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Kerr DCR, Tiberio SS, Bailey JA, Epstein M, Henry KL, Capaldi DM. Youth Exposure to Recreational Cannabis Legalization: Moderation of Effects by Sex and Parental Cannabis Use during Adolescence. Subst Use Misuse 2024; 59:947-952. [PMID: 38316769 PMCID: PMC11101302 DOI: 10.1080/10826084.2024.2310495] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2024]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Few studies of recreational cannabis legalization (RCL) have assessed adolescents both before and after RCL or considered moderators of RCL effects. The present study tested whether RCL was more strongly associated with cannabis use for girls and among youth whose parents had a history of cannabis use during adolescence. METHOD Data were pooled from 940 adolescents from three intergenerational studies that began in Washington (where RCL was enacted in 2012), Oregon (RCL year = 2015), and New York (RCL year = 2021). Youth were assessed repeatedly from ages 13 to 18 years (k = 3,650 person-years) from 1999 to 2020 (prior to RCL in New York). Parent cannabis use at or before age 18 years (yes/no) was assessed prospectively during the parent's adolescence. Multilevel models focused on the between-subjects effects of years of youth exposure to RCL on adolescents' mean cannabis use likelihood, and interactions with child sex and parent use history. RESULTS Child exposure to RCL was associated with a higher likelihood of cannabis use if their parents had a history of adolescent use, (Estimate [SE] = 0.67 [0.25], p = 0.008), versus no such history (Estimate [SE] = -0.05 [0.28], p = 0.855). RCL effects were not moderated by child sex. CONCLUSIONS The effects of RCL on adolescents' cannabis use may depend on their parents' history of using the drug. Identifying other moderators of RCL effects, and understanding the mechanisms of these risks and the ways that parents and communities can offset them, are prevention priorities.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Jennifer A. Bailey
- Social Development Research Group, School of Social Work, University of Washington, Seattle WA 98115
| | - Marina Epstein
- Social Development Research Group, School of Social Work, University of Washington, Seattle WA 98115
| | - Kimberly L. Henry
- Department of Psychology, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO 80523
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Capaldi DM, Kerr DCR. Commentary: The roles of mothers versus fathers in intergenerational family risk - a commentary on Rothenberg et al. (2023). J Child Psychol Psychiatry 2023; 64:831-833. [PMID: 36562539 PMCID: PMC10106373 DOI: 10.1111/jcpp.13745] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 12/11/2022] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Basic research studies in the past 2 decades have established that conduct problems and antisocial behavior are associated across generations within families. The Fast Track study represents a major prevention effort with children showing higher levels of conduct problems in childhood, and the Rothenberg et al. (Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 2022) study sheds light on whether this intervention has beneficial effects on the family of procreation. In this commentary, we consider the implications of the major finding that such effects were found for women but not for men. We discuss evidence that men's parenting behavior is influenced by the parenting behavior and overall risk of their women partners, and thus preventive interventions in childhood may have beneficial influences on fathers through mothers.
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Ho C, Teerawichitchainan B, Tan J, Lie Tan ER. Risk Attitudes in Late Adulthood: Do Parenthood Status and Family Size Matter? Res Aging 2022; 45:423-437. [PMID: 35998085 DOI: 10.1177/01640275221116091] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
How older persons react to high-stakes decisions concerning their finance and healthcare depends a great deal on their orientation towards risk-taking. This study examines the associations between parenthood status, family size, and risk attitudes in late adulthood based on nationally-representative data from the Singapore Life Panel. Multivariate analyses are employed to estimate how older adults' willingness to take risks in the general, financial, and health domains varies by gender and among childless individuals and parents of different family size. Older mothers are found to be less risk tolerant than their childless counterparts across the three risk domains. Conversely, mothers with more children demonstrate greater risk tolerance than mothers with fewer children. We find no evidence that older men's risk attitudes vary by parenthood status and family size. We discuss the implications of our findings for understanding individual and societal well-being in the context of rapid fertility decline and population aging.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christine Ho
- School of Economics, 54756Singapore Management University, Singapore
| | | | - Joanne Tan
- School of Economics, 54756Singapore Management University, Singapore
| | - Eugene Rui Lie Tan
- Centre for Family and Population Research, 37580National University of Singapore, Singapore
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Curtis MG, Collins C, Augustine D, Kwon E, Reck A, Zuercher H, Kogan SM. The Transition to Fatherhood, Contextual Stress, and Substance Abuse: A Prospective Analysis of Rural, Emerging Adult Black American Men. Subst Use Misuse 2022; 57:1818-1827. [PMID: 36053081 PMCID: PMC9561031 DOI: 10.1080/10826084.2022.2115851] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/14/2022]
Abstract
