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Obeng S, Crowley ML, Mottinelli M, León F, Zuarth Gonzalez JD, Chen Y, Gamez-Jimenez LR, Restrepo LF, Ho NP, Patel A, Martins Rocha J, Alvarez MA, Thadisetti AM, Park CR, Pallares VLC, Milner MJ, Canal CE, Hampson AJ, McCurdy CR, McMahon LR, Wilkerson JL, Hiranita T. The Mitragyna speciosa (kratom) alkaloid mitragynine: Analysis of adrenergic α 2 receptor activity in vitro and in vivo. Eur J Pharmacol 2024; 980:176863. [PMID: 39068978 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejphar.2024.176863] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/22/2024] [Revised: 07/24/2024] [Accepted: 07/25/2024] [Indexed: 07/30/2024]
Abstract
Mitragynine, an alkaloid present in the leaves of Mitragyna speciosa (kratom), has a complex pharmacology that includes low efficacy agonism at μ-opioid receptors (MORs). This study examined the activity of mitragynine at adrenergic α2 receptors (Aα2Rs) in vitro and in vivo. Mitragynine displaced a radiolabeled Aα2R antagonist ([3H]RX821002) from human Aα2ARs in vitro with lower affinity (Ki = 1260 nM) than the agonists (-)-epinephrine (Ki = 263 nM) or lofexidine (Ki = 7.42 nM). Mitragynine did not significantly stimulate [35S]GTPγS binding at Aα2ARs in vitro, but in rats trained to discriminate 32 mg/kg mitragynine from vehicle (intraperitoneally administered; i.p.), mitragynine exerted an Aα2R agonist-like effect. Both α2R antagonists (atipamezole and yohimbine) and MOR antagonists (naloxone and naltrexone) produced rightward shifts in mitragynine discrimination dose-effect function and Aα2R agonists lofexidine and clonidine produced leftward shifts. In the mitragynine trained rats, Aα2R agonists also produced leftward shifts in discrimination dose-effect functions for morphine and fentanyl. In a separate rat cohort trained to discriminate 3.2 mg/kg i.p. morphine from vehicle, naltrexone produced a rightward shift, but neither an Aα2R agonist or antagonist affected morphine discrimination. In a hypothermia assay, both lofexidine and clonidine produced marked effects antagonized by yohimbine. Mitragynine did not produce hypothermia. Together, these data demonstrate that mitragynine acts in vivo like an Aα2R agonist, although its failure to induce hypothermia or stimulate [35S]GTPγS binding in vitro, suggests that mitragynine maybe a low efficacy Aα2R agonist.
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Affiliation(s)
- Samuel Obeng
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, 32610, USA; Department of Pharmacodynamics, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, 32610, USA
| | - Morgan L Crowley
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, 32610, USA
| | - Marco Mottinelli
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, 32610, USA
| | - Francisco León
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, 32610, USA
| | - Julio D Zuarth Gonzalez
- Department of Pharmacodynamics, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, 32610, USA
| | - Yiming Chen
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Mercer University College of Pharmacy, Atlanta, GA, 30341, USA
| | - Lea R Gamez-Jimenez
- Department of Pharmacodynamics, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, 32610, USA
| | - Luis F Restrepo
- Department of Pharmacodynamics, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, 32610, USA
| | - Nicholas P Ho
- Department of Pharmacodynamics, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, 32610, USA
| | - Avi Patel
- Department of Pharmacodynamics, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, 32610, USA
| | - Joelma Martins Rocha
- Department of Pharmacodynamics, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, 32610, USA
| | - Manuel A Alvarez
- Department of Pharmacodynamics, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, 32610, USA
| | - Amsha M Thadisetti
- Department of Pharmacodynamics, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, 32610, USA
| | - Chai R Park
- Department of Pharmacodynamics, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, 32610, USA
| | - Victoria L C Pallares
- Department of Pharmacodynamics, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, 32610, USA
| | - Megan J Milner
- Department of Pharmacodynamics, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, 32610, USA
| | - Clinton E Canal
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Mercer University College of Pharmacy, Atlanta, GA, 30341, USA
| | - Aidan J Hampson
- Division of Therapeutics and Medical Consequences, National Institute on Drug Abuse, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, 20892, USA
| | - Christopher R McCurdy
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, 32610, USA; Department of Pharmaceutics, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32610, USA; Translational Drug Development Core, Clinical and Translational Sciences Institute, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, 32610, USA
| | - Lance R McMahon
- Department of Pharmacodynamics, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, 32610, USA
| | - Jenny L Wilkerson
- Department of Pharmacodynamics, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, 32610, USA.
| | - Takato Hiranita
- Department of Pharmacodynamics, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, 32610, USA.
