Raw diets for dogs and cats: a review, with particular reference to microbiological hazards

A 20-year serological survey of Toxoplasma gondii and Neospora caninum infection in dogs with neuromuscular disorders from urban areas in Argentina

Toxoplasma gondii and Neospora caninum infections may be associated with neuromuscular disorders in dogs. The aim of this study was to assess the seroprevalence to these protozoan parasites in dogs with neuromuscular disease from urban areas of Buenos Aires province, Argentina, over a period of 20 years, and to evaluate the association of seropositivity and antibody titres with different variables such as sex, breed and age. For this, a total of 7238 serum samples from urban owned dogs were analysed by the indirect fluorescence antibody test (IFAT) for specific IgG antibodies. The observed seropositivity rates were 35.7 % for T. gondii and 25.7 % for N. caninum. Crossbred dogs had a significantly higher seroprevalence for T. gondii than purebred dogs (41 % vs. 29.3 %), while a trend towards significance was observed for N. caninum, which was slightly higher in purebred dogs (26 % vs. 23.6 %). Seroprevalence for both parasites increased with age and was higher in older animals. Regarding the distribution of specific antibody titres, the most frequent IFAT T. gondii titre found was 100 and for N. caninum it was ≥800. For toxoplasmosis, there was no association with age group, and low titres (50, 100 and 200) predominated in all groups. However, for neosporosis, age and titres were significantly associated for one age group, with dogs under 12 months of age having a higher proportion of high titres (400 and 800). The trend in the seroprevalence for T. gondii is increasing over the years and lower antibody titres predominate in the dogs studied, which may be more related to the presence of chronic infections and not necessarily to the clinical signs of the animals. Despite the generally low titres observed for toxoplasmosis in this study, it is important to highlight the high seroprevalence found in our region, as dogs can act as sentinels of environmental contamination and as indicators of possible human infection. In the case of neosporosis, although the trend in seroprevalence in dogs with signs appears to be decreasing over the years, our work shows that higher antibody titres predominate, and are probably related to the clinical signs presented by the dogs. This study provides the most recent epidemiological data and serological profiles of T. gondii and N. caninum infections in a large number of canine sera from urban areas in Argentina, providing relevant information for clinical veterinarians and epidemiologists in order to understand the circulation of the parasites.

Rapid prediction of the chemical composition of pet food using a benchtop and handheld near-infrared spectrometer

Quality of pet foods can be affected by many factors such as raw materials, formulations, and processing techniques. The pet food manufacturers require fast analyses to control the nutritional quality of their products. Herein, near-infrared spectroscopy (NIR) was evaluated to quantify the chemical composition of pet food, and the performances of two NIR spectrometers were investigated and compared: a benchtop instrument (1000-2500 nm) and a low-cost handheld instrument (900-1700 nm). Seventy cat food and thirty-six dog samples were characterized using reference methods for crude protein, crude fat, crude fibre, crude ash, moisture, calcium (Ca), and phosphorus (P). Principal component regression (PCR) and partial least squares regression (PLSR) were used to establish the models that involved the cat food and mixed model. The characteristic wavelengths were selected using a competitive adaptive reweighted-sampling (CARS) algorithm. The Optimal models obtained from the benchtop instrument for crude protein, crude fat, and moisture were classified as "Good" or "Very good" (Residual prediction variation (RPD) > 3), for crude fibre were classified as "Poor" (RPD>2), and for crude ash, Ca and P (RPD<2) were classified as "Very poor". The Optimal calibrations obtained from the handheld instrument for crude protein, crude fat, and moisture were classified as "Good" or "Very good" (RPD>3), for crude fibre, crude ash, Ca, and P were classified as "Very poor" (RPD<2). Generally, the the performance of benchtop and handheld instrument was close, and the cat food model outperformed the mixed model. Results from the current study revealed the potential to monitor the chemical compositions in pet food on a large scale.

Raw meat-based diet for pets: a neglected source of human exposure to Salmonella and pathogenic Escherichia coli clones carrying mcr, Portugal, September 2019 to January 2020

BackgroundThe pet industry is expanding worldwide, particularly raw meat-based diets (RMBDs). There are concerns regarding the safety of RMBDs, especially their potential to spread clinically relevant antibiotic-resistant bacteria or zoonotic pathogens.AimWe aimed to investigate whether dog food, including RMBD, commercially available in Portugal can be a source of Salmonella and/or other Enterobacteriaceae strains resistant to last-line antibiotics such as colistin.MethodsFifty-five samples from 25 brands (21 international ones) of various dog food types from 12 suppliers were screened by standard cultural methods between September 2019 and January 2020. Isolates were characterised by phenotypic and genotypic methods, including whole genome sequencing and comparative genomics.ResultsOnly RMBD batches were contaminated, with 10 of 14 containing polyclonal multidrug-resistant (MDR) Escherichia coli and one MDR Salmonella. One turkey-based sample contained MDR Salmonella serotype 1,4,[5],12:i:- ST34/cgST142761 with similarity to human clinical isolates occurring worldwide. This Salmonella exhibited typical antibiotic resistance (bla TEM + strA-strB + sul2 + tet(B)) and metal tolerance profiles (pco + sil + ars) associated with the European epidemic clone. Two samples (turkey/veal) carried globally dispersed MDR E. coli (ST3997-complexST10/cgST95899 and ST297/cgST138377) with colistin resistance (minimum inhibitory concentration: 4 mg/L) and mcr-1 gene on IncX4 plasmids, which were identical to other IncX4 circulating worldwide.ConclusionSome RMBDs from European brands available in Portugal can be a vehicle for clinically relevant MDR Salmonella and pathogenic E. coli clones carrying genes encoding resistance to the last-line antibiotic colistin. Proactive actions within the One Health context, spanning regulatory, pet-food industry and consumer levels, are needed to mitigate these public health risks.

Manifestations of systemic disease in the retina and fundus of cats and dogs

The fundus is unique in that it is the only part of the body that allows for a noninvasive and uninterrupted view of vasculature and nervous tissue. Utilization of this can be a powerful tool in uncovering salient incidental findings which point to underlying systemic diseases, and for monitoring response to therapy. Retinal venules and arterioles allow the clinician to assess changes in vascular color, diameter, outline, and tortuosity. The retina and optic nerve may exhibit changes associated with increased or decreased thickness, inflammatory infiltrates, hemorrhages, and detachments. While some retinal manifestations of systemic disease may be nonspecific, others are pathognomonic, and may be the presenting sign for a systemic illness. The examination of the fundus is an essential part of the comprehensive physical examination. Systemic diseases which may present with retinal abnormalities include a variety of disease classifications, as represented by the DAMNIT-V acronym, for Degenerative/Developmental, Anomalous, Metabolic, Neoplastic, Nutritional, Inflammatory (Infectious/Immune-mediated/ischemic), Toxic, Traumatic and Vascular. This review details systemic illnesses or syndromes that have been reported to manifest in the fundus of companion animals and discusses key aspects in differentiating their underlying cause. Normal variations in retinal anatomy and morphology are also considered.

An investigation of the presence and antimicrobial susceptibility of Enterobacteriaceae in raw and cooked kibble diets for dogs in the United Kingdom

Raw meat diets (RMD) for dogs are an increasingly popular alternative pet food choice, however studies worldwide have demonstrated them to be contaminated with zoonotic and antimicrobial resistant (AMR) bacteria, including bacteria resistant to critically important antibiotics. Despite this, few data exist surrounding the presence of these bacteria in RMD in the United Kingdom. The present study aimed to identify the most commonly selected RMD and non-raw diets (NRMD) by United Kingdom dog owners. Additionally, it investigated the presence of AMR-Enterobacteriaceae in samples of pre-prepared RMD and cooked commercial kibble dog foods. An online survey investigating diet preferences of United Kingdom dog owners was open for 6 weeks between February-March 2020. From this, the top 10 brands of pre-prepared raw and cooked kibble diets were ascertained and 134 samples purchased (110 RMD, 24 kibble) and subjected to microbiological testing. Bacterial enumeration of E. coli and other Enterobacteriaceae was undertaken, and the presence of Salmonella spp. and AMR-E. coli within samples determined. Whole genome sequencing was undertaken on Salmonella spp. and third-generation cephalosporin-resistant 3GCR-E. coli isolates. Pre-prepared RMD was most commonly selected by dog owners who fed RMD, and cooked commercial complete dry food was most frequently fed by owners who fed NRMD. Damaged and leaking packaging was observed in samples of RMD, alongside variability in information provided surrounding product traceability. Counts of E. coli and other Enterobacteriaceae exceeding >5,000 CFU/g were identified in samples of RMD. AMR-, extended-spectrum beta-lactamase (ESBL)-producing and 3GCR-E. coli was isolated from 39, 14 and 16% of RMD samples, respectively. Multiple antimicrobial resistance genes were identified in 3GCR-E. coli isolates. Of the ESBL encoding genes, blaCTX-M-15 was most commonly identified. S. enterica was isolated from 5% of RMD samples. No Enterobacteriaceae were isolated from any of the cooked kibble samples. The present study suggests that pre-prepared RMD available for dogs in the United Kingdom can be contaminated with zoonotic and AMR-Enterobacteriaceae. RMDs, therefore, are potentially an important One Health concern. Veterinary and medical professionals, pet food retailers and pet owners should be aware of these risks; and stringent hygiene measures should be practiced if owners choose to feed RMD.

