Stress and antibiotics alter luminal and wall-adhered microbiota and enhance the local expression of visceral sensory-related systems in mice

Microbiome contributions to pain: a review of the preclinical literature

ABSTRACT

Over the past 2 decades, the microbiome has received increasing attention for the role that it plays in health and disease. Historically, the gut microbiome was of particular interest to pain scientists studying nociplastic visceral pain conditions given the anatomical juxtaposition of these microorganisms and the neuroimmune networks that drive pain in such diseases. More recently, microbiomes both inside and across the surface of the body have been recognized for driving sensory symptoms in a broader set of diseases. Microbiomes have never been a more popular topic in pain research, but to date, there has not been a systematic review of the preclinical microbiome pain literature. In this article, we identified all animal studies in which both the microbiome was manipulated and pain behaviors were measured. Our analysis included 303 unique experiments across 97 articles. Microbiome manipulation methods and behavioral outcomes were recorded for each experiment so that field-wide trends could be quantified and reported. This review specifically details the animal species, injury models, behavior measures, and microbiome manipulations used in preclinical pain research. From this analysis, we were also able to conclude how manipulations of the microbiome alter pain thresholds in naïve animals and persistent pain intensity and duration in cutaneous and visceral pain models. This review summarizes by identifying existing gaps in the literature and providing recommendations for how to best plan, implement, and interpret data collected in preclinical microbiome pain experiments.

Stress triggers irritable bowel syndrome with diarrhea through a spermidine-mediated decline in type I interferon

Irritable bowel syndrome with diarrhea (IBS-D) is a common and chronic gastrointestinal disorder that is characterized by abdominal discomfort and occasional diarrhea. The pathogenesis of IBS-D is thought to be related to a combination of factors, including psychological stress, abnormal muscle contractions, and inflammation and disorder of the gut microbiome. However, there is still a lack of comprehensive analysis of the logical regulatory correlation among these factors. In this study, we found that stress induced hyperproduction of xanthine and altered the abundance and metabolic characteristics of Lactobacillus murinus in the gut. Lactobacillus murinus-derived spermidine suppressed the basal expression of type I interferon (IFN)-α in plasmacytoid dendritic cells by inhibiting the K63-linked polyubiquitination of TRAF3. The reduction in IFN-α unrestricted the contractile function of colonic smooth muscle cells, resulting in an increase in bowel movement. Our findings provided a theoretical basis for the pathological mechanism of, and new drug targets for, stress-exposed IBS-D.

Bacteria Engineered to Produce Serotonin Modulate Host Intestinal Physiology

Bacteria in the gastrointestinal tract play a crucial role in intestinal motility, homeostasis, and dysfunction. Unraveling the mechanisms by which microbes impact the host poses many challenges due to the extensive array of metabolites produced or metabolized by bacteria in the gut. Here, we describe the engineering of a gut commensal bacterium, Escherichia coli Nissle 1917, to biosynthesize the human metabolite serotonin for examining the effects of microbially produced biogenic amines on host physiology. Upon oral administration to mice, our engineered bacteria reach the large intestine, where they produce serotonin. Mice treated with serotonin-producing bacteria exhibited biological changes in the gut at transcriptional and physiological levels. This work establishes a novel framework employing engineered bacteria to modulate luminal serotonin levels and suggests potential clinical applications of modified microbial therapeutics to address gut disorders in humans.

Environmentally realistic dose of tire-derived metabolite 6PPD-Q exposure causes intestinal jejunum and ileum damage in mice via cannabinoid receptor-activated inflammation

N-(1,3-dimethylbutyl)-N'-phenyl-p-phenylenediamine quinone (6PPD-Q) is a quinone derivative of a common tire additive 6PPD, whose occurrence has been widely reported both in the environment and human bodies including in adults, pregnant women and children. Yet, knowledge on the potential intestinal toxicity of 6PPD-Q in mammals at environmentally relevant dose remain unknown. In this study, the effects of 6PPD-Q on the intestines of adult ICR mice were evaluated by orally administering environmentally relevant dose or lower levels of 6PPD-Q (0.1, 1, 10, and 100 μg/kg) for 21 days. We found that 6PPD-Q disrupted the integrity of the intestinal barrier, mostly in the jejunum and ileum, but not in the duodenum or colon, in a dose-dependent manner. Moreover, intestinal inflammation manifested with elevated levels of TNF-α, IL-1, and IL-6 mostly observed in doses at 10 and 100 μg/kg. Using reverse target screening technology combining molecular dynamic simulation modeling we identified key cannabinoid receptors including CNR2 activation to be potentially mediating the intestinal inflammation induced by 6PPD-Q. In summary, this study provides novel insights into the toxic effects of emerging contaminant 6PPD-Q on mammalian intestines and that the chemical may be a cannabinoid receptor agonist to modulate inflammation.

Gut microbiota dysbiosis alters chronic pain behaviors in a humanized transgenic mouse model of sickle cell disease

ABSTRACT

Pain is the most common symptom experienced by patients with sickle cell disease (SCD) throughout their lives and is the main cause of hospitalization. Despite the progress that has been made towards understanding the disease pathophysiology, major gaps remain in the knowledge of SCD pain, the transition to chronic pain, and effective pain management. Recent evidence has demonstrated a vital role of gut microbiota in pathophysiological features of SCD. However, the role of gut microbiota in SCD pain is yet to be explored. We sought to evaluate the compositional differences in the gut microbiota of transgenic mice with SCD and nonsickle control mice and investigate the role of gut microbiota in SCD pain by using antibiotic-mediated gut microbiota depletion and fecal material transplantation (FMT). The antibiotic-mediated gut microbiota depletion did not affect evoked pain but significantly attenuated ongoing spontaneous pain in mice with SCD. Fecal material transplantation from mice with SCD to wild-type mice resulted in tactile allodynia (0.95 ± 0.17 g vs 0.08 ± 0.02 g, von Frey test, P < 0.001), heat hyperalgesia (15.10 ± 0.79 seconds vs 8.68 ± 1.17 seconds, radiant heat, P < 0.01), cold allodynia (2.75 ± 0.26 seconds vs 1.68 ± 0.08 seconds, dry ice test, P < 0.01), and anxiety-like behaviors (Elevated Plus Maze Test, Open Field Test). On the contrary, reshaping gut microbiota of mice with SCD with FMT from WT mice resulted in reduced tactile allodynia (0.05 ± 0.01 g vs 0.25 ± 0.03 g, P < 0.001), heat hyperalgesia (5.89 ± 0.67 seconds vs 12.25 ± 0.76 seconds, P < 0.001), and anxiety-like behaviors. These findings provide insights into the relationship between gut microbiota dysbiosis and pain in SCD, highlighting the importance of gut microbial communities that may serve as potential targets for novel pain interventions.

Decoding the role of the gut microbiome in gut-brain axis, stress-resilience, or stress-susceptibility: A review

Increased exposure to stress is associated with stress-related disorders, including depression, anxiety, and neurodegenerative conditions. However, susceptibility to stress is not seen in every individual exposed to stress, and many of them exhibit resilience. Thus, developing resilience to stress could be a big breakthrough in stress-related disorders, with the potential to replace or act as an alternative to the available therapies. In this article, we have focused on the recent advancements in gut microbiome research and the potential role of the gut-brain axis (GBA) in developing resilience or susceptibility to stress. There might be a complex interaction between the autonomic nervous system (ANS), immune system, endocrine system, microbial metabolites, and bioactive lipids like short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs), neurotransmitters, and their metabolites that regulates the communication between the gut microbiota and the brain. High fiber intake, prebiotics, probiotics, plant supplements, and fecal microbiome transplant (FMT) could be beneficial against gut dysbiosis-associated brain disorders. These could promote the growth of SCFA-producing bacteria, thereby enhancing the gut barrier and reducing the gut inflammatory response, increase the expression of the claudin-2 protein associated with the gut barrier, and maintain the blood-brain barrier integrity by promoting the expression of tight junction proteins such as claudin-5. Their neuroprotective effects might also be related to enhancing the expression of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) and glucagon-like peptide (GLP-1). Further investigations are needed in the field of the gut microbiome for the elucidation of the mechanisms by which gut dysbiosis contributes to the pathophysiology of neuropsychiatric disorders.