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Heywood J, Smallets S, Paustenbach D. Beneficial and adverse health effects of kratom (Mitragyna speciosa): A critical review of the literature. Food Chem Toxicol 2024; 192:114913. [PMID: 39134135 DOI: 10.1016/j.fct.2024.114913] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/15/2024] [Revised: 07/25/2024] [Accepted: 08/06/2024] [Indexed: 08/25/2024]
Abstract
Used in Southeast Asia for generations, kratom gained popularity in the United States and elsewhere over the past several decades. Derived from Mitragyna speciosa, kratom preparations including leaves, teas, powders, capsules, and extracts may yield stimulant, analgesic, and opioid-like effects that occur dose-dependently based on concentrations of kratom's key alkaloids, mitragynine and 7-hydroxymitragynine. Such effects are responsible for kratom's potential as a reduced-harm alternative to opiates and as a withdrawal treatment. But these properties are also associated with tolerance development and addictive potential. Given mitragynine and 7-hydroxymitragynine activity on cytochrome P450 isoforms and opioid receptors, adverse effects among polysubstance users are a concern. Current literature on the toxicology of kratom is reviewed, including product alkaloid concentrations, in vitro and in vivo data, epidemiological evidence, and human case data. The potential harms and benefits of kratom products are discussed within an exposure assessment framework, and recommendations for industry are presented. Current evidence indicates that kratom may have therapeutic potential in some persons and that products present few risks with typical, non-polysubstance use. However, few studies identified alkaloid doses at which adverse effects were expected in humans or animals. Such research is needed to inform future assessments of kratom's risks and benefits.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Heywood
- Paustenbach and Associates, 1550 Wewatta Street, Suite 200, Denver, CO, USA.
| | - S Smallets
- Paustenbach and Associates, 1550 Wewatta Street, Suite 200, Denver, CO, USA
| | - D Paustenbach
- Paustenbach and Associates, 970 West Broadway, Suite E, Jackson, WY, USA
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Smith KE, Epstein DH, Weiss ST. Controversies in Assessment, Diagnosis, and Treatment of Kratom Use Disorder. Curr Psychiatry Rep 2024; 26:487-496. [PMID: 39134892 PMCID: PMC11344726 DOI: 10.1007/s11920-024-01524-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 07/17/2024] [Indexed: 08/25/2024]
Abstract
PURPOSE OF REVIEW We apply the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders Fifth Edition (DSM-5) criteria for substance use disorders (SUDs) to the herbal product kratom. Similarities and differences between kratom use disorder (KUD) and other SUDs are explored, along with assessment, diagnostic, and therapeutic recommendations for KUD. RECENT FINDINGS Literature reports of "kratom addiction" or KUD rarely specify the criteria by which patients were diagnosed. Individuals meeting DSM-5 KUD criteria typically do so via tolerance and withdrawal, using more than intended, and craving, not functional or psychosocial disruption, which occur rarely. Most clinicians who use medication to treat patients with isolated KUD select buprenorphine formulations, although there are no controlled studies showing that buprenorphine is safe or efficacious in this patient population. Diagnosis and treatment decisions for KUD should be systematic. We propose an algorithm that takes into consideration whether KUD occurs with comorbid opioid use disorder.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kirsten E Smith
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - David H Epstein
- Translational Addiction Medicine Branch, Intramural Research Program, National Institute on Drug Abuse, National Institutes of Health, 251 Bayview Blvd., Baltimore, MD, 21224, USA
| | - Stephanie T Weiss
- Translational Addiction Medicine Branch, Intramural Research Program, National Institute on Drug Abuse, National Institutes of Health, 251 Bayview Blvd., Baltimore, MD, 21224, USA.