Influence of age, habitat elevation, and distance to a thermal power plant on pathomorphological findings in the European brown hare (Lepuseuropaeus P.)

The lifespan of the European hare (Lepus europaeus P.) is affected by a number of negative factors, including pollutants. In this paper, the individual and joint influence of age and habitat (elevation and distance from the thermal power plant - TPP) on pathomorphological findings of hares shot during three hunting seasons was investigated. Pathomorphological changes were found in 95.12% of hares. In hares up to 1 year of age, the changes were predominant in the lungs, and in older hares, in the kidneys. Degenerative changes in kidneys and liver and inflammatory changes in kidneys and lungs were considered important most in discussing the influence of chemical pollution. The proximity of TPP influenced the type of changes in the liver. A significant joint effect of age and elevation on the type of changes in the lungs of adult hares and on the heart of young hares was found. Elevation and distance from TPP had a joint effect on the occurrence of changes in the lungs, intestines, and heart in hares from the field farther from TPP. The results indicate that the hares were highly exposed to chemical pollutants that may affect their immunity, and lifespan.

Assessment of the content of macronutrients and microbiological safety of dry dog foods

In Europe, there are no legal regulations specifying maximum allowable limits for pathogenic bacteria or fungi and yeasts in dog food. For proximate composition, the European Pet Food Industry Federation (FEDIAF) nutritional guidelines provide minimum recommended levels for protein and fat only, not for other ingredients and no safe maximum levels. Therefore, the aim of this study was to evaluate the microbiological safety of 35 dry dog foods, taking into account the division into foods with grains as the main plant ingredient and those described as grain-free. We assumed that grain-included foods are more susceptible to the presence of the total number of aerobic bacteria. This parameter is an essential, hygienic criterion informing about the microbiological safety of the pet food. It also inform about the microbiological quality of the food ingredients used, the effectiveness of decontamination during the production process, sanitary and hygienic conditions during the acquisition, processing and marketing of pet food and its components. In the case of macronutrients, the results in some cases were multiples of the minimum recommended levels. The most important microorganisms that presence was found in the analyzed dog foods were indicator bacteria (E. coli and coliform bacteria, Clostridium perfringens), whose presence in feed constitutes microbiological contamination. They inform about sanitary and hygienic conditions during the production and storage of the pet food. The current guidelines recommend microbiological testing of food for the presence of Salmonella bacilli as the basic indicator for assessing the sanitary quality. No Salmonella spp. was detected in any of the foods. The remaining analyzed bacteria (Proteus spp., Enterococcus spp., Staphylococcus spp.) as well as molds and yeasts, were present in both grain-included and grain-free foods. The obtained results showed that in terms of microbiological safety, grain-included foods come out worse, because microorganisms were detected more frequently in this type of dry dog food.

One health transmission of fluoroquinolone-resistant Escherichia coli and risk factors for their excretion by dogs living in urban and nearby rural settings

Rates of fluoroquinolone resistance in Escherichia coli, a key opportunistic human pathogen, are problematic. Taking a One Health approach, we investigated the excretion of fluoroquinolone-resistant (FQ-R) E. coli by 600 dogs (303 from rural and 297 from urban environments) recruited from a 50 × 50 km region where we have also surveyed FQ-R E. coli from cattle and from human urine. FQ-R E. coli were detected in faeces from 7.3% (rural) and 11.8% (urban) of dogs. FQ-R E. coli from rural dogs tended to be of sequence types (STs) commonly excreted by cattle, whilst those from urban dogs tended to carry plasmid-mediated quinolone resistance genes, common in human E. coli in our study region. Phylogenetic evidence was obtained for sharing FQ-R E. coli - particularly for STs 10, 162 and 744 - between cattle, dogs and humans. Epidemiological analysis showed a strong association between feeding dogs uncooked meat and the excretion of FQ-R E. coli, particularly for STs 10, 162 and 744. This practice, therefore, could serve as a transmission link for FQ-R E. coli from farmed animals entering the home so we suggest that dogs fed uncooked meat should be handled and housed using enhanced hygiene practices.

Impact of genetic diversity and antibiotic-resistance of Salmonella isolated from feral cats: One Health approach

Free-living cats usually live in colonies in urban areas, especially close to parks and neighbourhoods where people feed them without any sanitary control. This can pose a human, animal and environmental health concern due to the close contact between uncontrolled colonies, the population and other domestic and/or wild animals. Thus, this study aimed to assess the genetic diversity and antimicrobial resistance (AMR) among Salmonella enterica subsp. enterica strains isolated from feral cats in a previous epidemiological study in the Gran Canaria island (Spain). A total of nineteen Salmonella isolates were obtained from November 2018 to January 2019 in a Salmonella epidemiological study in feral cats. All isolates obtained were genotyped by pulsed-field gel electrophoresis (PGFE) and were tested for antimicrobial susceptibility, in accordance with Decision 2013/652/EU. PFGE analysis revealed isolates clustering by serovar, with identical clones for serovars Bredeney and Grancanaria, while differing pulsotypes were observed for serovars Florida (88.89 % similarity) and Nima (83.23 % similarity). All but two isolates were resistant to at least one antimicrobial. The results obtained demonstrate that feral cats in the region investigated are a reservoir of Salmonella strains resistant to gentamicin (94.1 %) and of the critically important antimicrobial tigecycline (23.5 %). Hence, they could excrete AMR strains through their faeces and contaminate the environment, favoring the spread of such bacteria to cohabiting pets. Moreover, this widespread presence of AMR Salmonella clones across various serovars highlights the urgent need to implement efficient antimicrobial stewardship and control programs by the local governments due to the ongoing need to protect human and animal health under a One Health concept.

Developing and Planning a Protocol for Implementing Health Promoting Animal Assisted Interventions (AAI) in a Tertiary Health Setting

The Ottawa Charter identifies that multiple levels of government, non-government, community, and other organizations should work together to facilitate health promotion, including in acute settings such as hospitals. We outline a method and protocol to achieve this, namely an Action Research (AR) framework for an Animal Assisted Intervention (AAI) in a tertiary health setting. Dogs Offering Support after Stroke (DOgSS) is an AR study at a major tertiary referral hospital. AAI has been reported to improve mood and quality of life for patients in hospitals. Our project objectives included applying for funding, developing a hospital dog visiting Action Research project, and, subsequent to ethics and governance approvals and finance, undertaking and reporting on the Action Research findings. The Action Research project aimed to investigate whether AAI (dog-visiting) makes a difference to the expressed mood of stroke patients and their informal supports (visiting carers/family/friends), and also the impact these visits have on hospital staff and volunteers, as well as the dog handler and dog involved. We provide our protocol for project management and operations, setting out how the project is conducted from conception to assess human and animal wellbeing and assist subsequent decision-making about introducing dog-visiting to the Stroke Unit. The protocol can be used or adapted by other organizations to try to avoid pitfalls and support health promotion in one of the five important action areas of the Ottawa Charter, namely that of reorienting health services.