Background: Among Black American emerging adult men (∼aged 18-25), the early transition to fatherhood is often marred by numerous contextual stressors related to racial discrimination and socioeconomic instability. The strain of transitioning to fatherhood while experiencing high levels of contextual stress may evidence escalations in substance misuse over time as men may turn to substances to cope with the stress of complex life transitions. However, research examining these associations are scarce. Objective: This study aimed to investigate the influence of contextual stress on the association between fatherhood and substance misuse. Hypotheses were tested using multiple linear regression with 3 waves of data from 476 Black American men aged 19 to 22 at baseline living in resource-poor communities in the rural South. Results: Results demonstrated that fatherhood status was associated, prospectively, with Black American fathers' substance misuse when exposure to contextual stress was high but not low. Conclusions: Findings underscore the need for substance misuse prevention programs to (a) support Black American fathers in coping with race-related stress and (b) integrate robust socioeconomic stability services in order in disrupt patterns of future substance misuse by improving Black American men's experience of the transition to fatherhood.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | - Ava Reck
- University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia, USA
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5
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How to Enhance the Motivation for Drug Detoxification: Consciousness Guidance and Behaviour Restriction of Family Intergenerational Ethics. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2021; 19:ijerph19010366. [PMID: 35010627 PMCID: PMC8744547 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph19010366] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/07/2021] [Revised: 12/27/2021] [Accepted: 12/28/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Assisting substance users to recover from the behaviour of drug addiction and maintain long-term rehabilitation is a long and complicated process, in which the motivation to undergo drug rehabilitation plays a decisive role. So far, the cultural connotation of family and its mechanism of promoting behavioural change of substance users have not been fully explored. Through in-depth interviews with 15 drug rehabilitants, among which there were 7 women and 8 men, it is found that the motivation for drug rehabilitation is stimulated under the guidance and restriction of family ethics based on obligation and responsibility, which is mainly reflected in the longitudinal intergenerational responsibility. On the one hand, negative consequences such as intergenerational liability deficit and reputation damage lead substance users to reflect on ethical values. On the other hand, disciplines such as intergenerational responsibility and obligation and mutual assistance can correct the actual behaviour of substance users in ethical practice. In contrast to Western countries, which focus on external environmental factors such as family function, family relationships and family support, the motivation for drug rehabilitation in China places more emphasis on their identity and role as family members and corresponding responsibilities, which provides inspiration for developing social work services for substance users from family cultural norms.
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Larroulet P, Loughran TA, Augustyn MB, Thornberry TP, Henry KL. Intergenerational Continuity and Discontinuity in Substance Use: The Role of Concurrent Parental Marijuana Use. JOURNAL OF DEVELOPMENTAL AND LIFE-COURSE CRIMINOLOGY 2021; 7:127-150. [PMID: 34485024 PMCID: PMC8415409 DOI: 10.1007/s40865-021-00159-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/28/2019] [Revised: 12/15/2020] [Accepted: 01/05/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
PURPOSE This study examines whether parental marijuana use that occurs during the life of a child impacts patterns of continuity and discontinuity in adolescent substance use among father-child dyads. METHODS The study uses data from 263 father-child-mother triads involved in the Rochester Youth Development Study (RYDS) and the Rochester Intergenerational Study (RIGS). We use a dual trajectory model is used to examine the research questions. RESULTS Results suggest that both paternal and maternal marijuana use during the child's life increase the probability that a child will follow a moderate or high substance use trajectory during adolescence, beyond the risk incurred from paternal adolescent history of substance use. Some nuances related to the timing of concurrent parental marijuana use emerge across parent sex. CONCLUSION Concurrent parental marijuana use predicts child's substance use beyond a parent's prior substance use history. The results highlight the important role of both caregivers in the explanation of patterns of discontinuity across generations, as well as the relevance of considering when the use occurred.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pilar Larroulet
- Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Pilar Larroulet, Department of Sociology, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Avenida Vicuna Mackenna 4860, Santiago, Chile.
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Görlitz K, Tamm M. Parenthood and smoking. ECONOMICS AND HUMAN BIOLOGY 2020; 38:100874. [PMID: 32603997 DOI: 10.1016/j.ehb.2020.100874] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/15/2019] [Revised: 01/12/2020] [Accepted: 03/27/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Parents' smoking is harmful to infants' health. While it is well established that the fraction of mothers smoking during pregnancy is non-negligible, it is an open question of how many parents actually quit smoking to account for the adverse health effects accruing to their offspring. It is also unknown for how long smoking is reduced after first childbirth. This paper investigates these questions in a longitudinal analysis. The analyzed time period covers smoking patterns several years before childbirth and up to twenty years afterwards. Women's smoking probability already drops several years before first childbirth and it remains reduced until the first child turns 18 years old. In the second and third trimester of pregnancy, the drop is largest by around 75 percent.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katja Görlitz
- HdBA, RWI, and IZA, Hochschule der Bundesagentur für Arbeit (HdBA), Seckenheimer Landstraße 16, 68163 Mannheim, Germany.
| | - Marcus Tamm
- HdBA, RWI, and IZA, Hochschule der Bundesagentur für Arbeit (HdBA), Seckenheimer Landstraße 16, 68163 Mannheim, Germany.