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LoParco CR, Bone C, Berg CJ, Rossheim ME, Peeri NC, Tillett KK, Seo DC. Associations Between Opioid and Kratom Use in the USA: Differences by Race/Ethnicity and Sexual Orientation. J Racial Ethn Health Disparities 2024:10.1007/s40615-024-02142-6. [PMID: 39196491 DOI: 10.1007/s40615-024-02142-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/26/2024] [Revised: 06/18/2024] [Accepted: 08/17/2024] [Indexed: 08/29/2024]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Kratom is federally unregulated and is marketed as an opioid alternative despite limited evidence and known negative effects. Disparities in associations between opioid and kratom use may be partly attributed to race/ethnicity and sexual orientation given differences in marketing, use motives, and prescriber practices. METHODS Data: 2021 nationally representative National Survey on Drug Use and Health among individuals aged 18 + . We used weighted logistic regression analyses to assess race/ethnicity and sexual orientation as moderators of associations between past-year opioid (1) use (total sample, n = 44,877) and (2) misuse and use disorder (among those with past-year opioid use, n = 10,398) and the outcome of kratom use (lifetime, past year). RESULTS 26.76% reported past-year opioid use, and among those, 12.20% and 7.54% reported past-year opioid misuse and use disorder, respectively; 1.72% and 0.67% had lifetime and past-year kratom use, respectively. Opioid use was positively associated with lifetime (aOR = 2.69, 95%CI = 1.98, 3.66) and past-year (aOR = 3.84, 95%CI = 2.50, 5.92) kratom use; associations among non-Hispanic Black and Hispanic (vs. non-Hispanic White) participants were weaker (p < 0.01). Among participants reporting past-year opioid use, misuse and use disorder were positively associated with lifetime (aORmisuse = 2.46, 95%CI = 1.60, 3.78; aORuse disorder = 5.58, 95%CI = 2.82, 11.04) and past-year (aORmisuse = 2.40, 95%CI = 1.26, 4.59; aORuse disorder = 3.08, 95%CI = 1.48, 6.41) kratom use; among bisexual (vs. heterosexual) participants, opioid use disorder was associated with a lower probability of lifetime kratom use (p < 0.01). DISCUSSION We observed positive associations between opioid and kratom use, with potential disparities among certain racial/ethnic and sexual orientation groups. Research should examine the mechanisms contributing to these differences to inform prevention and intervention efforts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cassidy R LoParco
- Milken Institute School of Public Health, George Washington University, Washington, DC, USA.
| | - Carlton Bone
- College of Liberal Arts and Sciences, Portland State University, Portland, OR, USA
| | - Carla J Berg
- Milken Institute School of Public Health, George Washington University, Washington, DC, USA
| | - Matthew E Rossheim
- School of Public Health, University of North Texas Health Science Center, Fort Worth, TX, USA
| | - Noah C Peeri
- Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York, NY, USA
| | - Kayla K Tillett
- School of Public Health, University of North Texas Health Science Center, Fort Worth, TX, USA
| | - Dong-Chul Seo
- School of Public Health, Indiana University Bloomington, Bloomington, IN, USA
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Chiang YH, Berthold EC, Kuntz MA, Kanumuri SRR, Senetra AS, Mukhopadhyay S, Hampson AJ, McCurdy CR, Sharma A. Multiple-Dose Pharmacokinetics and Safety of Mitragynine, the Major Alkaloid of Kratom, in Rats. ACS Pharmacol Transl Sci 2024; 7:2452-2464. [PMID: 39144552 PMCID: PMC11320740 DOI: 10.1021/acsptsci.4c00277] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/10/2024] [Revised: 07/04/2024] [Accepted: 07/11/2024] [Indexed: 08/16/2024]
Abstract
This study reports the steady-state pharmacokinetic parameters for mitragynine and characterizes its elimination in male and female rats. Four male and female rats were dosed q12h with 40 mg/kg, and orally administered mitragynine for 5 and 6 days, respectively. Using a validated ultraperformance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (UPLC-MS/MS) method, the plasma concentrations of mitragynine, its metabolites (7-hydroxymitragynine, 9-hydroxycorynantheidine, and mitragynine acid), and a non-CYP oxidation product (3-dehydromitragynine) were determined at various time points. Sex differences in pharmacokinetics were observed, with females demonstrating significantly higher systemic exposure of mitragynine than males. The mitragynine area under the curve normalized by the dose interval (AUC/τ) was 6741.6 ± 869.5 h*ng/mL in female rats and 1808.9 ± 191.3 h*ng/mL in males (p < 0.05). Both sexes produced similar metabolite profiles; the major metabolites were mitragynine acid and 9-hydroxycorynantheidine. 7-Hydroxymitragynine was a minor metabolite. However, higher exposure (AUCs) and the maximum plasma concentrations (C max) of active metabolites, 7-hydroxymitragynine and 9-hydroxycorynantheidine, were observed in female rats and exhibited substantial sex differences. Renal clearance of mitragynine (CLr) was low (0.64 ± 0.3 mL/h in males and 0.98 ± 0.4 mL/h in females), and unchanged mitragynine accounted for <1% of the dose excreted in feces (both sexes). The clinical chemistry, complete blood count, and hematological test results reported no abnormal hematological findings after multiple dosing in either sex.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yi-Hua Chiang