Inactivation of Salmonella, Shiga Toxin-producing E. coli, and Listeria monocytogenes in Raw Diet Pet Foods Using High-Pressure Processing

Pet food formulated with raw meat can pose health risks to pets and humans. High-pressure processing (HPP) was evaluated to achieve a 5-log reduction ofSalmonella,E. coliSTEC, andL. monocytogenesin commercial raw pet foods and maintain a 5-log reduction throughout post-HPP storage.Three formulation types that varied in the amounts of striated meat, organ meat, bone, seeds, and other ingredients (fruits, vegetables, and minor ingredients) designated as A-, S-, and R-formulations were used. Eight raw diet pet foods, consisting of three beef formulations (A-, S- and R-Beef), three chicken formulations (A-, S-, and R-Chicken), and two lamb formulations (A- and S-Lamb), were inoculated with 7 log CFU/g cocktails ofSalmonella,E. coliSTEC orL. monocytogenes, HPP at 586 MPa for 1-4 min, and stored refrigerated (4°C) or frozen (-10 to -18°C) for 21 days with microbiological analyses at various time intervals. A- formulations (20-46% meat, 42-68% organs, 0.9-1.3% seeds, and 10.7-11.1% fruits, vegetables, and minor ingredients) inoculated withSalmonellaand treated at 586 MPa for at least 2 min achieved a 5-log reduction 1 day post-HPP and maintained that inactivation level during frozen storage. A- and S-formulations inoculated withE. coliSTEC and treated at 586 MPa for at least 2 min achieved a 5-log reduction from day 6 of frozen storage. L. monocytogeneswas more HPP resistant thanSalmonellaandE. coliSTEC.S-formulations containing chicken or beef and stored frozen post-HPP had lower inactivation of L. monocytogenes compared to A-formulations containing chicken or beef. S-Lamb had higher frozen storage inactivation (5.95 ± 0.20 log CFU/g) compared to chicken (2.52 ± 0.38 log CFU/g) or beef (2.36 ± 0.48 log CFU/g). HPP coupled with frozen storage time was effective in achieving and maintaining a 5-log reduction ofSalmonellaandE. coliSTEC whileL. monocytogeneswas more resistant and requires further optimization to achieve a 5-log reduction.

Causes of pregnancy arrest in the canine species

In the canine species, early pregnancy arrest before 30-40 days of pregnancy will induce intra-uterine embryonic or foetal resorption, with very few clinical signs. If no genital examination by ultrasound is performed at that time, it will often remain unnoticed and the bitch will be qualified as infertile. It is only when pregnancy stops at a later stage, mostly after 40 days, that clinical signs will be seen. Expulsion of aborted foetuses or placentas may be observed, although the dam frequently eats the expelled tissues. Intra-uterine mummification may also occur. This article reviews the causes of pregnancy termination in the bitch, both at the embryonic and the foetal stages, reported in the literature. Canine brucellosis is by far the most important disease concerned in this aspect. There is an important current concern about this disease, due to the fact that several outbreaks have been observed recently in Europe, and that it is a very contagious disease; it may be an underestimated zoonosis. Other bacterial causes of pregnancy arrest are sporadic. There is, however, a growing attention towards the microbiological content of raw food diets which are more and more popular among dog breeders and may-if badly prepared-contain abortifacient bacteria such as Campylobacter jejuni or Listeria monocytogenes. The abortifacient role of endogenous vaginal bacteria and mycoplasms remains unclear and may be related to an imbalanced vaginal flora with subsequent ascending bacterial contamination of the uterus. The role of Canine Herpesvirus on abortion is controversial and probably not frequent. Other viruses have been shown experimentally to induce abortion but their natural occurrence in this respect remains unknown. The same applies to the parasite Neospora caninum which is suspected, but not proven, potentially to induce pregnancy arrest in bitches. Among non-infectious causes, uterine pathology such as cystic endometrial hyperplasia (CEH) or sub-clinical post-mating endometritis which can cause infertility and may also induce embryonic resorption. The role of luteal insufficiency in pregnancy arrest is probably overestimated.

Nutritional evaluation of new alternative types of dog foods including raw and cooked homemade-style diets

BACKGROUND

New alternative types of pet foods such as raw and cooked homemade-style diets containing human food ingredients have been introduced due to a trend of pet humanization and diversification of consumer needs.

OBJECTIVES

To evaluate nutritional adequacy of new alternative types of dog foods containing human food ingredients as maintenance diets for dogs.

METHODS

Eleven homemade-style foods for adult dogs were purchased from online channel in Korea and analyzed to evaluate nutritional adequacy for adult dogs. Nutrients analyzed included crude protein, amino acids, crude fat, fatty acids, and minerals.

RESULTS

Crude protein and amino acids in all products satisfied Association of American Feed Control Officials (AAFCO) requirements. Crude fat in one of 11 products did not meet AAFCO requirements. The most deficient minerals were selenium (10 of 11, 90.9%), copper (five of 11, 45.5%), zinc (five of 11, 45.5%), potassium (three of 11, 27.3%), calcium (three of 11, 27.3%), iron (two of 11, 18.2%), and magnesium (one of 11, 9.1%). Six products were not in the range of the recommended Ca:P ratio in AAFCO dog food maintenance nutrient profiles.

CONCLUSIONS

This study performed nutritional evaluation of raw and cooked homemade-style foods as maintenance diets for adult dogs. Some nutritional inadequacies were observed including some minerals, Ca:P ratio, and omega-6:omega-3 fatty acid ratio, although three products (26.2%) satisfied the AAFCO standard except selenium. Overall, the data suggest a need for accurate nutritional adequacy statement for consumers based on proper methods to validate the formula.

Linguatula serrata (Pentastomida: Linguatulidae) infection in a paucisymptomatic greyhound imported from Romania to Italy: A case report and literature overview

Background

Linguatula serrata is a pentastomid zoonotic parasite with worldwide distribution. Although some cases of L. serrata infection have been reported in dogs, the epidemiology of this parasite remains largely unknown in developed countries. In recent years, canine linguatulosis has been repeatedly linked to cases of imported infections. This study aims to focus attention on this uncommon parasite through the presentation of a case report and an overview of the literature.

Case Description

A 1-year-old intact female Borzoi imported from Romania to Italy sneezed spontaneously a worm-like parasite specimen. Morphological and molecular diagnosis identified the parasite as a female of the zoonotic pentastomid L. serrata (so-called European tongue worm) that lives in the nasopharyngeal tract of canids. Eggs of Linguatula were detected in the feces. Molecular identification (99%-100% homology) was based on DNA extraction, polymerase chain reaction of a 700-bp fragment of the mitochondrial cytochrome c oxidase subunit I gene, and alignment with BLAST analysis. Due to the possibility of other adult or juvenile specimens of the parasite still occurring in the dog, a treatment attempt with a combination of febantel/pyrantel/praziquantel was made. No parasite eggs were detected in fecal samples after the drug was administered. Endoscopy confirmed the absence of adult parasites and slight pathological changes. A follow-up examination conducted 3 months after the treatment did not reveal any clinical and laboratory abnormalities.

Conclusion

Linguatula serrata appears to be currently prevalent in some European countries, but there are no recent extensive studies on the prevalence of canine linguatulosis, so the parasite frequently remains undetected and unreported in dogs as the diagnosis is often overlooked. Parasites not commonly found such as L. serrata can become increasingly prevalent and may be detected in imported dogs. Therefore, veterinarians must be aware of the possible presence of uncommon and exotic pathogens in these dogs, be able to recognize the relevant clinical signs, and diagnose the infection quickly. This will improve the prognosis in individual dogs, reduces the risk of possible public health implications, and reduces the risk of uncommon and exotic pathogens establishing new endemic foci.

Nutrition and Theriogenology: A Glimpse Into Nutrition and Nutritional Supplementation During Gestation, Lactation, Weaning and Breeding Dogs and Cats

Feeding during normal reproduction is often not thought of until there is a problem with conception or gestational losses. Energy demands of lactation and early puppy/kitten are of concern, particularly in large and giant breed dogs where mineral balance is crucial to normal development. There is a paucity of information around optimizing feeding during conception and gestation with many myths around ingredients which will be explored in this article along with supplements that may be able to support spermatogenesis and conception which primarily comes from the human literature and may have validity in times of difficult conception.

Microflora, Contents of Polyamines, Biogenic Amines, and TVB-N in Bovine Offal and Game Meat for the Raw-Feeding of Adult Dogs

Microflora and contents of biogenic amines/polyamines and total volatile basic nitrogen (TVB-N) in 99 samples of bovine offal (red offal, n = 41 and other offal and mixes, n = 45) and wild game meat (n = 13) for raw meat-based diets (RMBD) for dogs were analyzed. Samples were bought in 11 local pet food shops and in one game-handling establishment in Austria (Lower Austria, Styria, and Vienna) in September and October 2022. Median contents (first and third quartiles in brackets) of cadaverine, histamine, tyramine, spermidine, and spermine were 20.7 [16.7; 28.6]; 25.4 [17.1; 47.2]; 18.9 [13.6; 38.9]; 15.2 [11.2; 21.2]; and 41.9 [<limit of detection; 64.5] mg/kg wet weight, respectively. The sum of putrescine + cadaverine + histamine + tyramine was >50 mg/kg in 85.9% of samples, indicating the use of low-quality ingredients or inappropriate storage conditions. However, only 10.1% of samples were determined to be not compliant with a maximum amine content proposed for pet food. Median contents of the total aerobic bacteria counts (TACs), Pseudomonas, and Enterobacteriaceae were 7.4 [6.4; 8.0]; 6.5 [5.5; 7.7]; and 4.8 [3.9; 5.6] log CFU/g, respectively, with significantly lower counts in red offal RMBD (p < 0.05). TVB-N exceeded 150 mg/kg in 87.9% of samples. The TACs and Enterobacteriaceae numbers in red offal RMBD were comparable to those in food-grade red offal after 6 days of aerobic storage at 7 °C, i.e., temperatures higher than required for food-grade offal, but acceptable for animal by-products intended for RMBD production. In 80.8% of samples, numbers of Enterobacteriaceae exceeded the EU legal limit. From 12 of these samples, Salmonellae was able to be isolated, with counts from 0.03 MPN/g to 110 MPN/g. Salmonella enterica ser. Montevideo (n = 3), and S. enterica ser. Give and S. enterica ssp. Diarizonae (n = 2 each) were the most frequently isolated, while Listeria monocytogenes was rarely recovered (2%). Whilst exposure of humans handling such pet food can be reduced by hygiene precautions, the risk remains that dogs can acquire a feed-borne salmonellosis and shed the pathogen.