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Allen HK, Barrall AL, Beck KH, Vincent KB, Arria AM. Situational context and motives of alcohol use among graduate student drinkers. Addict Behav 2020; 104:106267. [PMID: 31931405 PMCID: PMC7024021 DOI: 10.1016/j.addbeh.2019.106267] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/17/2019] [Revised: 12/16/2019] [Accepted: 12/17/2019] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
Extensive research has examined alcohol use context and motives among undergraduates, but less is known about where, when, and why graduate students drink. The current study aimed to describe the motives and situational context of graduate student alcohol use, identify demographic and program characteristics associated with alcohol use motives and context, and assess how alcohol use motives and context are associated with alcohol use behavior. A sample of master's and doctoral-level students who drank during the past month (n = 2091; 63% female) completed an online survey. An exploratory factor analysis yielded two situational context factors: drinking in social situations (e.g., with friends, at a bar) and non-social situations (e.g., alone, at home). Graduate students most frequently endorsed social and enhancement drinking motives. Results of multivariate linear regression models showed that age, sex, race/ethnicity, and international student, marital, parental, and employment status were all associated with motives and context. Drinking for enhancement and drinking to cope were the motives most strongly associated with increased alcohol quantity and frequency, respectively. Drinking in social contexts was positively associated with alcohol quantity and frequency, and drinking in non-social contexts was positively associated with alcohol use frequency but inversely related to alcohol quantity. Graduate students who drink for enhancement reasons and in social situations might be at increased risk for higher quantity alcohol use, or graduate students who drink for coping reasons and in non-social situations might be at increased risk for more frequent alcohol use. Future longitudinal research is needed to explore whether drinking in certain contexts and with certain motivations is predictive of alcohol problems during and after graduate school.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hannah K Allen
- Methodology Center, Edna Bennett Pierce Prevention Research Center, Pennsylvania State University, 404 Health and Human Development Building, University Park, PA 16802, United States.
| | - Angelica L Barrall
- Center on Young Adult Health and Development, Department of Behavioral and Community Health, University of Maryland School of Public Health, 4200 Valley Dr, #1234, College Park, MD 20742, United States
| | - Kenneth H Beck
- Department of Behavioral and Community Health, University of Maryland School of Public Health, 4200 Valley Dr, #1234, College Park, MD 20742, United States
| | - Kathryn B Vincent
- Center on Young Adult Health and Development, Department of Behavioral and Community Health, University of Maryland School of Public Health, 4200 Valley Dr, #1234, College Park, MD 20742, United States
| | - Amelia M Arria
- Center on Young Adult Health and Development, Department of Behavioral and Community Health, University of Maryland School of Public Health, 4200 Valley Dr, #1234, College Park, MD 20742, United States
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Lamonica A, Boeri M. Stories of Loss: Separation of Children and Mothers Who Use Opioids. JOURNAL OF ETHNOGRAPHIC AND QUALITATIVE RESEARCH 2020; 15:63-81. [PMID: 34621462 PMCID: PMC8493853] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
In the present article, we examine the experiences of women who use opioids and have lost children to governing agencies or family members with a focus on access to resources. We conducted 28 qualitative interviews with mothers who misused opioids and lost custody of their children. Their narratives are analyzed within a social capital framework. Mothers with both negative and positive social capital, whose children were removed, desired to regain their maternal role. However, mothers with negative social capital had increased difficulty navigating the judicial system and accessing needed services, were less likely to remain in treatment, more likely to use drugs, and less likely to regain custody of their children than women with positive social capital. We suggest that medical, social, and law enforcement agencies do more to link mothers who misuse opioids with positive social capital in order to increase their participation and retention in treatment and help keep families intact.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aukje Lamonica
- Southern Connecticut State University, Associate Professor of Public Health
| | - Miriam Boeri
- Bentley University, Associate Professor of Sociology
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10
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Alley ZM, Kerr DCR, Wilson JP, Rule NO. Prospective Associations Between Boys' Substance Use and Problem Behavior Histories and Their Facial Trustworthiness in Adulthood. JOURNAL OF SOCIAL AND CLINICAL PSYCHOLOGY 2019. [DOI: 10.1521/jscp.2019.38.7.647] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Introduction: People whose faces look untrustworthy tend to receive harsher social evaluations, including more severe criminal sentences. Yet little is known about how much facial trustworthiness reflects individuals' behavioral histories. We examined whether adolescent histories of delinquency and substance use predict strangers' perceptions of young men's facial trustworthiness. Methods: Boys (n = 206) recruited from schools with higher juvenile crime rates were assessed repeatedly from ages 10–24 years, including arrest records and self-reported delinquency and substance use. Coders blind to the study's purpose rated participants' facial trustworthiness from photographs taken at ages 14 and 24; parent-reported childhood family income and coder ratings of attractiveness and positive affect at age 24 were considered as controls. Results: Facial trustworthiness at age 24 (but not age 14) negatively correlated with all measures of problem behavior. Yet, self-reported tobacco use occasions from ages 12–23 had the strongest association with facial trustworthiness at age 24, a relation that persisted when controlling for arrests and delinquency from ages 12–23, other substance use, family income, ratings of age-24 positive facial affect, attractiveness, and age-14 facial trustworthiness (β = −.29, 95% CI [−.42, −.15], p < .001). Discussion: Although boys' early facial trustworthiness did not relate to their later problem behavior, men with histories of more delinquency and tobacco use appeared less facially trustworthy as adults. Appearance-related biases may have forensic and healthcare implications for young men. Additionally, prevention efforts could leverage information about the early impacts of tobacco use on appearance.