Gut–Brain Axis, Microbiota and Probiotics—Current Knowledge on Their Role in Irritable Bowel Syndrome: A Review

Irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) is a common digestive disorder with a significant impact on both individuals and society in terms of quality of life and healthcare costs. A growing body of research has identified various communication pathways between the microbiota and the brain in relation to motility disorders, with the gut–brain axis being key to the pathogenesis of IBS. Multiple factors contribute to the pathogenetic pathways in IBS, including immune mechanisms, psychosocial factors, increased oxidative stress and pro-inflammatory cytokine release, as well as genetic and hormonal factors. Increased permeability of the normal intestinal barrier allows bacterial products to access the lamina propria, providing a mechanism for perpetuating chronic inflammation and characteristic symptoms. The microbiota influences inflammatory processes in IBS by altering the balance between pro-inflammatory factors and host defence. Probiotics modulate the pathophysiological mechanisms involved in IBS by influencing the composition of the microbiota and improving intestinal motility disorders, visceral hypersensitivity, immune function of the intestinal epithelium, metabolic processes in the intestinal lumen, dysfunction of the microbiota-GBA, and are recognised as effective and safe in IBS therapy. Our study aimed to provide a comprehensive overview of the relationship between the gut–brain axis, microbiota, and IBS, based on current information.

Brain modulation by the gut microbiota: From disease to therapy

BACKGROUND

The gut microbiota (GM) and brain are strongly associated, which significantly affects neuronal development and disorders. GM-derived metabolites modulate neuronal function and influence many cascades in age-related neurodegenerative disorders (NDDs). Because of the dual role of GM in neuroprotection and neurodegeneration, understanding the balance between beneficial and harmful bacteria is crucial for applying this approach to clinical therapies.

AIM OF THE REVIEW

This review briefly discusses the role of the gut-brain relationship in promoting brain and cognitive function. Although a healthy gut environment is helpful for brain function, gut dysbiosis can disrupt the brain's environment and create a vicious cycle of degenerative cascades. The ways in which the GM population can affect brain function and the development of neurodegeneration are also discussed. In the treatment and management of NDDs, the beneficial effects of methods targeting GM populations and their derivatives, including probiotics, prebiotics, and fecal microbial transplantation (FMT) are also highlighted.

KEY SCIENTIFIC CONCEPT OF THE REVIEW

In this review, we aimed to provide a deeper understanding of the mechanisms of the gut microbe-brain relationship and their twin roles in neurodegeneration progression and therapeutic applications. Here, we attempted to highlight the different pathways connecting the brain and gut, together with the role of GM in neuroprotection and neuronal development. Furthermore, potential roles of GM metabolites in the pathogenesis of brain disorders and in strategies for its treatment are also investigated. By analyzing existing in vitro, in vivo and clinical studies, this review attempts to identify new and promising therapeutic strategies for central nervous system (CNS) disorders. As the connection between the gut microbe-brain relationship and responses to NDD treatments is less studied, this review will provide new insights into the global mechanisms of GM modulation in disease progression, and identify potential future perspectives for developing new therapies to treat NDDs.

Exploring the effect of prenatal maternal stress on the microbiomes of mothers and infants: A systematic review

Prenatal maternal stress (PNMS)-characterized by exposure to stress, anxiety, depression, or intimate partner violence-has been linked to biological alterations in infants, including disruptions to their intestinal microbiota, which have long-term implications for children's developmental outcomes. Significant research has been done examining the effects of PNMS on the microbiome in animals, but less is known about these effects in human research. The current systematic review aimed to synthesize current findings on the association between PNMS and mother and infant microbiomes. Medline, Embase, PsycInfo, Web of Science, and Eric databases were searched through to February 2022. A total of eight studies (n = 2219 infants, 2202 mothers) were included in the qualitative synthesis. Findings provided promising evidence of the role that PNMS plays in altering the microbial composition, diversity, and gut immunity in mothers and infants. Notably, majority of included studies found that higher PNMS was linked to increases in genera from the phylum Proteobacteria. The factors influencing these effects are explored including nutrition, birth mode, and parenting behaviors. Potential interventions to mitigate the adverse effects of PNMS are discussed, along with recommendations for future studies with longitudinal designs to better understand the appropriate type and timing of interventions needed to promote "healthy" maternal and infant microbial functioning.

Genetic and Pharmacological Blockade of Sigma-1 Receptors Attenuates Inflammation-Associated Hypersensitivity during Acute Colitis in CD1 Mice

Sigma-1 receptors (σ1Rs) are implicated in nociception, including pain sensitization, and inflammation. We assessed the role of σ1Rs on acute colitis-associated hypersensitivity using both genetic (constitutive knockout) and pharmacological blockade of the receptor. Colitis was induced in CD1 wild-type (WT) and σ1R KO mice (exposure to dextran sodium sulfate, 3%). A von Frey test was used to assess referred mechanosensitivity (abdominal and plantar withdrawal responses). The effects of the selective σ1R antagonists BD1063 and E-52862 were also assessed in WT animals. The expression of immune and sensory-related markers (RT-qPCR, Western blot) was assessed in the colon and lumbosacral spinal cord. The genetic ablation or pharmacological blockade of σ1Rs attenuated acute colonic inflammation in a similar manner. Mechanosensitivity was similar in WT and σ1R KO mice before colitis. In WT mice, but not in σ1R KO, colitis was associated with the development of referred mechanical hypersensitivity, manifested as a reduction in the withdrawal thresholds to mechanical probing (paw and abdominal wall). In WT mice, BD1063 and E-52862 blocked colitis-associated hypersensitivity. A genotype- and treatment-related differential regulation of sensory-related markers was detected locally (colon) and within the spinal cord. σ1Rs are involved in the development of acute intestinal inflammation and its associated referred mechanical hypersensitivity. The selective modulation of sensory-related pathways within the colon and spinal cord might be part of the underlying mechanisms. These observations support the pharmacological use of σ1R antagonists for the treatment of intestinal inflammation-induced hypersensitivity.

Dietary fish oil improves autistic behaviors and gut homeostasis by altering the gut microbial composition in a mouse model of fragile X syndrome

Fragile X syndrome (FXS) is the most common inherited intellectual disability, caused by a lack of the fragile X mental retardation protein (FMRP). Individuals with neurodevelopmental disorders frequently experience gastrointestinal problems that are primarily linked to gut microbial dysbiosis, inflammation, and increased intestinal permeability. Omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (omega-3 PUFAs) are non-pharmacological agents that exert potential therapeutic effects against neurological disorders. However, it is unclear whether omega-3 PUFAs improve autistic behaviors in fragile X syndrome (FXS) by altering the gut microbial composition. Here, we describe gastrointestinal problems in Fmr1 knockout (KO) mice. FMRP deficiency causes intestinal homeostasis dysfunction in mice. Fish oil (FO) as a source of omega-3 PUFAs reduces intestinal inflammation but increases the mRNA and protein levels of TJP3 in the colon of juvenile Fmr1 KO mice. Fecal microbiota transplantation from FO-fed Fmr1 KO mice increased the gut abundance of Akkermansia and Gordonibacter in recipient Fmr1 KO mice and improved gut homeostasis and autistic behaviors. Our findings demonstrate that omega-3 PUFAs improve autistic behaviors and gut homeostasis in FMRP-deficient mice by suppressing gut microbiota dysbiosis, thereby presenting a novel therapeutic approach for juvenile FXS treatment.

