. Specifically, middle adolescence shows the smallest emotion regulation strategy repertoire. Gender differences appeared for most emotion regulation strategies. The findings suggest that the development of emotion regulation should be studied in an emotion-specific manner, as a perspective solely on general emotion regulation either under- or overestimates existing emotion-specific developmental changes.

The formation of secure new attachments by children who were maltreated: an observational study of adolescents in foster care

Children who were maltreated and enter foster care are at risk for maladjustment and relationship disturbances with foster carers. A popular hypothesis is that prior attachment relationships with abusive birth parents are internalized and carried forward to impair the child's subsequent attachment relationships. However, the empirical base for this model is limited, especially in adolescence. We examined the attachment patterns of 62 adolescents with their birth parents and their foster parents; we compared them to a comparison sample of 50 adolescents in normal-risk families. Attachment was assessed using the Child Attachment Interview; adolescent-parent interaction quality was assessed from direct observation; disruptive behavior symptoms were assessed from multiple informants. Whereas nearly all of the adolescents in foster families exhibited insecure attachments to their birth mothers (90%) and birth fathers (100%), nearly one-half were classified as having a secure attachment with their foster mother (46%) and father (49%); rates of secure attachment toward foster parents did not differ significantly from the rate in comparison families. Within the foster care sample, attachment security to the foster mother was predicted from current observed relationship quality and the duration of current placement. In addition, attachment quality in foster adolescents was associated with fewer disruptive behavior symptoms, and this association was equally strong in foster and comparison families. Our findings demonstrate that there is substantial potential for maltreated children to change and develop subsequent secure attachments in adolescence.

Gender differences in emotion expression in children: a meta-analytic review

Emotion expression is an important feature of healthy child development that has been found to show gender differences. However, there has been no empirical review of the literature on gender and facial, vocal, and behavioral expressions of different types of emotions in children. The present study constitutes a comprehensive meta-analytic review of gender differences and moderators of differences in emotion expression from infancy through adolescence. We analyzed 555 effect sizes from 166 studies with a total of 21,709 participants. Significant but very small gender differences were found overall, with girls showing more positive emotions (g = -.08) and internalizing emotions (e.g., sadness, anxiety, sympathy; g = -.10) than boys, and boys showing more externalizing emotions (e.g., anger; g = .09) than girls. Notably, gender differences were moderated by age, interpersonal context, and task valence, underscoring the importance of contextual factors in gender differences. Gender differences in positive emotions were more pronounced with increasing age, with girls showing more positive emotions than boys in middle childhood (g = -.20) and adolescence (g = -.28). Boys showed more externalizing emotions than girls at toddler/preschool age (g = .17) and middle childhood (g = .13) and fewer externalizing emotions than girls in adolescence (g = -.27). Gender differences were less pronounced with parents and were more pronounced with unfamiliar adults (for positive emotions) and with peers/when alone (for externalizing emotions). Our findings of gender differences in emotion expression in specific contexts have important implications for gender differences in children's healthy and maladaptive development.

[Differences in attachment and personality in children from child guidance centers, child psychiatry units, and control families]

Insecure attachment and deficits in self-regulation as personality traits are risk factors for the development of psychopathological symptoms from infancy on. This study examines differences in attachment and personality in late childhood, comparing children from non-clinical families, from a child guidance center, and child psychiatry units with in-patient care. Children's attachment representations, their attachment behavior strategy, reported distressing parental behavior, their emotional openness, and attachment coherency were assessed with the Late Childhood Attachment Interview (LCAI). Ego-resiliency, ego-undercontrol, field-independence, aggressiveness, and anxiety were assessed by means of the California Child Q-Sort. The results show clear attachment differences, with the child guidance group showing more attachment insecurity in the LCAI compared to the control group, and the psychiatric in-patient group even more attachment insecurity, more distressing parenting from both mother and father, and more attachment disorganization than the other two groups. Whereas children from the child guidance center and the child psychiatry unit did not differ in personality, both groups were significantly different from the control group in all personality dimensions. The results suggest that personality differences may be a risk factor for behaviour problems, however problem severity and the choice of the treatment institution seem to be influenced by attachment security.