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Assini-Meytin LC, Garza MA, Green KM. Racial and Ethnic Differences in Teenage Fathers' Early Risk Factors and Socioeconomic Outcomes Later in Life. CHILD & YOUTH CARE FORUM 2018; 48:361-376. [PMID: 31413536 DOI: 10.1007/s10566-018-9483-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Background Understanding racial differences in teenage fathers' early risk factors and later outcomes is critical to inform programs for teenage fathers as our knowledge base on this population remains limited. Objective The goal of this study was to assess how teen fathers' characteristics, including family background, delinquency, living arrangements, socioeconomic resources, and arrests, vary over time by race and ethnicity. Method We analyzed National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent to Adult Health data. The analytic sample consisted of self-identified African American, Latino, and White males who fathered a child before the age of 20 (n = 313). Data come from three time points: adolescence, transition to adulthood, and young adulthood. Results Latino teen fathers came from families with lower educational attainment and greater reliance on public assistance. No statistically significant differences by race and ethnicity were found in parental involvement, school connectedness, marijuana use, and delinquency during adolescence. By their early 20s, a lower proportion of African American teen fathers were married compared to White and Latino teen fathers. By young adulthood, adjusted regression analyses showed that African American teen fathers were more likely to be arrested and earned a lower mean income than White teen fathers. Conclusions Findings suggest that African American teen fathers, while no more disadvantaged or delinquent than the other two groups in their adolescence, experience greater accumulation of disadvantages over the life course. Intervention programs must consider the broader social and institutional context that may contribute to the disproportionate disadvantage among African American teen fathers in their young adulthood.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luciana C Assini-Meytin
- Department of Mental Health, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, 415 N Washington St., Baltimore, MD 21217, USA
| | - Mary A Garza
- Department of Public Health, Fresno College of Health and Human Services, California State University, 2345 E. San Ramon, Fresno, CA 93740, USA
| | - Kerry M Green
- Department of Behavioral and Community Health, University of Maryland School of Public Health, 2242 Valley Dr., College Park, MD 20742, USA
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Bacon AM, Lenton-Maughan L, May J. Trait emotional intelligence and social deviance in males and females. PERSONALITY AND INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES 2018. [DOI: 10.1016/j.paid.2017.10.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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Krieger H, Young CM, Anthenien AM, Neighbors C. The Epidemiology of Binge Drinking Among College-Age Individuals in the United States. Alcohol Res 2018; 39:23-30. [PMID: 30557145 PMCID: PMC6104967] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Rates of alcohol consumption continue to be a concern, particularly for individuals who are college age. Drinking patterns have changed over time, with the frequency of binge drinking (consuming four/five or more drinks for women/men) remaining high (30% to 40%). Young adults in the college age range are developmentally and socially at higher risk for drinking at binge levels. Changes in autonomy, parental control, norms, and attitudes affect binge drinking behaviors. This article reviews those changes, as well as the individual and environmental factors that increase or decrease the risk of participating in binge drinking behaviors. Risk factors include risky drinking events (e.g., 21st birthdays), other substance use, and drinking to cope, while protective factors include religious beliefs, low normative perceptions of drinking, and use of protective behavioral strategies. Additionally, this article discusses the physical, social, emotional, and cognitive consequences of consuming alcohol at binge levels. Alcohol policies and prevention and intervention techniques need to incorporate these factors to reduce experiences of alcohol-related problems. Targeting policy changes and prevention and intervention efforts toward young adults may increase effectiveness and prevent both short- and long-term consequences of binge drinking.
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Allmark N, Grogan S, Jeffries M. “I don’t want to let myself down or the charity down”: men’s accounts of using various interventions to reduce smoking and alcohol consumption. QUALITATIVE RESEARCH IN PSYCHOLOGY 2017. [DOI: 10.1080/14780887.2017.1393585] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Nigel Allmark
- Manchester Metropolitan University, Department of Psychology, Manchester, UK
| | - Sarah Grogan
- Manchester Metropolitan University, Department of Psychology, Manchester, UK
| | - Mark Jeffries
- University of Manchester, NIHR Greater Manchester Primary Care Patient Safety Translational Research Centre, Manchester, UK
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Hill S, Shanahan L, Costello EJ, Copeland W. Predicting Persistent, Limited, and Delayed Problematic Cannabis Use in Early Adulthood: Findings From a Longitudinal Study. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 2017; 56:966-974.e4. [PMID: 29096779 PMCID: PMC5679452 DOI: 10.1016/j.jaac.2017.08.