Understanding the Role of Therapy Dogs in Human Health Promotion

Dogs may provide humans with a range of physical, mental and social benefits. Whilst there is growing scientific evidence of benefits to humans, there has been less focus on the impact to canine health, welfare and ethical considerations for the dogs. The importance of animal welfare is increasingly acknowledged, indicating that the Ottawa Charter should be extended to include the welfare of non-human animals supporting the promotion of human health. Therapy dog programmes are delivered across a variety of settings including hospitals, aged care facilities and mental health services, highlighting the important role they play in human health outcomes. Research has shown that that there are biomarkers for stress in humans and other animals engaged in human-animal interactions. This review aims to assess the impact of human-animal interactions on therapy dogs engaged in providing support to human health. While challenging, it is paramount to ensure that, within the framework of One Welfare, the welfare of therapy dogs is included, as it is a key factor for future sustainability. We identified a range of concerns due to the lack of guidelines and standards to protect the wellbeing of the dogs engaged in these programmes. Extension of the Ottawa Charter to include the welfare of non-human animals with leveraging through a One Welfare approach would promote animal and human health beyond current boundaries.

Concomitant Campylobacteriosis in a Puppy and in Its Caregiver: A One Health Perspective Paradigm in Human-Pet Relationship

We report a case of laboratory-confirmed Campylobacter (C). jejuni and C. upsaliensis symptomatic infection in a puppy, a French Bouledogue, female, 6 months of age, fed a raw, unbalanced, poultry-based diet (RPD), (48.1 CP, 33% EE, 0.3% Ca, 0.5% Phos, 0.5 Ca/P, on a dry-matter basis), and in its owner. Soon after adoption, the pet and the caregiver showed severe gastrointestinal signs and needed hospitalization. Fecal PCR assays, selective cultures, and antibiotic susceptibility testing were performed, and multi-drug resistant C. jejuni and C. upsaliensis were isolated from the feces of both. The same bacteria were also identified by FISH in the dog colonic biopsies collected during endoscopy. The puppy was prescribed a complete commercial diet for growing dogs, (30.00% CP, 21.00% EE, 1.2% Ca; 1% Phos; as fed) and treated with ciprofloxacin. The dog and the man healed uneventfully and tested negative for further fecal PCR analyses. This report focuses on dog nutritional management and explores the potential routes of exposure, with emphasis on emerging outbreaks related to current pet food fads. Our data support the One Health approach, where veterinarians, physicians, and owners are challenged to build effective stewardship to prevent the spread of zoonoses.

Application of encapsulated and dry-plated food acidulants to control Salmonella enterica in raw meat-based diets for dogs

There is an increasing demand for raw meat-based diets (RMBDs) for dogs, but these foods cannot be heat-pasteurized. Thus, the objective of this study was to evaluate the antimicrobial efficacy of encapsulated and dry-plated glucono delta lactone (GDL), citric acid (CA), and lactic acid (LA) when challenged against Salmonella enterica inoculated in a model raw meat-based diet (RMBDs) for dogs. Nutritionally complete, raw diets were formulated with different levels (1.0, 2.0 and 3.0% (w/w)) of both encapsulated and dry-plated GDL, CA, and LA with both the positive (PC) and the negative controls (NC) without acidulants. The diets were formed into patties of ∼100 g and inoculated with 3-cocktail mixtures of Salmonella enterica serovars, excluding the NC to achieve a final concentration of ∼6.0 Log CFU/patty. Microbial analyses were performed on the inoculated diets and survivors of S. enterica enumerated. Both encapsulated and dry-plated CA and LA had higher log reductions compared to GDL (P < 0.05). However, encapsulated CA and LA at 1.0% (w/w) exhibited higher log reductions (P > 0.05) and preserved product quality compared to the dry-plated acidulants at 1.0%. We concluded that 1.0% (w/w) of encapsulated citric or lactic acids could be successfully applied as an antimicrobial intervention in raw diets for dogs.

High occurrence of Enterococcus faecalis, Enterococcus faecium, and Vagococcus lutrae harbouring oxazolidinone resistance genes in raw meat-based diets for companion animals - a public health issue, Switzerland, September 2018 to May 2020

IntroductionEnterococci harbouring genes encoding resistance to florfenicol and the oxazolidinone antimicrobial linezolid have emerged among food-producing animals and meat thereof, but few studies have analysed their occurrence in raw meat-based diets (RMBDs) for pets.AimWe aimed to examine how far RMBDs may represent a source of bacteria with oxazolidinone resistance genes.MethodsFifty-nine samples of different types of RMBDs from 10 suppliers (three based in Germany, seven in Switzerland) were screened for florfenicol-resistant Gram-positive bacteria using a selective culture medium. Isolates were phenotypically and genotypically characterised.ResultsA total of 27 Enterococcus faecalis, Enterococcus faecium, and Vagococcus lutrae isolates were obtained from 24 of the 59 samples. The optrA, poxtA, and cfr genes were identified in 24/27, 6/27 and 5/27 isolates, respectively. Chloramphenicol and linezolid minimum inhibitory concentrations (MICs) ranged from 24.0 mg/L-256.0 mg/L, and 1.5 mg/L-8.0 mg/L, respectively. According to the Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute (CLSI) breakpoints, 26 of 27 isolates were resistant to chloramphenicol (MICs ≥ 32 mg/L), and two were resistant to linezolid (MICs ≥ 8 mg/L). Multilocus sequence typing analysis of the 17 E. faecalis isolates identified 10 different sequence types (ST)s, with ST593 (n = 4 isolates) and ST207 (n = 2 isolates) occurring more than once, and two novel STs (n = 2 isolates). E. faecium isolates belonged to four different STs (168, 264, 822, and 1846).ConclusionThe high occurrence in our sample of Gram-positive bacteria harbouring genes encoding resistance to the critical antimicrobial linezolid is of concern since such bacteria may spread from companion animals to humans upon close contact between pets and their owners.

Carriage of Extended Spectrum Beta Lactamase-Producing Escherichia coli: Prevalence and Factors Associated with Fecal Colonization of Dogs from a Pet Clinic in Lower Saxony, Germany

Extended spectrum beta-lactamase (ESBL)-producing Escherichia coli are an emerging problem in veterinary and human medicine. Our study concentrated on the estimation of the prevalence and factors associated with the carriage of ESBL-producing E. coli in dogs who visited a veterinary clinic in northern Germany in 2017. For this reason, 1000 patients (healthy and sick dogs) were tested, resulting in 1000 samples originating from rectal swabs. Additional data were collected using a self-reported questionnaire that was completed by the dog owner. Factors associated with ESBL carriage were considered for further modeling if p < 0.05 using a two-sided Fisher test. Using a backward elimination procedure, the variables for the final multivariable logistic regression model were identified. In total, 8.9% of the dogs tested were positive for carriage of ESBL-producing E. coli. Seven factors were associated with the colonization of dogs with ESBL-E. coli within the multivariable model, namely husbandry system (p = 0.0019, OR = 3.00; 95% CI: 1.50-6.00), contact with puppies (p = 0.0044, OR = 2.43; 95% CI: 1.32-4.46), feeding of raw meat (p = 0.011, OR = 2.28; 95% CI: 1.21-4.31), food residues (p = 0.0151, OR = 2.31; 95% CI: 1.18-4.53) and food supplements (p = 0.0487, OR = 0.426; 95% CI: 0.18-0.96), and antibiotic treatments of dogs (p = 0.0005, OR = 3.030; 95% CI: 1.62-5.68) or owners (p = 0.041, OR = 2.74; 95% CI: 1.04-7.19) prior to the study. These factors refer to the animals themselves as well as to the owners and their habits or medical treatments. Although the causality and direction of transmission from owners to their dogs cannot be proven, the factor of antibiotic treatment of the owner is clearly associated with the dog's status.