- Department
of Pharmaceutics, College of Pharmacy, University
of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32610, United States
| | - Erin C. Berthold
- Department
of Pharmaceutics, College of Pharmacy, University
of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32610, United States
| | - Michelle A. Kuntz
- Department
of Pharmaceutics, College of Pharmacy, University
of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32610, United States
| | - Siva Rama Raju Kanumuri
- Department
of Pharmaceutics, College of Pharmacy, University
of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32610, United States
- Translational
Drug Development Core, Clinical and Translational Science Institute, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32610, United States
| | - Alexandria S. Senetra
- Department
of Pharmaceutics, College of Pharmacy, University
of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32610, United States
| | - Sushobhan Mukhopadhyay
- Department
of Medicinal Chemistry, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32610, United States
| | - Aidan J. Hampson
- Division
of Therapeutics and Medical Consequences, National Institute on Drug
Abuse, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland 20892, United States
| | - Christopher R. McCurdy
- Translational
Drug Development Core, Clinical and Translational Science Institute, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32610, United States
- Department
of Medicinal Chemistry, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32610, United States
| | - Abhisheak Sharma
- Department
of Pharmaceutics, College of Pharmacy, University
of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32610, United States
- Translational
Drug Development Core, Clinical and Translational Science Institute, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32610, United States
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6
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Yunusa S, Müller CP, Hassan Z. Mitragynine (Kratom)-Withdrawal behaviour and cognitive impairments can be ameliorated by an epigenetic mechanism. Br J Pharmacol 2024; 181:2070-2084. [PMID: 38523471 DOI: 10.1111/bph.16352] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/20/2023] [Revised: 12/11/2023] [Accepted: 01/02/2024] [Indexed: 03/26/2024] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE Kratom is a preparation from Mitragyna speciosa, which is used as a natural drug preparation for many purposes around the world. However, an overdose of Kratom may cause addiction-like problems including aversive withdrawal states resulting in cognitive impairments via unknown mechanisms. Its main psychoactive alkaloid is mitragynine, showing opioid-like properties. EXPERIMENTAL APPROACH Here, we analysed the neuropharmacological effects of mitragynine compared with morphine withdrawal in rats and searched for a pharmacological treatment option that may reverse the occurring cognitive deficits that usually aggravate withdrawal. KEY RESULTS We found that withdrawal from 14-day mitragynine (1-10 mg·kg-1·day-1) treatment caused dose-dependent behavioural withdrawal signs resembling those of morphine (5 mg·kg-1·day-1) withdrawal. However, mitragynine (5 and 10 mg·kg-1·day-1) withdrawal also induced impairments in a passive avoidance task. Mitragynine withdrawal not only reduced hippocampal field excitatory postsynaptic potential (fEPSP) amplitudes in basal synaptic transmission and long-term potentiation (LTP) but also reduced epigenetic markers, such as histone H3K9 and H4K12 expression. At the same time, it up-regulates HDAC2 expression. Targeting the epigenetic adaptations with the HDAC inhibitor, SAHA, reversed the effects of mitragynine withdrawal on epigenetic dysregulation, hippocampal input/output curves, paired-pulse facilitation, LTP and attenuated the cognitive deficit. However, SAHA amplified the effects of morphine withdrawal. CONCLUSION AND IMPLICATIONS The data from this work show that changes in histone expression and downstream hippocampal plasticity may explain mitragynine, but not morphine, withdrawal behaviours and cognitive impairments. Thus, it may provide a new treatment approach for aversive Kratom/mitragynine withdrawal and addiction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Suleiman Yunusa