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/09/2017] [Revised: 08/18/2017] [Accepted: 08/28/2017] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To identify risk profiles associated with patterns of problematic cannabis use in early adulthood. METHOD Data came from 1,229 participants in the Great Smoky Mountains Study, a prospective 20-year cohort study from 1993 to 2015 that is representative of western North Carolina with yearly assessments conducted from ages 9 and 16 years, and assessments at ages 19, 21, 26, and 30 years. Patterns of problematic cannabis use (i.e., DSM-5 cannabis use disorder or daily use) in early adulthood included the following: nonproblematic use in late adolescence (ages 19-21) and early adulthood (ages 26-30); limited problematic use in late adolescence only; persistent problematic use in late adolescence and early adulthood; and delayed problematic use in early adulthood only. Multinominal logistic regression models examined pairwise associations between these patterns and risk factors in childhood/early adolescence (ages 9-16) and late adolescence (ages 19-21). Risk factors included psychiatric disorders (e.g., anxiety, depressive), other substance use (smoking, alcohol, illicit drugs), and challenging social factors (e.g., low socioeconomic status, family functioning, peers). Sex and race/ethnicity (white, African American, American Indian) interactions were tested. RESULTS The persistent pattern (6.7% of sample) was characterized by more anxiety disorders across development and more DSM-5 CUD symptoms during late adolescence compared to the limited pattern (13.3%), which, in turn, had more childhood family instability and dysfunction. The delayed pattern (3.7%) was characterized by more externalizing disorders, maltreatment, and peer bullying in childhood compared to those in nonproblematic users. There were no significant interactions of sex or race/ethnicity. CONCLUSION Problematic cannabis use patterns during early adulthood have distinctive risk profiles, which may be useful in tailoring targeted interventions.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Lilly Shanahan
- Jacobs Center for Productive Youth Development, University of
Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
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16
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Brown DM, Barbara A, Cohen AK, Rehkopf DH. Motherhood, Fatherhood and Midlife Weight Gain in a US Cohort: Associations differ by race/ethnicity and socioeconomic position. SSM Popul Health 2017; 3:558-565. [PMID: 29204513 PMCID: PMC5711467 DOI: 10.1016/j.ssmph.2017.06.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
While there is an association of greater short-term weight gain with childbearing among women, less is known about longer-term weight gain, whether men have similar gains, and how this varies by race/ethnicity and socioeconomic position. Our cohort consisted of a nationally representative sample of 7356 Americans with oversampling of Black and Hispanic populations. We estimated the associations between number of biological children and parental weight, measured as both change in self-reported body mass index (BMI) from age 18 and overweight/obese status (BMI ≥ 25) at age 40. We performed multivariate linear and logistic regression analysis and tested for effect modification by gender. For change in BMI, men gained on average 0.28 BMI (95% CI: (0.01, 0.55)) units per child, while women gained 0.13 units per child (95% CI: (-0.22, 0.48)). The adjusted odds ratios for overweight/obesity associated with each child were 1.32 (95% CI: (1.11, 1.58)) for men and 1.15 (95% CI: (1.01, 1.31)) for women. Stratified analyses by race/ethnicity and socioeconomic position suggested that the observed full-cohort differences were driven primarily by gendered differences in low-income Hispanics and Whites – with the greatest associations among Hispanic men. For example, among low-income Hispanic men we observed a positive relationship between the number of children and weight change by age 40, with average weight change of 0.47 units per child (95%CI: (-0.65, 1.59 For low-income Hispanic women, however, the average weight change was -0.59 units per child (95%CI: (-1.70, 0.47), and the P-value for the test of interaction between gender and number of children was P < 0.001. Our findings suggest that the shared social and economic aspects of raising children play an important role in determining parental weight at mid-life. Researchers have seen associations between having a child and short term weight gain. We examined the relationship of having children with long term weight gain by gender. We did not observe any evidence that women tended to gain more weight than men. In some subcohorts, we observed stronger associations among men than women. Hispanics of lower socioeconomic position had the strongest gendered difference.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel M Brown
- Division of Environmental Health Sciences, School of Public Health, University of California, Berkeley, CA, United States of America
| | - Abrams Barbara
- Division of Epidemiology, School of Public Health, University of California, Berkeley, CA, United States of America
| | - Alison K Cohen
- Division of Epidemiology, School of Public Health, University of California, Berkeley, CA, United States of America
| | - David H Rehkopf
- Division of General Medical Disciplines, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, United States of America
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Capaldi DM, Kerr DCR, Eddy JM, Tiberio SS. Understanding Persistence and Desistance in Crime and Risk Behaviors in Adulthood: Implications for Theory and Prevention. PREVENTION SCIENCE : THE OFFICIAL JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY FOR PREVENTION RESEARCH 2016; 17:785-93. [PMID: 26454855 PMCID: PMC4826854 DOI: 10.1007/s11121-015-0609-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
Recent theoretical advances related to the development and course, including persistence and desistance, of antisocial behaviors and conduct problems, violent behaviors, and related problem behaviors are discussed. Integrative theoretical models, including the Dynamic Developmental Systems (DDS), are discussed. Aspects of the DDS model regarding the development of and change in antisocial behavior and violence across adolescence and early adulthood are illustrated with findings from the Oregon Youth Study, an ongoing, long-term examination of the causes and consequences of antisocial behavior for a community-based sample of men (and their romantic partners) who were raised in neighborhoods with high delinquency rates. Preventive implications of the model are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Deborah M Capaldi
- Oregon Social Learning Center, 10 Shelton McMurphey Blvd, Eugene, OR, 97401, USA.