The Local Activation of Toll-like Receptor 7 (TLR7) Modulates Colonic Epithelial Barrier Function in Rats

Toll-like receptors (TLRs)-mediated host-bacterial interactions participate in the microbial regulation of gastrointestinal functions, including the epithelial barrier function (EBF). We evaluated the effects of TLR7 stimulation on the colonic EBF in rats. TLR7 was stimulated with the selective agonist imiquimod (100/300 µg/rat, intracolonic), with or without the intracolonic administration of dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO). Colonic EBF was assessed in vitro (electrophysiology and permeability to macromolecules, Ussing chamber) and in vivo (passage of macromolecules to blood and urine). Changes in the expression (RT-qPCR) and distribution (immunohistochemistry) of tight junction-related proteins were determined. Expression of proglucagon, precursor of the barrier-enhancer factor glucagon-like peptide 2 (GLP-2) was also assessed (RT-qPCR). Intracolonic imiquimod enhanced the EBF in vitro, reducing the epithelial conductance and the passage of macromolecules, thus indicating a pro-barrier effect of TLR7. However, the combination of TLR7 stimulation and DMSO had a detrimental effect on the EBF, which manifested as an increased passage of macromolecules. DMSO alone had no effect. The modulation of the EBF (imiquimod alone or with DMSO) was not associated with changes in gene expression or the epithelial distribution of the main tight junction-related proteins (occludin, tricellulin, claudin-2, claudin-3, junctional adhesion molecule 1 and Zonula occludens-1). No changes in the proglucagon expression were observed. These results show that TLR7 stimulation leads to the modulation of the colonic EBF, having beneficial or detrimental effects depending upon the state of the epithelium. The underlying mechanisms remain elusive, but seem independent of the modulation of the main tight junction-related proteins or the barrier-enhancer factor GLP-2.

Targeting the endocannabinoid system for the treatment of abdominal pain in irritable bowel syndrome

The management of visceral pain in patients with disorders of gut-brain interaction, notably irritable bowel syndrome, presents a considerable clinical challenge, with few available treatment options. Patients are increasingly using cannabis and cannabinoids to control abdominal pain. Cannabis acts on receptors of the endocannabinoid system, an endogenous system of lipid mediators that regulates gastrointestinal function and pain processing pathways in health and disease. The endocannabinoid system represents a logical molecular therapeutic target for the treatment of pain in irritable bowel syndrome. Here, we review the physiological and pathophysiological functions of the endocannabinoid system with a focus on the peripheral and central regulation of gastrointestinal function and visceral nociception. We address the use of cannabinoids in pain management, comparing them to other treatment modalities, including opioids and neuromodulators. Finally, we discuss emerging therapeutic candidates targeting the endocannabinoid system for the treatment of pain in irritable bowel syndrome.

Effects of short-distance transportation on physiological indexes, intestinal morphology, microbial community, and the transcriptome of the jejunum in weaned piglets

Transportation of livestock is unavoidable in animal production. A total of 72 piglets were randomly divided into the CON group and the TSG group, and the piglets in CON group were transported for two hours. The purpose of this study was to determine the effects of short-distance road transportation lasting 2 h on the jejunum of weaned piglets. Our results showed that compared with the control group, there was no impact on the growth performance of piglets in the transport group (P > 0.05). The concentrations of cortisol, heat shock protein (HSP)70, HSP90, C-reactive protein, interleukin (IL)-6, IL-8, IL-12, and interferon-γ and the activity of reactive oxygen species were increased in the jejunum of piglets in the transport group (P < 0.05 compared with the control group). The concentrations of glutathione peroxidase, claudin-1, occludin, and zonula occludens-1 showed no between-group differences (P > 0.05). Regarding intestinal morphology, the transport group showed infiltration of a small amount of lymphocytes into the jejunum mucosa epithelium that was accompanied by edema of the lamina propria, whereas the control group showed no obvious abnormalities. At the genus level, in the transport group, the 16S rRNA sequencing revealed a downward trend in the relative abundance of Lactobacillus and an upward trend in the relative abundance of Muribaculaceae_unclassified. There was also increased mRNA expression of genes associated with inflammation in the transport group, but the genes and pathways related to apoptosis were not activated. In summary, weaned piglets undergoing 2 h of short-distance road transportation showed stress and inflammatory reactions of the jejunum but did not exhibit oxidative damage or activation of the apoptosis pathway of the jejunum. Furthermore, the growth performance of the piglets was not affected by the trip.

The microbiota-gut-brain axis in stress and depression

Humans and animals are evolved to have instinctive physiological responses to threats. The perception of threat by the brain triggers a multitude of changes across the brain and body. A large body of research have demonstrated that our hardwired survival instinct, the stress response, can become maladaptive and promote major depressive disorders and other neuropsychiatric impairments. However, gaps in our understanding of how chronic stress contributes to depression and mental disorders suggest that we also need to consider factors beyond the biology of the host. The unravelling of the structure and function of microorganisms that humans and animals are host to have driven a paradigm shift in understanding the individual as a collective network composed of the host plus microbes. Well over 90% of bacteria in the body reside in the large intestines, and these microbes in the lower gut function almost like an organ in the body in the way it interacts with the host. Importantly, bidirectional interactions between the gut microbiota and the brain (i.e., the two-way microbiota-gut-brain axis) have been implicated in the pathophysiology of mental disorders including depression. Here, in summarizing the emerging literature, we envisage that further research particularly on the efferent brain-gut-microbiota axis will uncover transformative links in the biology of stress and depression.

Cannabinoid receptor 2 evolutionary gene loss makes parrots more susceptible to neuroinflammation

In vertebrates, cannabinoids modulate neuroimmune interactions through two cannabinoid receptors (CNRs) conservatively expressed in the brain (CNR1, syn. CB1) and in the periphery (CNR2, syn. CB2). Our comparative genomic analysis indicates several evolutionary losses in the CNR2 gene that is involved in immune regulation. Notably, we show that the CNR2 gene pseudogenized in all parrots (Psittaciformes). This CNR2 gene loss occurred because of chromosomal rearrangements. Our positive selection analysis suggests the absence of any specific molecular adaptations in parrot CNR1 that would compensate for the CNR2 loss in the modulation of the neuroimmune interactions. Using transcriptomic data from the brains of birds with experimentally induced sterile inflammation we highlight possible functional effects of such a CNR2 gene loss. We compare the expression patterns of CNR and neuroinflammatory markers in CNR2-deficient parrots (represented by the budgerigar, Melopsittacus undulatus and five other parrot species) with CNR2-intact passerines (represented by the zebra finch, Taeniopygia guttata). Unlike in passerines, stimulation with lipopolysaccharide resulted in neuroinflammation in the parrots linked with a significant upregulation of expression in proinflammatory cytokines (including interleukin 1 beta (IL1B) and 6 (IL6)) in the brain. Our results indicate the functional importance of the CNR2 gene loss for increased sensitivity to brain inflammation.

Metabolomics: The Key to Unraveling the Role of the Microbiome in Visceral Pain Neurotransmission

Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), comprising Crohn's disease and Ulcerative colitis, is a relapsing and remitting disease of the gastrointestinal tract, presenting with chronic inflammation, ulceration, gastrointestinal bleeding, and abdominal pain. Up to 80% of patients suffering from IBD experience acute pain, which dissipates when the underlying inflammation and tissue damage resolves. However, despite achieving endoscopic remission with no signs of ongoing intestinal inflammation or damage, 30-50% of IBD patients in remission experience chronic abdominal pain, suggesting altered sensory neuronal processing in this disorder. Furthermore, effective treatment for chronic pain is limited such that 5-25% of IBD outpatients are treated with narcotics, with associated morbidity and mortality. IBD patients commonly present with substantial alterations to the microbial community structure within the gastrointestinal tract, known as dysbiosis. The same is also true in irritable bowel syndrome (IBS), a chronic disorder characterized by altered bowel habits and abdominal pain, in the absence of inflammation. An emerging body of literature suggests that the gut microbiome plays an important role in visceral hypersensitivity. Specific microbial metabolites have an intimate relationship with host receptors that are highly expressed on host cell and neurons, suggesting that microbial metabolites play a key role in visceral hypersensitivity. In this review, we will discuss the techniques used to analysis the metabolome, current potential metabolite targets for visceral hypersensitivity, and discuss the current literature that evaluates the role of the post-inflammatory microbiota and metabolites in visceral hypersensitivity.