Relational security moderates the effect of serotonin transporter gene polymorphism (5-HTTLPR) on stress generation and depression among adolescents

Previous research demonstrates that carriers of the short allele of the serotonin transporter gene (5-HTTLPR) show both greater susceptibility to depression in response to stressful life events and higher rates of generation of stressful events in response to depression. The current study examines relational security (i.e., self-reported beliefs about attachment security) as a moderator of these effects, building on emerging research suggesting that the short allele acts as a marker of sensitivity to the social environment. Participants were 354 Caucasian adolescents oversampled for maternal depression (137 male, 217 female), assessed at ages 15 and 20. Results indicated that the short allele predicted increased stress generation at age 20 among those with low age 15 security but decreased stress generation among those with high security, and revealed a three-way interaction between age 15 depression, age 15 security, and genotype, where depression predicted stress generation only among short allele carriers with low security. Further, among boys only, security interacted with genotype to predict longitudinal changes in depression diagnosis, with the s-allele predicting relative increases in probability of depression among boys with low security but decreases among boys with high security. Results support the notion of the short allele as a marker of social reactivity, and suggest that attachment security may buffer against the genetic vulnerability introduced by the short allele, in line with predictions of the differential susceptibility theory.

Interactions between serotonin transporter gene haplotypes and quality of mothers' parenting predict the development of children's noncompliance

The LPR and STin2 polymorphisms of the serotonin transporter gene (SLC6A4) were combined into haplotypes that, together with quality of maternal parenting, were used to predict initial levels and linear change in children's (N = 138) noncompliance and aggression from age 18-54 months. Quality of mothers' parenting behavior was observed when children were 18 months old, and nonparental caregivers' reports of noncompliance and aggression were collected annually from 18 to 54 months of age. Quality of early parenting was negatively related to the slope of noncompliance only for children with the LPR-S/STin2-10 haplotype and to 18-month noncompliance only for children with haplotypes that did not include LPR-S. The findings support the notion that SLC6A4 haplotypes index differential susceptibility to variability in parenting quality, with certain haplotypes showing greater reactivity to both supportive and unsupportive environments. These different genetic backgrounds likely reflect an evolutionary response to variation in the parenting environment.

Genetic determinants of aggression and impulsivity in humans

Human aggression/impulsivity-related traits have a complex background that is greatly influenced by genetic and non-genetic factors. The relationship between aggression and anxiety is regulated by highly conserved brain regions including amygdala, which controls neural circuits triggering defensive, aggressive, or avoidant behavioral models. The dysfunction of neural circuits responsible for emotional control was shown to represent an etiological factor of violent behavior. In addition to the amygdala, these circuits also involve the anterior cingulated cortex and regions of the prefrontal cortex. Excessive reactivity in the amygdala coupled with inadequate prefrontal regulation serves to increase the likelihood of aggressive behavior. Developmental alterations in prefrontal-subcortical circuitry as well as neuromodulatory and hormonal abnormality appear to play a role. Imbalance in testosterone/serotonin and testosterone/cortisol ratios (e.g., increased testosterone levels and reduced cortisol levels) increases the propensity toward aggression because of reduced activation of the neural circuitry of impulse control and self-regulation. Serotonin facilitates prefrontal inhibition, and thus insufficient serotonergic activity can enhance aggression. Genetic predisposition to aggression appears to be deeply affected by the polymorphic genetic variants of the serotoninergic system that influences serotonin levels in the central and peripheral nervous system, biological effects of this hormone, and rate of serotonin production, synaptic release and degradation. Among these variants, functional polymorphisms in the monoamine oxidase A (MAOA) and serotonin transporter (5-HTT) may be of particular importance due to the relationship between these polymorphic variants and anatomical changes in the limbic system of aggressive people. Furthermore, functional variants of MAOA and 5-HTT are capable of mediating the influence of environmental factors on aggression-related traits. In this review, we consider genetic determinants of human aggression, with special emphasis on genes involved in serotonin and dopamine metabolism and function.