Evaluation of dietary histories in cats presenting with chronic gastrointestinal clinical signs to a veterinary teaching hospital

OBJECTIVES

Although less frequently described than in dogs, it is also well recognised in cats that chronic gastrointestinal (GI) disease can fully respond to dietary changes only. So far, no study has assessed how much dietary information can be obtained during veterinary consultations.

METHODS

We retrospectively evaluated how much dietary information was available when owners presenting their cats to our gastroenterology (GE) and internal medicine (IM) service between October 2017 and January 2020 were questioned during consultations. Because of the larger IM caseload, for each week the first two cats presenting with chronic GI signs were selected for the IM group. Data from 80 cats presenting for first GE consultations were compared with data from 84 cats presenting with chronic GI signs for first IM consultations.

RESULTS

Referrals comprised 42/80 (53%) GE cats and 53/84 (63%) IM cats. Referral documents mentioned the previously fed diet in 12/42 (29%) GE and 4/53 (8%) IM cats, and response to that previous diet trial was recorded in the referral documents of 4/12 (33%) GE and 3/4 (75%) IM cats. No cat had received more than one previous diet trial. During consultations, owners of 61/80 (76%) GE and 53/84 (63%) IM cats were asked about diet. Irrespective of referral status, previous dietary trials had been performed in 27/61 (44%) GE and 19/53 (36%) IM cats. The specific diet fed at the time of consultation could be named by 37/61 (61%) GE and 11/53 (21%) IM cat owners.

CONCLUSIONS AND RELEVANCE

Overall dietary information gained from referring veterinarians and owners was often incomplete. Although more information could be gained from owners during GE consultations vs IM consultations, awareness of the importance of diet in cats with GI disease still appears to be low among veterinarians and cat owners. Future studies need to assess if more complete dietary information can be obtained at the time of consultations with a prospective study design.

An investigation into an outbreak of pancytopenia in cats in the United Kingdom

BACKGROUND

In spring 2021 increasing numbers of cats presenting with severe pancytopenia were noted in United Kingdom (UK).

OBJECTIVE

To describe process and outcome of the investigation performed into the outbreak of pancytopenia in cats.

ANIMALS

Five hundred and eighty client owned cats that presented with severe bi- or pancytopenia of unknown cause.

METHODS

Real-time data collection was performed by an online registration forum available to all veterinary surgeons in UK. Data collected included demographics, clinicopathological findings, diagnostic testing, dietary and drug history, outcome and COVID household status. Mycotoxicological feed analysis was performed on feed samples of 3 diets frequently mentioned in the database and 3 control diets.

RESULTS

Five hundred and eighty cats presented to 378 veterinary practices were included for analysis. Case fatality rate was 63.3%. Dietary history was available for 544 (93.8%) cats, of which 500 (86%) were fed 1 of 3 diets (which were recalled midinvestigation). 54 (9.3%) cats were not fed a recalled product, with diet information unknown in 26 (4.5%) cats. Analysis of feed samples revealed concentrations of hematotoxic trichothecene T-2/HT-2 mycotoxins greater than recommended by the European Commission in 5/7 recalled diet samples but in none of control diet samples. The trichothecene mycotoxin diacetoxyscirpenol (DAS) was detectable in all recalled diet samples but not in any of control samples.

CONCLUSION AND CLINICAL IMPORTANCE

Contaminated-feed induced trichothecene mycotoxicosis should be considered as a differential diagnosis for pancytopenia in cats.

Effects of hydrolyzed chicken liver on digestibility, fecal and urinary characteristics, and fecal metabolites of adult dogs

High-protein low-carbohydrate diets have been widely used for adult maintenance dogs, as well as in specific weight loss diets and maintenance programs. However, increasing dietary protein may increase undigested protein in the hindgut, modifying intestinal fermentation and fecal metabolite concentrations. The aim of this study was to evaluate the effects of protein source and concentration on apparent total tract digestibility (ATTD) of nutrients, metabolizable energy (ME), fecal and urinary characteristics, and fecal metabolites of dogs. Twelve healthy adult dogs were distributed into six treatments (n = 6 per diet) in a balanced incomplete Latin square design consisting of three periods of 30 days each. Six diets, varying in protein source [poultry byproduct meal (PBPM) and hydrolyzed chicken liver powder (HCLP)] and concentration [24, 32, and 40% crude protein (CP) on dry matter (DM) basis] were tested: PBPM24 (PBPM based diet with 24% CP); PBPM32 (PBPM with 32% CP); PBPM40 (PBPM with 40% CP); HCLP24 (HCLP based diet with 24% CP); HCLP32 (HCLP with 32% CP); HCLP40 (HCLP with 40% CP). The ATTD of CP was greater in dogs-fed HCLP and higher protein concentrations diets (P < 0.05). However, dogs-fed HCLP diets had lower ATTD of fat and carbohydrates, and ME (P < 0.05). Similarly, high-protein diets reduced the ATTD of DM, OM, fat, carbohydrates, and energy (P < 0.05). High-protein diets increased the daily fecal output and moisture (P = 0.004 and P < 0.05, respectively), as well as the fecal score (P < 0.0001), verified as soft, moist stools, but still within the ideal range. Fecal valerate concentration was greater in dogs-fed PBPM at 32% CP (P = 0.007). Fecal isobutyrate tended to increase in dogs-fed PBPM and high-protein diets (P < 0.10). Also, dogs-fed PBPM and high-protein diets had greater fecal concentrations of isovalerate, branched-chain fatty acids (BCFA), and ammonia (P < 0.05). Finally, the fecal lactate concentration increased in dogs-fed HCLP and high-protein diets (P < 0.05). The HCLP increased the ATTD of CP, being a highly digestible protein. Although the inclusion of HCLP slightly increased fecal score and moisture, it decreased the amount of fecal metabolites of protein fermentation ammonia and BCFA, both of which are associated with proteolytic fermentation in the colon.

Strategies to improve the home care of periodontal disease in dogs: A systematic review

The expected contribution of this study is to have a complete view of the available products used in the prevention of periodontal disease in dogs. The related studies in databases including Web of Science, Science Direct, and Scopus, from 1992 to 2021, were retrieved, and 36 studies were used in the systematic review. Among the continents researched, North America proved to have the most developed research relating to the subject. The active ingredients researched, isolated, or compared to each other, were polyphosphates > phytogenics > chlorhexidine > enzymes > vitamin C > xylitol = adelmidrol = and probiotics. The form of use of active products was chewable > solution via water = via food > biscuits > paste and gels > mucoadhesive. Gingivitis index was the most studied parameter used to assess oral health. According to the evidence recovered in the systematic review was possible to conclude that products with different active agents and forms of use demonstrated positive effects in the prevention of periodontal diseases. The results of this study summarize the most frequently used active ingredients and application forms for cleaning dogs' teeth and provide a roadmap for future research on the maintenance of oral health in dogs.

Application of a universal parasite diagnostic test to biological specimens collected from animals

A previously described universal parasite diagnostic (nUPDx) based on PCR amplification of the 18S rDNA and deep-amplicon sequencing, can detect human blood parasites with a sensitivity comparable to real-time PCR. To date, the efficacy of this assay has only been assessed on human blood. This study assessed the utility of nUPDx for the detection of parasitic infections in animals using blood, tissues, and other biological sample types from mammals, birds, and reptiles, known to be infected with helminth, apicomplexan, or pentastomid parasites (confirmed by microscopy or PCR), as well as negative samples. nUPDx confirmed apicomplexan and/or nematode infections in 24 of 32 parasite-positive mammals, while also identifying several undetected coinfections. nUPDx detected infections in 6 of 13 positive bird and 1 of 2 positive reptile samples. When applied to 10 whole parasite specimens (worms and arthropods), nUPDx identified all to the genus or family level, and detected one incorrect identification made by morphology. Babesia sp. infections were detected in 5 of the 13 samples that were negative by other diagnostic approaches. While nUPDx did not detect PCR/microscopy-confirmed trichomonads or amoebae in cloacal swabs/tissue from 8 birds and 2 reptiles due to primer template mismatches, 4 previously undetected apicomplexans were detected in these samples. Future efforts to improve the utility of the assay should focus on validation against a larger panel of tissue types and animal species. Overall, nUPDx shows promise for use in both veterinary diagnostics and wildlife surveillance, especially because species-specific PCRs can miss unknown or unexpected pathogens.