Role of the Endocannabinoid System in the Regulation of Intestinal Homeostasis

The maintenance of intestinal homeostasis is fundamentally important to health. Intestinal barrier function and immune regulation are key determinants of intestinal homeostasis and are therefore tightly regulated by a variety of signaling mechanisms. The endocannabinoid system is a lipid mediator signaling system widely expressed in the gastrointestinal tract. Accumulating evidence suggests the endocannabinoid system is a critical nexus involved in the physiological processes that underlie the control of intestinal homeostasis. In this review we will illustrate how the endocannabinoid system is involved in regulation of intestinal permeability, fluid secretion, and immune regulation. We will also demonstrate a reciprocal regulation between the endocannabinoid system and the gut microbiome. The role of the endocannabinoid system is complex and multifaceted, responding to both internal and external factors while also serving as an effector system for the maintenance of intestinal homeostasis.

Lactoferrin modulates gut microbiota and Toll-like receptors (TLRs) in mice with dysbiosis induced by antibiotics

Background: Antibiotic administration can result in gut microbiota and immune system alterations that impact health. Bovine lactoferrin is a milk protein with anticancer, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial and immune modulatory activities. The aim was to study the ability of native and iron-saturated lactoferrin to reverse the effects of clindamycin on gut microbiota and intestinal Toll-like receptor (TLR) expression in a murine model. Methods: Male C57BL/6 mice were treated with vehicle, clindamycin (Clin), native bovine lactoferrin (nLf), nLf + clindamycin (nLf_Clin), iron-saturated bovine lactoferrin (sLf) and sLf + clindamycin (sLf_Clin). Fecal samples of each group were collected, and bacterial DNA was extracted. Sequencing of 16s rRNA V4 hypervariable gene regions was conducted to assess the microbial composition. mRNA expression levels of TLRs (1-9) were determined in mouse colon by qPCR. Pearson's correlation test was carried out between bacteria showing differences in abundance among samples and TLR2, TLR8 and TLR9. Results: Beta-diversity analysis showed that the microbial community of the vehicle was different from the communities of Clin, nLf_Clin and sLf_Clin. At the family level, Bacteroidaceae, Prevotellaceae and Rikenellaceae decreased in the Clin group, and treatment with nLf or sLf reverted these effects. Clin reduced the expression of TLR2, TLR8 and TLR9 and sLf reverted the decrease in the expression of these receptors. Finally, TLR8 was positively correlated with Rikenellaceae abundance. Conclusion: In a situation of intestinal dysbiosis induced by clindamycin, lactoferrin restores the normal levels of some anti-inflammatory bacteria and TLRs and, therefore, could be a good ingredient to be added to functional foods.

Pharmacomicrobiomics: Influence of gut microbiota on drug and xenobiotic metabolism

Gut microbiota is the most diverse and complex biological ecosystem, which is estimated to consist of greater than 5 million distinct genes and 100 trillion cells which are in constant communication with the host environment. The interaction between the gut microbiota and drugs and other xenobiotic compounds is bidirectional, quite complicated, and not fully understood yet. The impact of xenobiotics from pollution, manufacturing processes or from the environment is harmful to human health at varying degrees and this needs to be recognized and addressed. The gut microbiota is capable of biotransforming/metabolizing of various drugs and xenobiotic compounds as well as altering the activity and toxicity of these substances, thereby influencing how a host responds to drugs and xenobiotics and this emerging field is known as pharmacomicrobiomics. In this review, we discussed different mechanisms of drug-gut microbiota interaction and highlighted the influence of drug-gut microbiome interactions on the clinical response in humans.

Communication between the gut microbiota and peripheral nervous system in health and chronic disease

Trillions of bacteria reside within our gastrointestinal tract, ideally forming a mutually beneficial relationship between us. However, persistent changes in diet and lifestyle in the western diet and lifestyle contribute to a damaging of the gut microbiota-host symbiosis leading to diseases such as obesity and irritable bowel syndrome. Many symptoms and comorbidities associated with these diseases stem from dysfunctional signaling in peripheral neurons. Our peripheral nervous system (PNS) is comprised of a variety of sensory, autonomic, and enteric neurons which coordinate key homeostatic functions such as gastrointestinal motility, digestion, immunity, feeding behavior, glucose and lipid homeostasis, and more. The composition and signaling of bacteria in our gut dramatically influences how our peripheral neurons regulate these functions, and we are just beginning to uncover the molecular mechanisms mediating this communication. In this review, we cover the general anatomy and function of the PNS, and then we discuss how the molecules secreted or stimulated by gut microbes signal through the PNS to alter host development and physiology. Finally, we discuss how leveraging the power of our gut microbes on peripheral nervous system signaling may offer effective therapies to counteract the rise in chronic diseases crippling the western world.

Reduced calorie diet combined with NNMT inhibition establishes a distinct microbiome in DIO mice

Treatment with a nicotinamide N-methyltransferase inhibitor (NNMTi; 5-amino-1-methylquinolinium) combined with low-fat diet (LD) promoted dramatic whole-body adiposity and weight loss in diet-induced obese (DIO) mice, rapidly normalizing these measures to age-matched lean animals, while LD switch alone was unable to restore these measures to age-matched controls in the same time frame. Since mouse microbiome profiles often highly correlate with body weight and fat composition, this study was designed to test whether the cecal microbiomes of DIO mice treated with NNMTi and LD were comparable to the microbiomes of age-matched lean counterparts and distinct from microbiomes of DIO mice maintained on a high-fat Western diet (WD) or subjected to LD switch alone. There were minimal microbiome differences between lean and obese controls, suggesting that diet composition and adiposity had limited effects. However, DIO mice switched from an obesity-promoting WD to an LD (regardless of treatment status) displayed several genera and phyla differences compared to obese and lean controls. While alpha diversity measures did not significantly differ between groups, beta diversity principal coordinates analyses suggested that mice from the same treatment group were the most similar. K-means clustering analysis of amplicon sequence variants by animal demonstrated that NNMTi-treated DIO mice switched to LD had a distinct microbiome pattern that was highlighted by decreased Erysipelatoclostridium and increased Lactobacillus relative abundances compared to vehicle counterparts; these genera are tied to body weight and metabolic regulation. Additionally, Parasutterella relative abundance, which was increased in both the vehicle- and NNMTi-treated LD-switched groups relative to the controls, significantly correlated with several adipose tissue metabolites' abundances. Collectively, these results provide a novel foundation for future investigations.

Enterochromaffin Cells: Sentinels to Gut Microbiota in Hyperalgesia?

In recent years, increasing studies have been conducted on the mechanism of gut microbiota in neuropsychiatric diseases and non-neuropsychiatric diseases. The academic community has also recognized the existence of the microbiota-gut-brain axis. Chronic pain has always been an urgent difficulty for human beings, which often causes anxiety, depression, and other mental symptoms, seriously affecting people's quality of life. Hyperalgesia is one of the main adverse reactions of chronic pain. The mechanism of gut microbiota in hyperalgesia has been extensively studied, providing a new target for pain treatment. Enterochromaffin cells, as the chief sentinel for sensing gut microbiota and its metabolites, can play an important role in the interaction between the gut microbiota and hyperalgesia through paracrine or neural pathways. Therefore, this systematic review describes the role of gut microbiota in the pathological mechanism of hyperalgesia, learns about the role of enterochromaffin cell receptors and secretions in hyperalgesia, and provides a new strategy for pain treatment by targeting enterochromaffin cells through restoring disturbed gut microbiota or supplementing probiotics.