- Centre for Drug Research, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Penang, Malaysia
- Department of Pharmacology, Bauchi State University Gadau, Bauchi State, Nigeria
| | - Christian P Müller
- Centre for Drug Research, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Penang, Malaysia
- Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, University Clinic, Friedrich-Alexander-University Erlangen-Nuremberg, Erlangen, Germany
- Institute of Psychopharmacology, Central Institute of Mental Health, Faculty of Medicine Mannheim, University of Heidelberg, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Zurina Hassan
- Centre for Drug Research, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Penang, Malaysia
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Yang Y, Müller CP, Singh D. Kratom (Mitragyna speciosa) Use and Mental Health: A Systematic Review and Multilevel Meta-Analysis. Eur Addict Res 2024; 30:252-274. [PMID: 38889703 DOI: 10.1159/000539338] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2023] [Accepted: 05/02/2024] [Indexed: 06/20/2024]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Kratom (Mitragyna speciosa) is a medicinal tree native to Southeast Asia. The present multilevel meta-analysis describes the association between kratom use and the positive and negative indicators of mental health. METHODS A total of thirty-six articles were included in the meta-analysis to examine the associations, using a random-effects model. RESULTS The pooled effect size showed a very small positive association between kratom use and negative indicators of mental health {r = 0.092, 95% confidence interval (CI) = [0.020, 0.164], p < 0.05}, while no significant association was found with positive indicators of mental health (r = -0.031, 95% CI = [-0.149, 0.087], p > 0.05). Pooled effect sizes of specific mental health outcomes indicated that kratom use showed only a small positive correlation with externalizing disorders (r = 0.201, 95% CI = [0.107, 0.300], p < 0.001). No significant association was found between kratom use and quality of life (r = 0.069, 95% CI = [-0.104, 0.242], p > 0.05) and internalizing disorders (r = -0.001, 95% CI = [-0.115, 0.095], p > 0.05). Multilevel moderator analysis showed that the pooled effect size of the association between kratom use and substance use disorder was stronger in Malaysia (r = 0.347, 95% CI = [0.209, 0.516], p < 0.001), and with the mean age (β1 = -0.035, 95% CI = [-0.055, -0.014], p = 0.003), and the drug profile of those who were not co-using other drugs (r = 0.347, 95% CI = [0.209, 0.516], p < 0.001). CONCLUSION The meta-analysis supports the kratom instrumentalization concept, in that a positive gain from kratom consumption can be achieved without any significant adverse associations with mental health.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuting Yang
- Centre for Drug Research, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Minden, Malaysia
| | - Christian P Müller
- Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, University Hospital, Friedrich-Alexander-University Erlangen-Nürnberg, Erlangen, Germany
- Institute of Psychopharmacology, Central Institute of Mental Health, Faculty of Medicine Mannheim, University of Heidelberg, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Darshan Singh
- Centre for Drug Research, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Minden, Malaysia
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Henningfield JE, Grundmann O, Huestis MA, Smith KE. Kratom safety and toxicology in the public health context: research needs to better inform regulation. Front Pharmacol 2024; 15:1403140. [PMID: 38887550 PMCID: PMC11180979 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2024.1403140] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/18/2024] [Accepted: 04/30/2024] [Indexed: 06/20/2024] Open
Abstract
Although kratom use has been part of life for centuries in Southeast Asia, the availability and use of kratom in the United States (US) increased substantially since the early 2000s when there was little information on kratom pharmacology, use patterns, and effects, all critical to guiding regulation and policy. Here we provide a synthesis of research with several hundred English-language papers published in the past 5 years drawing from basic research, epidemiological and surveillance data, and recent clinical research. This review of available literature aims to provide an integrated update regarding our current understanding of kratom's benefits, risks, pharmacology, and epidemiology, which may inform United States-based kratom regulation. Recent surveillance indicates there are likely several million past-year kratom consumers, though estimates vary widely. Even without precise prevalence data, kratom use is no longer a niche, with millions of United States adults using it for myriad reasons. Despite its botanical origins in the coffee tree family and its polypharmacy, kratom is popularly characterized as an opioid with presumed opioid-system-based risks for addiction or overdose. Neuropharmacology, toxicology, and epidemiology studies show that kratom is more accurately characterized as a substance with diverse and complex pharmacology. Taken together the work reviewed here provides a foundation for future scientific studies, as well as a guide for ongoing efforts to regulate kratom. This work also informs much-needed federal oversight, including by the United States Food and Drug Administration. We conclude with recommendations for kratom regulation and research priorities needed to address current policy and knowledge gaps around this increasingly used botanical product.