Fur, Fin, and Feather: Management of Animal Interactions in Australian Residential Aged Care Facilities

Animal-assisted interventions (AAI) have been occurring in Australian Residential Aged Care Facilities (RACF) for more than 40 years and may relieve loneliness and improve quality of life. The presence of animals in RACF poses an inherent risk to residents and the animals involved. Little is known about the policies and guidelines for including animals in the Australian RACF. We anticipated that most RACFs would have some policies, but they may lack the detail necessary to keep humans and animals safe. Using an adapted survey, we surveyed and interviewed a small but representative sample of Australian RACF managers. The results demonstrated that RACF did have animal policies; however, the content regarding the need for hand washing, infection prevention, and animal welfare was lacking. Including unregulated family pets in RACF was an unexpected additional risk factor identified during data analysis. There is a need for national guidelines tied to the national aged care policy, which includes training and educational resources for RACF and AAI providers.

A review of food additives to control the proliferation and transmission of pathogenic microorganisms with emphasis on applications to raw meat-based diets for companion animals

Raw meat-based diets (RMBDs) or sometimes described as biologically appropriate raw food (BARFs) are gaining in popularity amongst dog and cat owners. These pet guardians prefer their animals to eat minimally processed and more “natural” foods instead of highly heat-processed diets manufactured with synthetic preservatives. The market for RMBDs for dogs and cats is estimated at $33 million in the United States. This figure is likely underestimated because some pet owners feed their animals raw diets prepared at home. Despite their increasing demand, RMBDs have been plagued with numerous recalls because of contamination from foodborne pathogens like Salmonella, E. coli, or Campylobacter. Existing literature regarding mitigation strategies in RMBD's for dogs/cats are very limited. Thus, a comprehensive search for published research was conducted regarding technologies used in meat and poultry processing and raw materials tangential to this trade (e.g., meats and poultry). In this review paper, we explored multiple non-thermal processes and GRAS approved food additives that can be used as potential antimicrobials alone or in combinations to assert multiple stressors that impede microbial growth, ultimately leading to pathogen inactivation through hurdle technology. This review focuses on use of high-pressure pasteurization, organic acidulants, essential oils, and bacteriophages as possible approaches to commercially pasteurize RMBDs effectively at a relatively low cost. A summary of the different ways these technologies have been used in the past to control foodborne pathogens in meat and poultry related products and how they can be applied successfully to impede growth of enteric pathogens in commercially produced raw diets for companion animals is provided.

Salmonella Enteritidis Fatal Septicemia with Meningoencephalitis in a Tiger (Panthera tigris) Cub

A 15-day-old, female, captive Panthera tigris cub was hospitalized after developing severe hyperthermia, depression, and lack of appetite. The clinical condition rapidly worsened, and the tiger cub died in 72 h after the onset of neurological symptoms, septic shock, and multiple organ dysfunction syndrome. The postmortem main gross findings consisted of a severe and diffuse bilateral fibrino-suppurative meningoencephalitis and ventriculitis, mild fibrinous and sero-hemorrhagic polyserositis and cystitis, severe pulmonary edema, and hemorrhages. Microscopically, the meninges, ependyma, and choroid plexuses were diffusely expanded by abundant infiltration of neutrophils and macrophages, with multifocal fibrinous exudation. Histiocytic interstitial pneumonia, fibrinous and neutrophilic polyserositis, and pyelocystitis were also observed. Vascular thrombosis with multifocal vasculitis and vascular necrosis were frequently observed. Aerobic and anaerobic cultures performed on the brain, lungs, intestine, kidneys, and in pericardial effusion reported the presence of Salmonella enterica subsp. enterica serovar Enteritidis. Environmental and nutritional contamination were identified as putative sources of infections. To the best of the authors’ knowledge, this is the first report of Salmonella Enteritidis septicemia with meningoencephalitis in a tiger cub, which highlights the need to further investigate the cause of acute perinatal death to reduce the risk of infectious disease outbreaks.

Mycobacterium chelonae Infection After a Cat Bite: A Rare Case Report

We describe a 62-year-old woman with a 1-month-old unhealed cat bite wound caused by Mycobacterium chelonae presenting with persistent infection despite treatment with cefazolin and amoxicillin. This is the first reported case of M. chelonae infection caused by a cat bite. Cat bites are affected by the cat’s food microbiome, so clinicians should consider the cat’s diet if wounds are not responding as expected to first-line therapy.

From Nutritional Adequacy to Hygiene Quality: A Detailed Assessment of Commercial Raw Pet-Food for Dogs and Cats

Raw meat-based diets (RMBDs) are widely used as unconventional diets for dogs and cats at different life stages, despite concerns regarding nutritional adequacy and microbial contamination. The aim of this study was to evaluate both the nutritional and hygiene quality profile of RMBDs purchased in Germany. For this purpose, crude nutrients were assessed in 44 RMBDs and compared to declared values. In addition, selected minerals were determined in 31 RMBDs labelled as complete and compared to the minimum requirement (MR) for intended species and life stages. Aerobic colony count (ACC) and Enterobacteriaceae were used to assess the hygiene quality of 37 commercial RMBDs, while the presence of Salmonella spp. was examined in 10 products. Fat and protein content exceeded tolerated deviation from declared values in 33% and 45% of RMBDs, respectively. Each RMBD showed at least one concern regarding nutrient content. The RMBDs had high fat contents (mean 69, range 33−95 g/Mcal) that were negatively correlated with protein (r = −0.74, p < 0.0001). Considerable contaminations by ACC and Enterobacteriaceae were found (2.61 × 108 ± 3.63 × 108 and 3.61 × 106 ± 8.39 x106 CFU/g, respectively). A higher count of Enterobacteriaceae was detected in a frozen RMBDs made of poultry or carcasses from different animals, compared to the thawed counterpart (p = 0.003), as well as compared to other sources, such as beef, horse, and lamb, regardless of the storage condition. Salmonella spp. were found in 2/10 RMBDs. This study confirmed that feeding commercial RMBDs might pose a risk to pet health.

Infertility In Queens: Clinical approach, experiences and challenges

CLINICAL CHALLENGES

It is not easy for a veterinarian to determine the cause of infertility in a queen. The simplest method is to start by investigating the most common causes and then progress by successive elimination to the less common causes. For example, mating problems are commonly responsible for reproductive failure, and owners should be particularly vigilant in checking that the mating is progressing satisfactorily. Frequently, a veterinarian may have to determine, among other things, if there is a uterine or hormonal disorder or if an infectious pathology may be involved. In the case of a queen that is not cycling, it is important to differentiate a lack of onset of puberty in a young queen from a lack of cyclicity in an adult queen.

AIM

This review sets out a practical, step-by-step approach that veterinarians can follow, starting with the most common causes of infertility in queens and moving towards more rare or specific causes.

EQUIPMENT AND TECHNICAL SKILLS

Simple techniques such as vaginal smears are essential to determine if a queen that is ready to be mated is in full oestrus, if a queen is cycling or not and to diagnose inflammation of the genital tract. Veterinarians should be familiar with the peculiarities of the swabbing technique in cats, as well as the interpretation of feline vaginal cytology. Progesterone assays are useful on many occasions in the diagnosis pathway. A laboratory capable of performing karyotypes should ideally be available. Finally, it is important to be able to perform an ultrasound examination of the ovaries and uterus in a queen.

EVIDENCE BASE

Although it appears that infertility is a problem among purebred queens, there is a lack of knowledge in this area and too few published studies. Some causes of feline infertility remain poorly investigated.

Microbiological Quality and Presence of Foodborne Pathogens in Raw and Extruded Canine Diets and Canine Fecal Samples

Pet food can be a source of microbiological hazards that might affect companion animals and owners. Even though owners usually rely on conventional pet diets, such as extruded diets, new feeding practices, such as raw meat-based diets (RMBDs), have grown. RMBDs' benefits are still scientifically uncertain, while its risks have been documented. The use of canine RMBDs might increase the exposure to zoonotic pathogens, such as Salmonella spp., Listeria monocytogenes, Campylobacter spp., among others. Identifying pathogen prevalence in canine food and pets is required to contribute to public health measures. The aims of this study were: (1) to compare the microbiological quality of RMBDs and extruded diets (2) to identify and compare the prevalence of Salmonella spp., Campylobacter jejuni, and L. monocytogenes from raw and extruded canine diets and canine fecal samples, and (3) to characterize pet owners according to the diet chosen to be used on their pets, their motivations for using RMBDs, and their knowledge about benefits and risks related to this feeding practice. Conventional and molecular microbiological methods were used to identify pathogen presence from food and fecal samples, while pulsed-field gel electrophoresis (PFGE) was performed to evaluate the clonal relationship between isolates. Aerobic plate counts for RMBDs were higher than those detected for extruded diets. Salmonella spp. and L. monocytogenes were isolated from 35.7% (15/42) RMBDs, while Salmonella spp., C. jejuni, and L. monocytogenes from 33.3% (11/33) fecal samples from RMBD-fed dogs. From the RMBD samples positive to Salmonella spp., chicken was the main meat ingredient composing the diets. PFGE analysis confirmed a genetic association between Salmonella spp. isolates from fecal and raw food samples from the same household. We did not detect pathogens from extruded food samples or feces from extruded-fed dogs. Using a survey, we identified dog owners' unawareness and/or underestimation of risks related to RMBDs. We demonstrated that canine raw pet food might be a source of zoonotic foodborne pathogens that represent a health risk for both humans and pets. While clinical findings caused by the mentioned pathogens vary among pets, the zoonotic potential implies a significant concern.