DRD4 genotype moderates the impact of parental problems on unresolved loss or trauma

In the current study we tested whether the dopamine receptor D4 (DRD4) genotype moderates the association of experienced parental problems during childhood (e.g., parental depression, marital discord) with unresolved loss or trauma during the Adult Attachment Interview. To test the specificity of this moderation the role of the serotonin transporter gene promoter (5-HTTLPR) was also examined. Subjects were 124 adopted adults (mean age 39 years). Participants with the DRD4-7 repeat (7R) allele who experienced parental problems had the highest scores for unresolved loss or trauma whereas participants with DRD4-7R who did not experience parental problems showed the lowest ratings. Among participants without DRD4-7R, the parental problems during childhood did not make a difference. 5-HTTLPR did not moderate the relation between parental problems and unresolved loss or trauma. Our study shows heightened susceptibility to environmental influences for carriers of the DRD4-7R allele, and suggests that the interplay between specific dopamine-related genes and family contexts leads to more or less successful coping with adverse childhood experiences.

Feeling angry and acting angry: different effects of autonomy-connectedness in boys and girls

This study examined effects of the autonomy-connectedness components sensitivity to others, self-awareness and capacity for managing new situations on anger experience versus anger expression in adolescent boys and girls. One hundred thirty-one high school students were randomly assigned to an anger-inducing or neutral condition using the Dictator Game. Whereas after anger induction boys experienced and expressed anger independent of autonomy-connectedness, girls' anger experience depended on the level of sensitivity to others: girls experienced increased anger only when they scored high on sensitivity to others. However, girls' expression of anger did not depend on the level of sensitivity to others. Effects of self-awareness and capacity for managing new situations were found when anger was not induced. This study contributed to emotion regulation research by showing differences in anger experience and anger expression as a function of autonomy-connectedness in boys and girls.

Attachment and its vicissitudes in borderline personality disorder

This article reviews the recent literature on attachment and attachment-related constructs in borderline personality disorder, with attention given to how recent findings in this area may inform understanding of the mechanisms underlying the etiology, maintenance, and treatment of the disorder. Most findings on this topic have stemmed from three major areas of research, each of which is reviewed in this article: 1) developmental psychopathology studies; 2) experimental psychopathology studies, particularly those using a neuroscience approach; and 3) treatment studies that have examined variables relevant to attachment. Overall, these findings suggest that attachment and related constructs may factor greatly into the underlying psychopathology of borderline personality disorder and may significantly impact the process and outcome of psychotherapy for the disorder. These findings are discussed as they relate to existing theories and ongoing debates in the field, and the implications for future research and clinical practice are highlighted.

What I like about you: the association between adolescent attachment security and emotional behavior in a relationship promoting context

Because the ability to flexibly experience and appropriately express emotions across a range of developmentally relevant contexts is crucial to adaptive functioning, we examined how adolescent attachment security may be related to more functional emotional behavior during a relationship promoting interaction task. Data were collected from 74 early adolescent girls (Mean age 13.45 years; SD = 0.68; 89% Caucasian) and their primary caregiver. Results indicated that, regardless of the parent's interaction behavior and the level of stress in the parent-adolescent relationship, greater adolescent security was associated with more positive and less negative behavioral displays, including greater positivity, greater coherence of verbal content and affect, less embarrassment, and less emotional dysregulation in response to a situational demand for establishing intimacy with the parent. Implications for encouraging and fostering adolescents' capacity to respond to interpersonal contexts in ways that promote the relationship are discussed.