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jack E. Henningfield
- Pinney Associates, Inc., Bethesda, MD, United States
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Bethesda, MD, United States
| | - Oliver Grundmann
- College of Pharmacy, Department of Medicinal Chemistry, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, United States
| | - Marilyn A. Huestis
- Institute of Emerging Health Professions, Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, PA, United States
| | - Kirsten E. Smith
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, United States
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Green M, Vadiei N, Veltri CA, Grundmann O, Evoy KE. Kratom as a potential substance use disorder harm reduction agent. Front Public Health 2024; 12:1416689. [PMID: 38873312 PMCID: PMC11169875 DOI: 10.3389/fpubh.2024.1416689] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/12/2024] [Accepted: 05/17/2024] [Indexed: 06/15/2024] Open
Abstract
Substance use disorders contribute to considerable U.S. morbidity and mortality. While effective pharmacotherapy options are available to treat opioid and alcohol use disorders, for a variety of reasons, many patients lack access to treatment or may be reluctant to seek care due to concerns such as perceived stigma or a current lack of desire to completely curtail their substance use. Furthermore, treatment options are limited for patients with stimulant or polysubstance use disorders. Thus, there is considerable need to expand the substance use disorder harm reduction armamentarium. Kratom (Mitragyna speciosa Korth.) is an herbal substance that can produce both opioid and stimulant-like effects, and its use in the US is growing. Though there are concerns regarding adverse effects, dependence risk, and limited regulation of its manufacturing and sale, the pharmacology of kratom and early preclinical studies suggest a potential role as a harm reduction agent for various substance use disorders, and it has historically been used in Southeast Asia for such purposes. The goal of this review is to describe kratom's history of use, pharmacology, and early pre-clinical and observational research regarding its therapeutic potential in opioid use disorder, as well as alcohol, stimulant, and polysubstance use disorders, while also highlighting current concerns around its use, existing gaps in the literature, and directions for future research.
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Affiliation(s)
- MeShell Green
- Midwestern University College of Pharmacy, Glendale, AZ, United States
| | - Nina Vadiei
- The University of Texas at Austin College of Pharmacy, Austin, TX, United States
- San Antonio State Hospital, San Antonio, TX, United States
| | - Charles A. Veltri
- Midwestern University College of Pharmacy, Glendale, AZ, United States
| | - Oliver Grundmann
- Midwestern University College of Pharmacy, Glendale, AZ, United States
- University of Florida College of Pharmacy, Gainesville, FL, United States
| | - Kirk E. Evoy
- The University of Texas at Austin College of Pharmacy, Austin, TX, United States
- Department of Pharmacy, University Health, San Antonio, TX, United States
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Galal KA, Obeng S, Pallares VLC, Senetra A, Seabra MABL, Awad A, McCurdy CR. Guanidine-to-piperidine switch affords high affinity small molecule NPFF ligands with preference for NPFF1-R and NPFF2-R subtypes. Eur J Med Chem 2024; 269:116330. [PMID: 38522114 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejmech.2024.116330] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/11/2023] [Revised: 03/03/2024] [Accepted: 03/11/2024] [Indexed: 03/26/2024]
Abstract