Intestinal inflammation-associated hypersensitivity is attenuated in a DSS model of colitis in Sigma-1 knockout C57BL/6 mice

Sigma-1 receptors (σ1R) have been implicated in several pain pathways. We assessed the implication of σ1Rs in the development of intestinal inflammation and inflammation-associated referred hypersensitivity in a model of colitis in σ1R knockout (KO) mice. Colitis was induced with dextran sulfate sodium (DSS) in wild type (WT) and σ1R KO mice. The development of referred mechanical hypersensitivity (von Frey test) was assessed. Colonic and spinal changes in expression of immune- and sensory-related markers were also investigated (RT-qPCR/Western blot). Absence of σ1Rs had little impact in colitis generation and progression, although during the chronic phase a reduction in edema and a down-regulation of iNOS gene expression was observed. In σ1R KO mice, inflammation-associated hypersensitivity was significantly attenuated (paw) or completely prevented (abdomen). During colitis, in WT mice, changes in the colonic expression of nociceptive markers were observed during the acute and chronic phases of inflammation. Although σ1R KO mice showed similar regulation in the acute phase, an attenuated response was observed during the chronic phase of colitis. These differences were especially relevant for CB2 and TRPV1 receptors, which could play an important role in σ1-mediated regulation of sensitivity. No changes were detected on ERK phosphorylation at the level of the lumbosacral spinal cord. In summary, intestinal inflammation-associated referred hyperalgesia was reduced (paw) or absent (abdomen) in σ1R KO mice, thus confirming an important role for σ1R in the development of colitis-associated hypersensitivity. These results identify σ1Rs as a possible therapeutic target for the treatment of hypersensitivity associated to intestinal inflammation.

Behavioural adaptations after antibiotic treatment in male mice are reversed by activation of the aryl hydrocarbon receptor

The intestinal microbiota plays an important role in regulating brain functions and behaviour. Microbiota-dependent changes in host physiology have been suggested to be key contributors to psychiatric conditions. However, specific host pathways modulated by the microbiota involved in behavioural control are lacking. Here, we assessed the role of the aryl hydrocarbon receptor (Ahr) in modulating microbiota-related alterations in behaviour in male and female mice after antibiotic (Abx) treatment. Mice of both sexes were treated with Abx to induce bacterial depletion. Mice were then tested in a battery of behavioural tests, including the elevated plus maze and open field tests (anxiety-like behaviour), 3 chamber test (social preference), and the tail suspension and forced swim tests (despair behaviour). Behavioural measurements in the tail suspension test were also performed after microbiota reconstitution and after administration of an Ahr agonist, β-naphthoflavone. Gene expression analyses were performed in the brain, liver, and colon by qPCR. Abx-induced bacterial depletion did not alter anxiety-like behaviour, locomotion, or social preference in either sex. A sex-dependent effect was observed in despair behaviour. Male mice had a reduction in despair behaviour after Abx treatment in both the tail suspension and forced swim tests. A similar alteration in despair behaviour was observed in Ahr knockout mice. Despair behaviour was normalized by either microbiota recolonization or Ahr activation in Abx-treated mice. Ahr activation by β-naphthoflavone was confirmed by increased expression of the Ahr-target genes Cyp1a1, Cyp1b1, and Ahrr. Our results demonstrate a role for Ahr in mediating the behaviours that are regulated by the crosstalk between the intestinal microbiota and the host. Ahr represents a novel potential modulator of behavioural conditions influenced by the intestinal microbiota.

Maternal obesity reverses the resistance to LPS-induced adverse pregnancy outcome and increases female offspring metabolic alterations in cannabinoid receptor 1 knockout mice

Maternal overnutrition negatively impacts the offspring's health leading to an increased risk of developing chronic diseases or metabolic syndrome in adulthood. What we eat affects the endocannabinoid system (eCS) activity, which in turn modulates lipogenesis and fatty acids utilization in hepatic, muscle, and adipose tissues. This study aimed to evaluate the transgenerational effect of maternal obesity on cannabinoid receptor 1 knock-out (CB1 KO) animals in combination with a postnatal obesogenic diet on the development of metabolic disturbances on their offspring. CB1 KO mice were fed a control diet (CD) or a high-fat diet (HFD; 33% more energy from fat) for 3 months. Offspring born to control and obese mothers were also fed with CD or HFD. We observed that pups born to an HFD-fed mother presented higher postnatal weight, lower hepatic fatty acid amide hydrolase activity, and increased blood cholesterol levels when compared to the offspring born to CD-fed mothers. When female mice born to HFD-fed CB1 KO mothers were exposed to an HFD, they gained more weight, presented elevated blood cholesterol levels, and more abdominal adipose tissue accumulation than control-fed adult offspring. The eCS is involved in several reproductive physiological processes. Interestingly, we showed that CB1 KO mice in gestational day 15 presented resistance to LPS-induced deleterious effects on pregnancy outcome, which was overcome when these mice were obese. Our results suggest that an HFD in CB1 receptor-deficient mice contributes to a "nutritional programming" of the offspring resulting in increased susceptibility to metabolic challenges both perinatally and during adulthood.

The Endocannabinoid System: A Bridge between Alzheimer's Disease and Gut Microbiota

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a neurodegenerative disease that progresses from mild cognitive impairment to severe dementia over time. The main clinical hallmarks of the disease (e.g., beta-amyloid plaques and neurofibrillary tangles) begin during preclinical AD when cognitive deficits are not yet apparent. Hence, a more profound understanding of AD pathogenesis is needed to develop new therapeutic strategies. In this context, the endocannabinoid (eCB) system and the gut microbiome are increasingly emerging as important players in maintaining the general homeostasis and the health status of the host. However, their interaction has come to light just recently with gut microbiota regulating the eCB tone at both receptor and enzyme levels in intestinal and adipose tissues. Importantly, eCB system and gut microbiome, have been suggested to play a role in AD in both animal and human studies. Therefore, the microbiome gut-brain axis and the eCB system are potential common denominators in the AD physiopathology. Hence, the aim of this review is to provide a general overview on the role of both the eCB system and the microbiome gut-brain axis in AD and to suggest possible mechanisms that underlie the potential interplay of these two systems.

Inflammasome Signaling Regulates the Microbial-Neuroimmune Axis and Visceral Pain in Mice

Interactions between the intestinal microbiota, immune system and nervous system are essential for homeostasis in the gut. Inflammasomes contribute to innate immunity and brain–gut interactions, but their role in microbiota–neuro–immune interactions is not clear. Therefore, we investigated the effect of the inflammasome on visceral pain and local and systemic neuroimmune responses after antibiotic-induced changes to the microbiota. Wild-type (WT) and caspase-1/11 deficient (Casp1 KO) mice were orally treated for 2 weeks with an antibiotic cocktail (Abx, Bacitracin A and Neomycin), followed by quantification of representative fecal commensals (by qPCR), cecal short chain fatty acids (by HPLC), pathways implicated in the gut–neuro-immune axis (by RT-qPCR, immunofluorescence staining, and flow cytometry) in addition to capsaicin-induced visceral pain responses. Abx-treatment in WT-mice resulted in an increase in colonic macrophages, central neuro-immune interactions, colonic inflammasome and nociceptive receptor gene expression and a reduction in capsaicin-induced visceral pain. In contrast, these responses were attenuated in Abx-treated Casp1 KO mice. Collectively, the data indicate an important role for the inflammasome pathway in functional and inflammatory gastrointestinal conditions where pain and alterations in microbiota composition are prominent.

Early Life Antibiotic Exposure and the Subsequent Risk of Autism Spectrum Disorder and Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

This study was conducted to assess this association between early life antibiotic exposure and the risk of autism spectrum disorder (ASD) and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) in later life. The results showed that early life antibiotic exposure was associated with an increased risk of ASD (OR = 1.13, 95% confidence interval (CI): 1.07-1.21) or ADHD (OR = 1.18, 95% CI: 1.1-1.27). However, this association for ASD (OR = 1.04, 95% CI: 0.97-1.11) or ADHD (OR = 0.98, 95% CI: 0.94-1.02) disappeared when data from sibling-matched studies were pooled. The statistically significant association between early life antibiotic exposure and ASD or ADHD in later life can be partially explained by unmeasured genetic and familial confounding factors.