Insects as Feed for Companion and Exotic Pets: A Current Trend

Simple Summary

Currently, there is a wide variety of insect-based pet foods and treats; however, there are several questions about the nutritional contribution of insects for dogs and cats, their health effects, safety aspects and the legal framework for their use as ingredients or feed. The insect-based ingredients used are mainly meal and fat from black soldier fly larvae, mealworm larvae and adult house crickets. There are few studies on the use of insects as food ingredients for pets, and most of them have studied some aspects in dogs. It has been said that they do not affect health, are well accepted and tolerated, do not alter the microbiota and could have the potential to be used as hypoallergenic ingredients. Insects provide a high nutritional value, with a high content of protein and amino acids with good digestibility for dogs. In cats, there is scarce information and more studies are needed. In exotic pets, their use is generalized. Dog owners are willing to use insects as ingredients, but in processed formats such as meal or as part of food or treats. Future research should focus on safety issues and effects on the health, nutrition and feeding behavior of traditional pets, such as dogs and cats.

Abstract

The objective of this review was to carry out a comprehensive investigation of the benefits of incorporating insects as a pet food ingredient and the implications this can have in determining a market demand for insect-based pet foods. Black soldier fly larvae (Hermetia illucens), mealworm larvae (Tenebrio molitor) and adult house crickets (Acheta domesticus) are currently used in pet food. These insects are widely fed to exotic pets, mainly in whole, live or dehydrated formats. They are also incorporated as meal or fat and are offered to cats and dogs as dry or wet food and treats. Scientific studies about the use of insects for dog and cat feed are scarce. Most studies are in dogs. Research shows that insect nutrients, mainly amino acids, have high digestibility, are beneficial to health, do not have any detrimental effect on the gut microbiota and are accepted by dogs. In several countries, insects are approved for use in pet food and commercialization has spread throughout the world. Pet owners are willing to try foods made with insect meal for their pets. In conclusion, the use of insects in pet food is a reality that is taking on more and more prominence.

Characterization of Escherichia coli in Dogs with Pyometra and the Influence of Diet on the Intestinal Colonization of Extraintestinal Pathogenic E. coli (ExPEC)

Despite its high frequency and clinical relevance, the pathogenesis of canine pyometra remains poorly understood. The most accepted hypothesis is that bacteria involved ascend from the intestinal tract, causing the uterine infection. Extraintestinal pathogenic Escherichia coli (ExPEC) is the most frequent pathogen in canine pyometra, accounting for 57–100% of cases. The aim of the present study was to determine the frequency of phylogenetic groups and virulence factors in E. coli strains isolated from the uterine and rectal swabs of bitches with pyometra (n = 72) and from rectal swabs from healthy bitches fed commercial dry feed (n = 53) or a raw meat-based diet (RMBD; n = 38). A total of 512 strains of E. coli were isolated and divided into five categories according to the origin of the sample: 120 isolates from the uterine content of dogs with E. coli pyometra, 102 from the feces of bitches with E. coli pyometra, 75 from the feces of bitches without E. coli pyometra, 130 feces samples from healthy dogs fed commercial feed, and 85 feces samples from healthy dogs fed a raw meat-based diet. E. coli strains belonging to the B2 phylogroup and positive for virulence factor genes associated with adhesion (fimbriae type P [papC]) and production of toxins (α-hemolysin [hlyA] and uropathogenic specific protein [usp]) predominated in the uterine content and rectal swabs of bitches with E. coli pyometra. Interestingly, a lower growth rate of E. coli from the B2 phylogroup was observed in dogs fed a RMBD than in those fed commercial dry feed. The present study suggests that intestinal colonization by certain types of E. coli could be a risk factor for the occurrence of E. coli pyometra in bitches and that diet can influence intestinal colonization by such strains.

A survey of food-borne and antimicrobial resistance-harbouring bacteria in meat by-products from knackeries and associated equipment and kennels

Background

In Ireland, meat by-products (MBP) harvested at knackeries from farmed animals that have not died of an infectious or systemic disease are legally permitted to be fed to dogs in kennels and packs of hounds. There is limited information available on the risks of spreading foodborne bacteria or antimicrobial resistant (AMR) determinants to dogs, their handlers or the associated environment. The aim of this study was to investigate the distribution of Salmonella serovars, Listeria monocytogenes, Campylobacter species, enterococci, their associated AMR determinants and the level of Escherichia coli in samples of MBP from knackeries and associated equipment and kennels. For this purpose, 313 fresh and 208 frozen MBP samples from 22 knackeries, 16 swabs of mincing equipment from two of the knackeries and 138 swabs from kennels adjacent to seven of the knackeries were collected and processed over a 12-month period.

Results

From the 521 MBP samples analysed, a total of 77 Salmonella (14.8%), 101 L. monocytogenes (19.4%), 12 Campylobacter (2.3%), 271 Enterococcus faecalis (52.0%) and 127 Enterococcus faecium (24.4%) strains were recovered. The 154 analysed environmental samples from kennels and mincing equipment yielded 194 isolates (3 Salmonella, 85 E. coli, 76 E. faecalis and 30 E. faecium.). E. coli was quantifiable in 423 of the 521 MBP samples with log counts per gram ranging between 1 and 6. AMR characterisation of 168 E. coli, enterococci and Salmonella isolates from MBP and environmental samples showed high levels of AMR including multi-drug resistance (MDR) with 63.6%, 9.1%, 29% and 45.8% of E. coli, Salmonella, E. faecalis and E. faecium isolates, respectively showing resistance to three or more antimicrobials (MDR)

Conclusions

The findings of this survey confirm that MBP from fallen animals contain high levels of zoonotic and AMR-harbouring bacteria that pose a risk of transmission to dogs, their handlers, and the environment.

Prevalence and Genomic Investigation of Multidrug-Resistant Salmonella Isolates from Companion Animals in Hangzhou, China

Salmonella is a group of bacteria that constitutes the leading cause of diarrheal diseases, posing a great disease burden worldwide. There are numerous pathways for zoonotic Salmonella transmission to humans; however, the role of companion animals in spreading these bacteria is largely underestimated in China. We aimed to investigate the prevalence of Salmonella in pet dogs and cats in Hangzhou, China, and characterize the antimicrobial resistance profile and genetic features of these pet-derived pathogens. In total, 137 fecal samples of pets were collected from an animal hospital in Hangzhou in 2018. The prevalence of Salmonella was 5.8% (8/137) in pets, with 9.3% (5/54) of cats and 3.6% (3/83) of dogs being Salmonella positive. By whole-genome sequencing (WGS), in silico serotyping, and multilocus sequence typing (MLST), 26 pet-derived Salmonella isolates were identified as Salmonella Dublin (ST10, n = 22) and Salmonella Typhimurium (ST19, n = 4). All of the isolates were identified as being multidrug-resistant (MDR), by conducting antimicrobial susceptibility testing under both aerobic and anaerobic conditions. The antibiotics of the most prevalent resistance were streptomycin (100%), cotrimoxazole (100%), tetracycline (96.20%), and ceftriaxone (92.30%). Versatile antimicrobial-resistant genes were identified, including floR (phenicol-resistant gene), blaCTX-M-15, and blaCTX-M-55 (extended-spectrum beta-lactamase genes). A total of 11 incompatible (Inc) plasmids were identified, with IncA/C2, IncFII(S), and IncX1 being the most predominant among Salmonella Dublin, and IncFIB(S), IncFII(S), IncI1, and IncQ1 being the most prevailing among Salmonella Typhimurium. Our study applied WGS to characterize pet-derived Salmonella in China, showing the presence of MDR Salmonella in pet dogs and cats with a high diversity of ARGs and plasmids. These data indicate a necessity for the regular surveillance of pet-derived pathogens to mitigate zoonotic diseases.