| | - David C R Kerr
- Oregon Social Learning Center, 10 Shelton McMurphey Blvd, Eugene, OR, 97401, USA
- School of Psychological Science, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR, 97331, USA
| | - J Mark Eddy
- Partners for Our Children, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Stacey S Tiberio
- Oregon Social Learning Center, 10 Shelton McMurphey Blvd, Eugene, OR, 97401, USA
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Högberg H, Skagerström J, Spak F, Nilsen P, Larsson M. Alcohol consumption among partners of pregnant women in Sweden: a cross sectional study. BMC Public Health 2016; 16:694. [PMID: 27484750 PMCID: PMC4971635 DOI: 10.1186/s12889-016-3338-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/29/2015] [Accepted: 07/21/2016] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Antenatal care in Sweden involves a visit in pregnancy week 6–7 for counseling about lifestyle issues, including alcohol. The aim of this study was to investigate alcohol consumption among partners of pregnant women, their motives for changing drinking patterns when becoming a parent and their perceptions of the midwife’s counseling about alcohol. Method The study was conducted at 30 antenatal care centers across Sweden in 2009–2010. All partners who accompanied a pregnant women in pregnancy week >17 were asked to participate. The questionnaire included questions on alcohol consumption. Results Questionnaires from 444 partners were analyzed. Most, 95 %, of the partners reported alcohol consumption before pregnancy; 18 % were binge drinking (6 standard drinks or more per occasion, each drink containing 12 grams of pure alcohol) at least once every month during the last year. More than half, 58 %, of all partners had decreased their alcohol consumption following pregnancy recognition and a higher proportion of binge drinkers decreased their consumption compared to non-frequent binge drinkers (p = 0.025). Their motives varied; the pregnancy itself, fewer social gatherings (potentially involving alcohol consumption) and a sense of responsibility for the pregnant partner were reported. Of the partners, 37 % reported support for decreased drinking from others (pregnant partner, parents, friend or workmates). Further, most partners appreciated the midwife’s counseling on alcohol. Conclusion A majority of partners decreased their alcohol consumption in transition to parenthood, which also appears to be a crucial time for changing alcohol-drinking patterns. The partners with higher AUDIT-C scores reported more support for decreased drinking. Most partners appreciated the midwife’s talk about alcohol and pregnancy and those who filled out AUDIT in early pregnancy reported that the counseling was more engaging. During pregnancy it is possible to detect partners with high alcohol consumption, and promote interventions for decreased drinking, also for the partners. Written information addressing alcohol use and directed to partners is needed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hjördis Högberg
- Department of Women's and Children's Health, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden. .,Psykiatri Skåne, Divisionsledningen, Baravägen 1, S-22185, Lund, Sweden.
| | - Janna Skagerström
- Department of Health and Medical Science, Division of Community Medicine, Linköping University, Linköping, Sweden
| | - Fredrik Spak
- Social medicine, University of Gothenburg, Göteborg, Sweden
| | - Per Nilsen
- Department of Health and Medical Science, Division of Community Medicine, Linköping University, Linköping, Sweden
| | - Margareta Larsson
- Department of Women's and Children's Health, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden
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Arria AM, Caldeira KM, Allen HK, Vincent KB, Bugbee BA, O’Grady KE. Drinking Like an Adult? Trajectories of Alcohol Use Patterns Before and After College Graduation. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 2016; 40:583-90. [PMID: 26893253 PMCID: PMC4775364 DOI: 10.1111/acer.12973] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/19/2015] [Accepted: 11/24/2015] [Indexed: 01/16/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND College students who engage in high-risk drinking patterns are thought to "mature out" of these patterns as they transition to adult roles. College graduation is an important milestone demarcating this transition. We examine longitudinal changes in quantity and frequency of alcohol consumption between the college years and the 4 years after graduation and explore variation in these changes by gender and race/ethnicity. METHODS Participants were 1,128 college graduates enrolled in a longitudinal prospective study of health-risk behaviors. Standard measures of alcohol consumption were gathered during 8 annual personal interviews (76 to 91% annual follow-up). Graduation dates were culled from administrative data and self-report. Spline models, in which separate trajectories were modeled before and after the "knot" of college graduation, were fit to 8 annual observations of past-year alcohol use frequency and quantity (typical number of drinks/drinking day). RESULTS Frequency increased linearly pregraduation, slightly decreased postgraduation, and then rebounded to pregraduation levels. Pregraduation frequency increased more steeply among individuals who drank more heavily at college entry. Quantity decreased linearly during college, followed by quadratic decreases after graduation. CONCLUSIONS Results suggest that the postcollege "maturing-out" phenomenon might be attributable to decreases in alcohol quantity but not frequency. High-frequency drinking patterns that develop during college appear to persist several years postgraduation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amelia M. Arria
- Center on Young Adult Health and Development, Department of Behavioral and Community Health, University of Maryland School of Public Health, College Park, MD
| | - Kimberly M. Caldeira
- Center on Young Adult Health and Development, Department of Behavioral and Community Health, University of Maryland School of Public Health, College Park, MD
| | - Hannah K. Allen
- Center on Young Adult Health and Development, Department of Behavioral and Community Health, University of Maryland School of Public Health, College Park, MD
| | - Kathryn B. Vincent
- Center on Young Adult Health and Development, Department of Behavioral and Community Health, University of Maryland School of Public Health, College Park, MD
| | - Brittany A. Bugbee
- Center on Young Adult Health and Development, Department of Behavioral and Community Health, University of Maryland School of Public Health, College Park, MD