Intestinal Homeostasis under Stress Siege

Intestinal homeostasis encompasses a complex and balanced interplay among a wide array of components that collaborate to maintain gut barrier integrity. The appropriate function of the gut barrier requires the mucus layer, a sticky cushion of mucopolysaccharides that overlays the epithelial cell surface. Mucus plays a critical anti-inflammatory role by preventing direct contact between luminal microbiota and the surface of the epithelial cell monolayer. Moreover, mucus is enriched with pivotal effectors of intestinal immunity, such as immunoglobulin A (IgA). A fragile and delicate equilibrium that supports proper barrier function can be disturbed by stress. The impact of stress upon intestinal homeostasis results from neuroendocrine mediators of the brain-gut axis (BGA), which comprises a nervous branch that includes the enteric nervous system (ENS) and the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems, as well as an endocrine branch of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis. This review is the first to discuss the experimental animal models that address the impact of stress on components of intestinal homeostasis, with special emphasis on intestinal mucus and IgA. Basic knowledge from animal models provides the foundations of pharmacologic and immunological interventions to control disturbances associated with conditions that are exacerbated by emotional stress, such as irritable bowel syndrome.

The Microbiome-Gut-Brain Axis and Resilience to Developing Anxiety or Depression under Stress

Episodes of depression and anxiety commonly follow the experience of stress, however not everyone who experiences stress develops a mood disorder. Individuals who are able to experience stress without a negative emotional effect are considered stress resilient. Stress-resilience (and its counterpart stress-susceptibility) are influenced by several psychological and biological factors, including the microbiome-gut-brain axis. Emerging research shows that the gut microbiota can influence mood, and that stress is an important variable in this relationship. Stress alters the gut microbiota and plausibly this could contribute to stress-related changes in mood. Most of the reported research has been conducted using animal models and demonstrates a relationship between gut microbiome and mood. The translational evidence from human clinical studies however is rather limited. In this review we examine the microbiome-gut-brain axis research in relation to stress resilience.

The Safety, Tolerability and Efficacy of Probiotic Bacteria for Equine Use

Probiotic bacteria are used widely as nutritional supplements and treatment interventions in the management of livestock and companion animals. The aim of this review is to summarize the current evidence reporting on the safety, tolerability and efficacy of probiotic bacteria use in horses. An online search of five databases for studies reporting on the use of probiotic bacteria use in horses which were either healthy or had a gastrointestinal or extraintestinal disease was conducted. A total of 18 articles were eligible for full review. No clear benefits were identified to support supplementation of equids with probiotic bacteria to improve starch and fiber digestion, nor for the treatment of colic or prevention of salmonellosis. Conflicting results were seen with the management of scouring in neonatal foals. Exacerbation of diarrhea and additional adverse events were reported in response to the administration of high doses of novel probiotic bacterial species. Probiotic bacteria given to exercising horses, improved aerobic fitness and stamina. The majority of probiotic bacterial species used in equine studies are bacterial species commonly used for human consumption and indigenous to the human gastrointestinal microbiota. There is a paucity of evidence to support the use of probiotic bacteria in the health maintenance and disease management of horses. While there are unclear and conflicting results associated with probiotic bacteria use for gastrointestinal conditions in both horses and foals, the administration of multistrain bacterial formulations to increase stamina in exercising horses shows promise.

Effects of Rifaximin on Luminal and Wall-Adhered Gut Commensal Microbiota in Mice

Rifaximin is a broad-spectrum antibiotic that ameliorates symptomatology in inflammatory/functional gastrointestinal disorders. We assessed changes in gut commensal microbiota (GCM) and Toll-like receptors (TLRs) associated to rifaximin treatment in mice. Adult C57BL/6NCrl mice were treated (7/14 days) with rifaximin (50/150 mg/mouse/day, PO). Luminal and wall-adhered ceco-colonic GCM were characterized by fluorescent in situ hybridization (FISH) and microbial profiles determined by terminal restriction fragment length polymorphism (T-RFLP). Colonic expression of TLR2/3/4/5/7 and immune-related markers was assessed (RT-qPCR). Regardless the period of treatment or the dose, rifaximin did not alter total bacterial counts or bacterial biodiversity. Only a modest increase in Bacteroides spp. (150 mg/1-week treatment) was detected. In control conditions, only Clostridium spp. and Bifidobacterium spp. were found attached to the colonic epithelium. Rifaximin showed a tendency to favour their adherence after a 1-week, but not 2-week, treatment period. Minor up-regulation in TLRs expression was observed. Only the 50 mg dose for 1-week led to a significant increase (by 3-fold) in TLR-4 expression. No changes in the expression of immune-related markers were observed. Rifaximin, although its antibacterial properties, induces minor changes in luminal and wall-adhered GCM in healthy mice. Moreover, no modulation of TLRs or local immune systems was observed. These findings, in normal conditions, do not rule out a modulatory role of rifaximin in inflammatory and or dysbiotic states of the gut.

The contribution of gut bacterial metabolites in the human immune signaling pathway of non-communicable diseases

The interaction disorder between gut microbiota and its host has been documented in different non-communicable diseases (NCDs) such as metabolic syndrome, neurodegenerative disease, and autoimmune disease. The majority of these altered interactions arise through metabolic cross-talk between gut microbiota and host immune system, inducing a low-grade chronic inflammation that characterizes all NCDs. In this review, we discuss the contribution of bacterial metabolites to immune signaling pathways involved in NCDs. We then review recent advances that aid to rationally design microbial therapeutics. A deeper understanding of these intersections between host and gut microbiota metabolism using metabolomics-based system biology platform promises to reveal the fundamental mechanisms that drive metabolic predispositions to disease and suggest new avenues to use microbial therapeutic opportunities for NCDs treatment and prevention. Abbreviations: NCDs: non-communicable disease, IBD: inflammatory bowel disease, IL: interleukin, T2D: type 2 diabetes, SCFAs: short-chain fatty acids, HDAC: histone deacetylases, GPCR: G-protein coupled receptors, 5-HT: 5-hydroxytryptamine receptor signaling, DCs: dendritic cells, IECs: intestinal epithelial cells, T-reg: T regulatory cell, NF-κB: nuclear factor κB, TNF-α: tumor necrosis factor alpha, Th: T helper cell, CNS: central nervous system, ECs: enterochromaffin cells, NSAIDs: non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, AhR: aryl hydrocarbon receptor, IDO: indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase, QUIN: quinolinic acid, PC: phosphatidylcholine, TMA: trimethylamine, TMAO: trimethylamine N-oxide, CVD: cardiovascular disease, NASH: nonalcoholic steatohepatitis, BAs: bile acids, FXR: farnesoid X receptor, CDCA: chenodeoxycholic acid, DCA: deoxycholic acid, LCA: lithocholic acid, UDCA: ursodeoxycholic acid, CB: cannabinoid receptor, COBRA: constraint-based reconstruction and analysis.

Swine gut microbiota and its interaction with host nutrient metabolism

Gut microbiota is generally recognized to play a crucial role in maintaining host health and metabolism. The correlation among gut microbiota, glycolipid metabolism, and metabolic diseases has been well reviewed in humans. However, the interplay between gut microbiota and host metabolism in swine remains incompletely understood. Given the limitation in conducting human experiments and the high similarity between swine and humans in terms of anatomy, physiology, polyphagy, habits, and metabolism and in terms of the composition of gut microbiota, there is a pressing need to summarize the knowledge gained regarding swine gut microbiota, its interplay with host metabolism, and the underlying mechanisms. This review aimed to outline the bidirectional regulation between gut microbiota and nutrient metabolism in swine and to emphasize the action mechanisms underlying the complex microbiome-host crosstalk via the gut microbiota-gut-brain axis. Moreover, it highlights the new advances in knowledge of the diurnal rhythmicity of gut microbiota. A better understanding of these aspects can not only shed light on healthy and efficient pork production but also promote our knowledge on the associations between gut microbiota and the microbiome-host crosstalk mechanism. More importantly, knowledge on microbiota, host health and metabolism facilitates the development of a precise intervention therapy targeting the gut microbiota.