Comparison of canine owner profile according to food choice: an online preliminary survey in France

Background

Nowadays, more people are treating dogs as family members. This reflects their increased attention towards their nutrition, with renewed interest for non-conventional diets such as Biologically Appropriate Raw Food/ Bones and Raw Food in United States (BARF) or homemade. In previous studies, owners feeding their dog non-conventional diets reported lower levels of trust in veterinary advice. The aim of the study was to identify differences in lifestyle between owners feeding dogs non-conventional diets and those feeding conventional diets (i.e., dry/wet pet food) to give further insight for improving communication between veterinarians and owners.

Results

A total of 426 surveys were usable. Fifteen percent of the participants lived in the metropole of Paris and had more than one dog (mean 1.72 dogs). Thirty-eight percent of the survey respondents stated that their dogs were fed exclusively with non-conventional diets, while 55% declared using conventional diets alone (not considering treats). The study canine population was for the most part neutered (63%) and purebred (68%). Amongst owners feeding conventional diets exclusively, 47% determined how much food to feed by consulting the feeding guidelines on the packaging, and only 28% said that the amount of food was prescribed by their veterinarian or veterinary nurse. Out of the participants feeding non-conventional diets, 65% declared that the information for formulating the recipes was gathered on the internet or in non-veterinary books. When compared with owners feeding exclusively conventional diets, those feeding non-conventional diets were living more frequently outside the metropole of Paris, had fewer children (0.23 ± 0.57 vs 0.37 ± 0.78; p = 0.03) and had more frequently other animals. They also dewormed less often their pets, walked their dog more each day (91 vs 78%; p < 0.001) and without leash for more than 6 h per week (46 vs 31%; p = 0.003).

Conclusions

This survey described differences in the habits of owners feeding dogs non-conventional diets in comparison with those feeding conventional diets. Data suggest that owners using non-conventional diets may be more attentive to the ethological needs of their dog which could be a starting point for practitioners for achieving better client-veterinarian communication.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12917-022-03258-9.

Fecal Shedding of Multidrug Resistant Escherichia coli Isolates in Dogs Fed with Raw Meat-Based Diets in Brazil

The practice of feeding dogs raw meat-based diets (RMBDs) is growing in several countries, and the risks associated with the ingestion of pathogenic and antimicrobial-resistant Escherichia coli in dogs fed these diets are largely unknown. We characterized E. coli strains isolated from dogs fed either an RMBD or a conventional dry feed, according to the phylogroup, virulence genes, and antimicrobial susceptibility profiles of the bacteria. Two hundred and sixteen E. coli strains were isolated. Dogs fed RMBDs shed E. coli strains from the phylogroup E more frequently and were positive for the E. coli heat-stable enterotoxin 1-encoding gene. Isolates from RMBD-fed dogs were also frequently positive for multidrug-resistant E. coli isolates including extended-spectrum beta-lactamase (ESBL) producers. Whole-genome sequencing of seven ESBL-producing E. coli strains revealed that they predominantly harbored blaCTX-M-55, and two strains were also positive for the colistin-resistant gene mcr-1. These results suggest that feeding an RMBD can affect the dog’s microbiota, change the frequency of certain phylogroups, and increase the shedding of diarrheagenic E. coli. Also, feeding an RMBD seemed to be linked with the fecal shedding of multidrug-resistant E. coli, including the spread of strains harboring mobilizable colistin resistance and ESBL genes. This finding is of concern for both animal and human health.

Vegan versus meat-based dog food: Guardian-reported indicators of health

Alternative pet foods may offer benefits concerning environmental sustainability and the welfare of animals processed into pet foods. However, some worry these may compromise the welfare of pets. We asked 2,639 dog guardians about one dog living with them, for at least one year. Among 2,596 involved in pet diet decision-making, pet health was a key factor when choosing diets. 2,536 provided information relating to a single dog, fed a conventional meat (1,370 = 54%), raw meat (830 = 33%) or vegan (336 = 13%) diet for at least one year. We examined seven general indicators of ill health: unusual numbers of veterinary visits, medication use, progression onto a therapeutic diet after initial maintenance on a vegan or meat-based diet, guardian opinion and predicted veterinary opinion of health status, percentage of unwell dogs and number of health disorders per unwell dog. Dogs fed conventional diets appeared to fare worse than those fed either of the other two diets. Dogs fed raw meat appeared to fare marginally better than those fed vegan diets. However, there were statistically significant differences in average ages. Dogs fed raw meat were younger, which has been demonstrated to be associated with improved health outcomes. Additionally, non-health related factors may have improved apparent outcomes for dogs fed raw meat, for three of seven general health indicators. We also considered the prevalence of 22 specific health disorders, based on predicted veterinary assessments. Percentages of dogs in each dietary group considered to have suffered from health disorders were 49% (conventional meat), 43% (raw meat) and 36% (vegan). Significant evidence indicates that raw meat diets are often associated with dietary hazards, including nutritional deficiencies and imbalances, and pathogens. Accordingly, the pooled evidence to date indicates that the healthiest and least hazardous dietary choices for dogs, are nutritionally sound vegan diets.

Evaluation of iron, copper and zinc concentrations in commercial foods formulated for healthy cats

OBJECTIVES

The aim of this study was to analyze iron, copper and zinc concentrations in commercial foods and compare among food formats (dry, canned, raw), foods marketed by age category (adult 1+ years and senior 7+ years) and foods intended for adult maintenance vs all life stages.

METHODS

In total, 112 commercial non-therapeutic food products marketed for healthy adult and senior cats were purchased in the USA. Foods were analyzed for their proximate composition. Trace mineral concentrations were measured using inductively coupled argon plasma-optical emission spectroscopy and described on a calculated metabolizable energy basis using standard modified Atwater values.

RESULTS

Measured iron (median 58.4 mg/1000 kcal [range 15.7-379.0]), copper (median 5.6 mg/1000 kcal [range 0.8-13.3]) and zinc (median 47.6 mg/1000 kcal [range 7.6-128.1]) concentrations were highly variable among cat foods. When all food products - regardless of their nutritional adequacy substantiation method - were compared with the Association of American Feed Control Officials regulatory minimums, 13/112 food products had a mineral deficiency, of which a majority (n = 11/13) were raw food products. Raw foods had significantly lower trace mineral concentrations compared with dry food products and, except for copper, canned food products. Cat foods marketed for senior cats had higher iron (P = 0.019) and zinc (P <0.0001) concentrations than foods marketed for adult cats. Foods intended for adult maintenance had higher iron (P = 0.003) and zinc concentrations than foods intended for all life stages (P <0.0001).

CONCLUSIONS AND RELEVANCE

Iron, copper and zinc concentrations in commercial non-therapeutic foods for adult and senior cats are highly variable. A minority of foods - mainly raw food products - were deficient in these minerals. It is unknown if some foods with high trace mineral concentrations could have adverse effects as studies are needed to establish safe upper limits for dietary intake of trace minerals in healthy cats.

Multi-laboratory evaluation of the Illumina iSeq platform for whole genome sequencing of Salmonella, Escherichia coli and Listeria

There is a growing need for public health and veterinary laboratories to perform whole genome sequencing (WGS) for monitoring antimicrobial resistance (AMR) and protecting the safety of people and animals. With the availability of smaller and more affordable sequencing platforms coupled with well-defined bioinformatic protocols, the technological capability to incorporate this technique for real-time surveillance and genomic epidemiology has greatly expanded. There is a need, however, to ensure that data are of high quality. The goal of this study was to assess the utility of a small benchtop sequencing platform using a multi-laboratory verification approach. Thirteen laboratories were provided the same equipment, reagents, protocols and bacterial reference strains. The Illumina DNA Prep and Nextera XT library preparation kits were compared, and 2×150 bp iSeq i100 chemistry was used for sequencing. Analyses comparing the sequences produced from this study with closed genomes from the provided strains were performed using open-source programs. A detailed, step-by-step protocol is publicly available via protocols.io (https://www.protocols.io/view/iseq-bacterial-wgs-protocol-bij8kcrw). The throughput for this method is approximately 4-6 bacterial isolates per sequencing run (20-26 Mb total load). The Illumina DNA Prep library preparation kit produced high-quality assemblies and nearly complete AMR gene annotations. The Prep method produced more consistent coverage compared to XT, and when coverage benchmarks were met, nearly all AMR, virulence and subtyping gene targets were correctly identified. Because it reduces the technical and financial barriers to generating WGS data, the iSeq platform is a viable option for small laboratories interested in genomic surveillance of microbial pathogens.