| | - Kevin E. O’Grady
- Department of Psychology, University of Maryland, College Park, MD
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Kwon JY, Oliffe JL, Bottorff JL, Kelly MT. Masculinity and Fatherhood: New Fathers' Perceptions of Their Female Partners' Efforts to Assist Them to Reduce or Quit Smoking. Am J Mens Health 2015; 9:332-9. [PMID: 25106653 PMCID: PMC4469541 DOI: 10.1177/1557988314545627] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Health promotion initiatives to reduce smoking among parents have focused almost exclusively on women to support their cessation during pregnancy and postpartum, while overlooking the importance of fathers' smoking cessation. This study was a secondary analysis of in-depth interviews with 20 new and expectant fathers to identify how they perceived their female partners' efforts to assist them to reduce or quit smoking. Social constructionist gender frameworks were used to theorize and develop the findings. Three key themes were identified: support and autonomy in men's smoking cessation, perception of challenging men's freedom to smoke, and contempt for men's continued smoking. The findings suggest that shifts in masculinities as men take up fathering should be considered in designing smoking cessation interventions for fathers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jae-Yung Kwon
- University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
| | - John L Oliffe
- University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
| | - Joan L Bottorff
- University of British Columbia, Okanagan Campus, Kelowna, British Columbia, Canada
| | - Mary T Kelly
- University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
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Gambrel LE, Piercy FP. Mindfulness-based relationship education for couples expecting their first child--part 1: a randomized mixed-methods program evaluation. JOURNAL OF MARITAL AND FAMILY THERAPY 2015; 41:5-24. [PMID: 24433518 DOI: 10.1111/jmft.12066] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/03/2023]
Abstract
This article is Part 1 of a two-part series, in which we report on our evaluation of a mindfulness-based relationship enhancement program for couples who are expecting their first child. In this mixed-methods randomized clinical trial, we assigned 33 couples to the 4-week Mindful Transition to Parenthood Program treatment group (n = 16 couples) or to a waitlist control condition (n = 17 couples). Men in the treatment group significantly improved in relationship satisfaction, mindfulness, and negative affect; women had no significant treatment effects. Small to large effect sizes were present for treatment group men and women in multiple areas. Mixed-methods analyses demonstrated that this intervention may be especially helpful for men because of differences in social support needs, effects of program enrollment, and relational processes in the prenatal period.
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Siennick SE, Staff J, Osgood DW, Schulenberg JE, Bachman JG, VanEseltine M. PARTNERSHIP TRANSITIONS AND ANTISOCIAL BEHAVIOR IN YOUNG ADULTHOOD: A WITHIN-PERSON, MULTI-COHORT ANALYSIS. THE JOURNAL OF RESEARCH IN CRIME AND DELINQUENCY 2014; 51:735-758. [PMID: 25484453 PMCID: PMC4254826 DOI: 10.1177/0022427814529977] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/19/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES This study examines the effects of young adult transitions into marriage and cohabitation on criminal offending and substance use, and whether those effects changed since the 1970s as marriage rates declined and cohabitation rates rose dramatically. It also examines whether any beneficial effects of cohabitation depend on marriage intentions. METHODS Using multi-cohort national panel data from Monitoring the Future (N = 15,875), the authors estimated fixed effects models relating within-person changes in marriage and cohabitation to changes in criminal offending and substance use. RESULTS Marriage predicts lower levels of criminal offending and substance use, but the effects of cohabitation are limited to substance use outcomes and to engaged cohabiters. There are no cohort differences in the associations of marriage and cohabitation with criminal offending, and no consistent cohort differences in their associations with substance use. There is little evidence of differences in effects by gender or parenthood. CONCLUSIONS Young adults are increasingly likely to enter romantic partnership statuses that do not appear as effective in reducing antisocial behavior. Although cohabitation itself does not reduce antisocial behavior, engagement might. Future research should examine the mechanisms behind these effects, and why non-marital partnerships reduce substance use and not crime.
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Kwon JY, Oliffe JL, Bottorff JL, Kelly MT. Heterosexual gender relations and masculinity in fathers who smoke. Res Nurs Health 2014; 37:391-8. [PMID: 25155799 PMCID: PMC4239006 DOI: 10.1002/nur.21614] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 07/03/2014] [Indexed: 12/03/2022]
Abstract
The purpose of this research was to explore the role of masculinity and heterosexual gender relations in new and expectant fathers’ explanations of their continued smoking. We conducted a secondary analysis of in-depth interviews with 20 fathers. Two themes were identified: (1) reconciling with partners to maintain a smoke-free family home; and (2) smoking to self-regulate emotions and maintain relationships. Fathers’ decisions to smoke and changes in smoking behavior were shaped by ideals of masculinity and by partner relationships and family and social contexts, including division of domestic duties and childcare. Recognizing the influence of both masculinity and gender relations could provide new directions for supporting men’s smoking cessation efforts during early parenthood. © 2014 The Authors. Research in Nursing & Health Published by Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jae-Yung Kwon
- School of Nursing, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia
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Washburn IJ, Capaldi DM, Kim HK, Feingold A. Alcohol and marijuana use in early adulthood for at-risk men: time-varying associations with peer and partner substance use. Drug Alcohol Depend 2014; 140:112-7. [PMID: 24793369 PMCID: PMC4053503 DOI: 10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2014.04.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/14/2013] [Revised: 04/01/2014] [Accepted: 04/01/2014] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Time-varying associations of 185 at-risk men's (from the Oregon Youth Study) substance use with that of their peers and partner over a 10-year period (ages 23 to 32 years) were examined. Moderation of effects by time with peers and partner and their age were tested. METHOD Growth models were used to predict changes in heavy episodic drinking (HED) alcohol use and marijuana use as a function of substance use by their female partners and male peers. RESULTS Time with peers and peer substance use significantly predicted HED (ORs=1.6, 2.3), alcohol use (ORs=1.6, 2.1), volume of alcohol use (IRRs=1.5, 1.3), and marijuana use (ORs=12.8, 1.7); peer marijuana use predicted volume of marijuana use (B=2.5). Partner substance use significantly predicated marijuana volume (B=2.7). Partner alcohol use predicted alcohol volume (IRR=1.1), but was moderated by time with partner and age (IRR=1.0). Time with partner and partner marijuana use predicted marijuana use (OR=0.5, 2.7), as did the interaction of the two (OR=3.8). CONCLUSIONS Outcome-specific substance use of peers and partners was significantly associated with indicators of alcohol and marijuana use in men's early adulthood, with robust effects of peer substance use through age 30 years and with time spent with peers influencing alcohol use. Time with partner was protective against marijuana use unless the partner used marijuana. Peers and partners should be considered in intervention efforts to effectively reduce men's substance use in early adulthood.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Deborah M. Capaldi
- Oregon Social Learning Center, 10 Shelton McMurphey Blvd, Eugene, OR 97401
| | - Hyoun K. Kim
- Oregon Social Learning Center, 10 Shelton McMurphey Blvd, Eugene, OR 97401
| | - Alan Feingold
- Oregon Social Learning Center, 10 Shelton McMurphey Blvd, Eugene, OR 97401
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Settersten RA, Day JK, Cancel-Tirado D, Driscoll DM. Fathers’ Accounts of Struggle and Growth in Early Adulthood: An Exploratory Study of Disadvantaged Men. New Dir Child Adolesc Dev 2014; 2014:73-89. [DOI: 10.1002/cad.20055] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Richard A. Settersten
- Hallie E. Ford Center for Healthy Children & Families; Oregon State University
- Human development and family sciences; Oregon State University
| | - Jack K. Day
- Human development and family sciences; Oregon State University
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Rhoades KA, Leve LD, Harold GT, Kim H, Chamberlain P. Drug Use Trajectories After a Randomized Controlled Trial of MTFC: Associations with Partner Drug Use. JOURNAL OF RESEARCH ON ADOLESCENCE : THE OFFICIAL JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY FOR RESEARCH ON ADOLESCENCE 2014; 24:40-54. [PMID: 24729667 PMCID: PMC3979629 DOI: 10.1111/jora.12077] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/03/2023]
Abstract
Trajectories of drug use were examined in a sample of women with prior juvenile-justice system involvement. One hundred fifty-three young women who participated in a randomized controlled trial of Multidimensional Treatment Foster Care (MTFC) in adolescence were assessed on five occasions over a 24-month period in young adulthood (mean age = 22.29 years at T1). Participants assigned to the MTFC condition during adolescence reported greater decreases in drug use than girls assigned to the treatment as usual (TAU) condition. Partner drug use was significantly associated with women's concurrent drug use, although participants in the MTFC condition were more resilient to partner drug use than in the TAU condition. Implications for drug use prevention and intervention programs during adolescence are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Leslie D Leve
- Department of Counseling Psychology and Human Services, University of Oregon, Eugene, OR
| | - Gordon T Harold
- Andrew and Virginia Rudd Center for Adoption Research and Practice, School of Psychology, University of Sussex, UK
| | - Hyoun Kim
- Oregon Social Learning Center, Eugene, OR
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Astone NM, Pleck JH, Dariotis JM, Marcell AV, Emerson M, Shapiro S, Sonenstein FL. Union status and sexual risk behavior among men in their 30s. PERSPECTIVES ON SEXUAL AND REPRODUCTIVE HEALTH 2013; 45:204-9. [PMID: 24188587 PMCID: PMC4144408 DOI: 10.1363/4520413] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/12/2023]
Abstract
CONTEXT Understanding the relationship between union status and men's sexual risk behavior in their 30s is important to ensure appropriate reproductive health services for men in middle adulthood. METHODS Data from 1,083 men aged 34-41 who participated in the 2008-2010 wave of the National Survey of Adolescent Males were used to examine differentials in sexual risk behaviors by union status, past risk behavior and selected characteristics. Bivariate tabulations were done to assess relationships between current risk behavior and background variables, multinomial regression analysis was conducted to identify associations between union status and past risk behavior, and logistic regression analysis was used to assess associations between current behavior and both union status and past behavior. RESULTS Eight percent of men in their 30s had had three or more sexual partners in the last 12 months, 10% had had at least one risky partner and 8% had had concurrent partners. Men living outside co-residential unions reported higher levels of these behaviors (24%, 29% and 24%, respectively) than did married men (1-2%) or cohabiting men (7-12%). In multivariate analyses that controlled for past risk behavior, married men were less likely than cohabiting men to have had at least one risky partner or concurrent partners in the last year (odds ratio, 0.2 for each), while men who were not in a co-residential union had an increased likelihood of reporting each risk behavior (2.2-5.3). CONCLUSIONS Men in their 30s, especially those who are not married, engage in risky sexual behaviors. Further studies are needed to assess what contributes to behavioral differences by union status and what types of services might help men in this age-group reduce their risk.
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Capaldi DM. Offspring of mothers who had antenatal depression and experienced maltreatment in childhood are more likely to experience child maltreatment themselves. Evid Based Nurs 2013; 17:37-8. [PMID: 23828759 DOI: 10.1136/eb-2013-101378] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
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