Impact of Changes in Gastrointestinal Microbiota in Canine and Feline Digestive Diseases

The intestinal microbiome is an important immune and metabolic organ in health and disease. Recent molecular and metabolomic approaches have provided a better characterization of different types of dysbiosis, including mucosa-adherent bacteria and functional changes in the microbiome. This article summarizes recent advances in assessment of dysbiosis, the importance of the bile acid-converting Clostridium hiranonis as an important beneficial bacterium in the canine gut, and different therapeutic approaches to dysbiosis.

Prevalence of Subthreshold Depression Among Constipation-Predominant Irritable Bowel Syndrome Patients

Patients suffering from irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) may have some form of affective disorders that may worsen their symptoms. Lack of screening among IBS patients is one of the reasons for depression unawareness among healthcare providers. The present study was conducted to evaluate the prevalence of depression among patients with constipation-predominant IBS (IBS-C). A total of 240 IBS patients who fulfilled Rome III criteria were enrolled. The psychiatric assessment was evaluated using the Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale Revised (CESD-R). Twenty items in CESD-R scale measured symptoms of depression in nine separate groups. Patients were categorized into five different subgroups: major depressive episode, probable major depressive episode, possible major depressive episode, subthreshold depressive symptoms, and without clinical significance of depression. Out of the 240 patients with IBS-C, the majority (n = 161, 67.1%) had no clinical significance of depression. Seventy seven (32.1%) had subthreshold depression and only two (0.83%) patients were regarded as having probable a major depressive episode. No patient was categorized into a major or possible major depressive episode. The prevalence of subthreshold depression was the highest among female (72.3%) patients with 51.1% being single, 44.7% were married, and 4.3% were divorcees. When stratified according to ethnicity, subthreshold depression was highly prevalent among Malays (76.6%), followed by Chinese (19.2%), and Indians (2.1%). A high percentage of the patients were found to be non-smokers (93.6%) and had lower income of less than RM 5000 (USD 1250) per month (89.4%). The moderately high prevalence of subthreshold depression among patients with IBS, justifies psychological evaluation in all patients with functional gastrointestinal disorders.

Proton pump inhibitors enhance intestinal permeability via dysbiosis of gut microbiota under stressed conditions in mice

BACKGROUND

Intestinal permeability and psychological stress are considered the key mechanism(s) in functional dyspepsia (FD). Although proton pump inhibitors (PPIs) are commonly used for the treatment of FD, the effect of PPIs on intestinal permeability has not been elucidated. This study investigated the effect of PPI on intestinal permeability under stressed conditions.

METHODS

C57BL/6J mice were subjected to water avoidance stress (WAS) and administered rabeprazole (40 mg/kg) or vehicle treatment (VT). We then evaluated intestinal permeability both in vivo and ex vivo using plasma fluorescein isothiocyanate-dextran and by assessing the paracellular permeability and transepithelial electrical resistance (TEER) in an Ussing chamber, respectively. Furthermore, we evaluated the effect of PPI-treated fecal microbiota transplant (FMT) on intestinal permeability in vivo. Microbiota profiles of donor feces were assessed by 16S rRNA gene analysis using MiSeq and QIIME2.

KEY RESULTS

In the WAS treatment, PPI significantly enhanced intestinal permeability in vivo compared to that in VT. Moreover, PPI significantly increased paracellular permeability and decreased TEER in the duodenum and jejunum, respectively, compared to those in VT under stressed conditions. Moreover, both vasoactive intestinal peptide (VIP) receptor antagonist and ketotifen significantly reversed the effect of PPI on intestinal permeability. Furthermore, PPI-treated FMT significantly increased the intestinal permeability in vivo compared to that in vehicle-treated FMT. Proton pump inhibitors treatment altered the gut microbiota composition, indicating that PPI induced dysbiosis.

CONCLUSIONS AND INFERENCES

Under stressed conditions, PPI enhances intestinal permeability via dysbiosis of gut microbiota. Vasoactive intestinal peptide and mast cells are also implicated in the underlying mechanisms.

Role of the Endocannabinoidome in Human and Mouse Atherosclerosis

The Endocannabinoid (eCB) system and its role in many physiological and pathological conditions is well described and accepted, and includes cardiovascular disorders. However, the eCB system has been expanded to an "-ome"; the endocannabinoidome (eCBome) that includes endocannabinoid-related mediators, their protein targets and metabolic enzymes, many of which significantly impact upon cardiometabolic health. These recent discoveries are here summarized with a special focus on their potential involvement in atherosclerosis. We described the role of classical components of the eCB system (eCBs, CB1 and CB2 receptors) and eCB-related lipids, their regulatory enzymes and molecular targets in atherosclerosis. Furthermore, since increasing evidence points to significant cross-talk between the eCBome and the gut microbiome and the gut microbiome and atherosclerosis, we explore the possibility that a gut microbiome - eCBome axis has potential implications in atherosclerosis.

Stress and the gut microbiota-brain axis

Stress is a nonspecific response of the body to any demand imposed upon it, disrupting the body homoeostasis and manifested with symptoms such as anxiety, depression or even headache. These responses are quite frequent in the present competitive world. The aim of this review is to explore the effect of stress on gut microbiota. First, we summarize evidence of where the microbiota composition has changed as a response to a stressful situation, and thereby the effect of the stress response. Likewise, we review different interventions that can modulate microbiota and could modulate the stress according to the underlying mechanisms whereby the gut-brain axis influences stress. Finally, we review both preclinical and clinical studies that provide evidence of the effect of gut modulation on stress. In conclusion, the influence of stress on gut microbiota and gut microbiota on stress modulation is clear for different stressors, but although the preclinical evidence is so extensive, the clinical evidence is more limited. A better understanding of the mechanism underlying stress modulation through the microbiota may open new avenues for the design of therapeutics that could boost the pursued clinical benefits. These new designs should not only focus on stress but also on stress-related disorders such as anxiety and depression, in both healthy individuals and different populations.

Gut Microbiome and Modulation of CNS Function

Preclinical evidence strongly suggests a role for the gut microbiome in modulating the host central nervous system function and behavior. Several communication channels have been identified that enable microbial signals to reach the brain and that enable the brain to influence gut microbial composition and function. In rodent models, endocrine, neural, and inflammatory signals generated by gut microbes can alter brain structure and function, while autonomic nervous system activity can affect the microbiome by modulating the intestinal environment and by directly regulating microbial behavior. The amount of information that reaches the brain is dynamically regulated by the blood-brain barrier and the intestinal barrier. In humans, associations between gut microbial composition and function and several brain disorders have been reported, and fecal microbial transplants from patient populations into gnotobiotic mice have resulted in the reproduction of homologous features in the recipient mice. However, in contrast to preclinical findings, there is little information about a causal role of the gut microbiome in modulating human central nervous system function and behavior. Longitudinal studies in large patient populations with therapeutic interventions are required to demonstrate such causality, which will provide the basis for future clinical trials. © 2020 American Physiological Society. Compr Physiol 10:57-72, 2020.

Hypergravity disrupts murine intestinal microbiota

During spaceflight, organisms are subjected to various physical stressors including modification of gravity (G) that, associated with lifestyle, could lead to impaired immunity, intestinal dysbiosis and thus potentially predispose astronauts to illness. Whether space travel affects microbiota homeostasis has not been thoroughly investigated. The aim of this study was to evaluate changes in intestinal microbiota and mucosa in a ground-based murine model consisting in a 21-days confinement of mice in a centrifuge running at 2 or 3G. Results revealed an increased α-diversity and a significant change in intracaecal β-diversity observed only at 3G, with profiles characterized by a decrease of the Firmicutes/Bacteroidetes ratio. Compared to 1G microbiota, 12.1% of the taxa were significantly impacted in 3G microbiota, most of them (78%) being enriched. This study shows a G-level-dependent disruption of intracaecal microbiota, without alteration of mucosal integrity. These first data reinforce those recently obtained with in-flight experimentations or microgravity models, and emphasize the critical need for further studies exploring the impact of spaceflight on intestinal microbiota in order to optimize long-term space travel conditions.

The Gut-Brain Axis and the Microbiome: Mechanisms and Clinical Implications

BACKGROUND & AIMS

Based largely on results from preclinical studies, the concept of a brain gut microbiome axis has been established, mediating bidirectional communication between the gut, its microbiome, and the nervous system. Limited data obtained in human beings suggest that alterations in these interactions may play a role in several brain gut disorders.

METHODS

We reviewed the preclinical and clinical literature related to the topic of brain gut microbiome interactions.

RESULTS

Well-characterized bidirectional communication channels, involving neural, endocrine, and inflammatory mechanisms, exist between the gut and the brain. Communication through these channels may be modulated by variations in the permeability of the intestinal wall and the blood-brain barrier. Brain gut microbiome interactions are programmed during the first 3 years of life, including the prenatal period, but can be modulated by diet, medications, and stress throughout life. Based on correlational studies, alterations in these interactions have been implicated in the regulation of food intake, obesity, and in irritable bowel syndrome, even though causality remains to be established.

CONCLUSIONS

Targets within the brain gut microbiome axis have the potential to become targets for novel drug development for brain gut disorders.

Pressure management as an occupational stress risk factor in irritable bowel syndrome: A cross-sectional study

Irritable Bowel Syndrome (IBS) is the most prevalent functional gastrointestinal disorder. Psychosocial stress is one of the pathogenic factors involved in the pathogenesis of IBS. The Pressure Management Indicator (PMI) is a validated questionnaire to analyze all aspects of occupational stress-a model involving sources of pressure, the mechanisms of coping, the personality, and the resulting effects of the interaction between these 3 elements. The purpose of this study was to analyze the association between socio-professional stress effects in IBS, and the relationship of IL-6 levels and salivary cortisol with occupational stress.We conducted a prospective cross-sectional study on 76 patients (39 patients with IBS, diagnosed according to the Rome III criteria and 37 healthy controls) who were investigated using a validated self-administered questionnaire: PMI. The biologic markers of chronic stress were analyzed using salivary cortisol and the immune response with serum interleukin 6 (IL-6).The IBS patients corresponded to the following subtypes: diarrhea-predominant: 22, constipation-predominant: 14 and mixed: 3. All the socio-professional pressure effects variables and scales were statistically significant, in an inversely proportional relation with IBS. Lower scores (poor effects) were found in IBS subjects. The adjusted odds ratios of having IBS versus healthy subjects for the socio-professional pressure effects scales were: 0.81 (95% confidence interval (CI) 0.72-0.88), for satisfaction, 0.85 (95% CI 0.78-0.91) for organization, 0.85 (95% CI 0.79-0.91) for mental wellbeing and 0.8 (95% CI 0.71-0.87) for physical wellbeing (P <.001). Also, the serum IL-6 levels were significantly higher in IBS than in controls (p < 0.001). There was no statistical difference between the salivary levels of cortisol between IBS patients and controls (P = .898).The level of occupational stress was higher in IBS patients compared to healthy subjects (socio-professional stress effects were lower in IBS patients) and correlated with IL-6 levels. Salivary cortisol was not associated with occupational pressure management.

Gut microbiome and type 2 diabetes: where we are and where to go?

Type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2D) is a highly prevalent metabolic disorder characterized by an imbalance in blood glucose level, altered lipid profile and high blood pressure. Genetic constituents, high-fat and high-energy dietary habits, and a sedentary lifestyle are three major factors that contribute to high risk of T2D. Several studies have reported gut microbiome dysbiosis as a factor in rapid progression of insulin resistance in T2D that accounts for about 90% of all diabetes cases worldwide. The gut microbiome dysbiosis may reshape intestinal barrier functions and host metabolic and signaling pathways, which are directly or indirectly related to the insulin resistance in T2D. Thousands of the metabolites derived from microbes interact with the epithelial, hepatic and cardiac cell receptors that modulate host physiology. Xenobiotics including dietary components, antibiotics and nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs strongly affect the gut microbial composition and can promote dysbiosis. Any change in the gut microbiota can shift the host metabolism towards increased energy harvest during diabetes and obesity. However, the exact mechanisms behind the dynamics of gut microbes and their impact on host metabolism at the molecular level are yet to be deciphered. We reviewed the published literature for better understanding of the dynamics of gut microbiota, factors that potentially induce gut microbiome dysbiosis and their relation to the progression of T2D. Special emphasis was also given to understand the gut microbiome induced breaching of intestinal barriers and/or tight junctions and their relation to insulin resistance.

New insights on atherosclerosis: A cross-talk between endocannabinoid systems with gut microbiota

The incidence of atherosclerosis is increasing rapidly all over the world. Inflammatory processes have outstanding role in coronary artery disease (CAD) etiology and other atherosclerosis manifestations. Recently attentions have been increased about gut microbiota in many fields of medicine especially in inflammatory diseases like atherosclerosis. Ineffectiveness in gut barrier functions and subsequent metabolic endotoxemia (caused by rise in plasma lipopolysaccharide levels) is associated with low-grade chronic inflammation i.e. a recognized feature of atherosclerosis. Furthermore, the role of trimethylamine-N-oxide (TMAO), a gut bacterial metabolite has been suggested in atherosclerosis development. On the other hand, the effectiveness of gut microbiota modulation that results in TMAO reduction has been investigated. Moreover, considerable evidence supports a role for the endocannabinoid system (ECS) in atherosclerosis pathology which affects gut microbiota, but their effects on atherosclerosis are controversial. Therefore, we presented some evidence about the relationship between gut microbiota and ECS in atherosclerosis. We also presented evidences that gut microbiota modulation by pre/probiotics can have significant influence on the ECS.

Chronic stress-associated visceral hyperalgesia correlates with severity of intestinal barrier dysfunction

In humans, chronic psychological stress is associated with increased intestinal paracellular permeability and visceral hyperalgesia, which is recapitulated in the chronic intermittent water avoidance stress (WAS) rat model. However, it is unknown whether enhanced visceral pain and permeability are intrinsically linked and correlate. Treatment of rats with lubiprostone during WAS significantly reduced WAS-induced changes in intestinal epithelial paracellular permeability and visceral hyperalgesia in a subpopulation of rats. Lubiprostone also prevented WAS-induced decreases in the epithelial tight junction protein, occludin (Ocln). To address the question of whether the magnitude of visceral pain correlates with the extent of altered intestinal permeability, we measured both end points in the same animal because of well-described individual differences in pain response. Our studies demonstrate that visceral pain and increased colon permeability positively correlate (0.6008, P = 0.0084). Finally, exposure of the distal colon in control animals to Ocln siRNA in vivo revealed that knockdown of Ocln protein inversely correlated with increased paracellular permeability and enhanced visceral pain similar to the levels observed in WAS-responsive rats. These data support that Ocln plays a potentially significant role in the development of stress-induced increased colon permeability. We believe this is the first demonstration that the level of chronic stress-associated visceral hyperalgesia directly correlates with the magnitude of altered colon epithelial paracellular permeability.

Gut microbiota, cannabinoid system and neuroimmune interactions: New perspectives in multiple sclerosis

The gut microbiota plays a fundamental role on the education and function of the host immune system. Immunological dysregulation is the cause of numerous human disorders such as autoimmune diseases and metabolic disorders frequently associated with inflammatory processes therefore is critical to explore novel mechanisms involved in maintaining the immune system homeostasis. The cannabinoid system and related bioactive lipids participate in multiple central and peripheral physiological processes that affect metabolic, gastrointestinal and neuroimmune regulatory mechanisms displaying a modulatory role and contributing to the maintenance of the organism's homeostasis. In this review, we gather the knowledge on the gut microbiota-endocannabinoids interactions and their impact on autoimmune disorders such as inflammatory bowel disease, rheumatoid arthritis and particularly, multiple sclerosis (MS) as the best example of a CNS autoimmune disorder. Furthermore, we contribute to this field with new data on changes in many elements of the cannabinoid system in a viral model of MS after gut microbiota manipulation by both antibiotics and probiotics. Finally, we highlight new therapeutic opportunities, under an integrative view, targeting the eCBS and the commensal microbiota in the context of neuroinflammation and MS.