The Neuropeptide FF (NPFF) receptor system is known to modulate opioid actions and has been shown to mediate opioid-induced hyperalgesia and tolerance. The lack of subtype selective small molecule compounds has hampered further exploration of the pharmacology of this receptor system. The vast majority of available NPFF ligands possess a highly basic guanidine group, including our lead small molecule, MES304. Despite providing strong receptor binding, the guanidine group presents a potential pharmacokinetic liability for in vivo pharmacological tool development. Through structure-activity relationship exploration, we were able to modify our lead molecule MES304 to arrive at guanidine-free NPFF ligands. The novel piperidine analogues 8b and 16a are among the few non-guanidine based NPFF ligands known in literature. Both compounds displayed nanomolar NPFF-R binding affinity approaching that of the parent molecule. Moreover, while MES304 was non-subtype selective, these two analogues presented new starting points for subtype selective scaffolds, whereby 8b displayed a 15-fold preference for NPFF1-R, and 16a demonstrated an 8-fold preference for NPFF2-R. Both analogues showed no agonist activity on either receptor subtype in the in vitro functional activity assay, while 8b displayed antagonistic properties at NPFF1-R. The calculated physicochemical properties of 8b and 16a were also shown to be more favorable for in vivo tool design. These results indicate the possibility of developing potent, subtype selective NPFF ligands devoid of a guanidine functionality.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kareem A Galal
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, College of Pharmacy, The University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, 32610, USA.
| | - Samuel Obeng
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, College of Pharmacy, The University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, 32610, USA; Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Jerry H. Hodge School of Pharmacy, Texas Tech University Health Sciences Center, Amarillo, TX, 79106, USA
| | - Victoria L C Pallares
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, College of Pharmacy, The University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, 32610, USA
| | - Alexandria Senetra
- Department of Pharmaceutics, College of Pharmacy, The University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, 32610, USA
| | - Maria A B L Seabra
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, College of Pharmacy, The University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, 32610, USA
| | - Ahmed Awad
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, College of Pharmacy, The University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, 32610, USA
| | - Christopher R McCurdy
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, College of Pharmacy, The University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, 32610, USA; Department of Pharmaceutics, College of Pharmacy, The University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, 32610, USA; UF Translational Drug Development Core, The University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, 32610, USA
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11
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Nam Y, Tam AT, Miller ER, Scheidt KA. A Platform for the Synthesis of Corynantheine-Type Corynanthe Alkaloids. J Am Chem Soc 2024; 146:118-124. [PMID: 38153983 DOI: 10.1021/jacs.3c12556] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2023]
Abstract
Corynantheine-type alkaloids are major components of the Mitragyna speciosa, also known as kratom, that exhibit unique pharmacological activity. However, no universal method to prepare these alkaloids has been reported. Disclosed herein is a catalytic, asymmetric platform that enables rapid access to corynantheine alkaloids. The first enantioselective total synthesis of (-)-corynantheidine pseudoindoxyl is described. The first asymmetric syntheses of (+)-corynoxine and (-)-corynoxine B were also achieved, along with enantioselective syntheses of (-)-corynantheidol and (-)-corynantheidine. Through this work, all series of corynantheine alkaloids including indole, spirooxindole, and pseudoindoxyl can now be accessed in the laboratory, enabling comprehensive biological investigation of kratom alkaloids to be undertaken.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yunchan Nam
- Department of Chemistry, Northwestern University, 2145 Sheridan Road, Evanston, Illinois 60208, United States
| | - Anthony T Tam
- Department of Chemistry, Northwestern University, 2145 Sheridan Road, Evanston, Illinois 60208, United States
| | - Eric R Miller
- Department of Chemistry, Northwestern University, 2145 Sheridan Road, Evanston, Illinois 60208, United States
| | - Karl A Scheidt
- Department of Chemistry, Northwestern University, 2145 Sheridan Road, Evanston, Illinois 60208, United States
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12
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McCurdy CR, Sharma A, Smith KE, Veltri CA, Weiss ST, White CM, Grundmann O. An update on the clinical pharmacology of kratom: uses, abuse potential, and future considerations. Expert Rev Clin Pharmacol 2024; 17:131-142. [PMID: 38217374 PMCID: PMC10846393 DOI: 10.1080/17512433.2024.2305798] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/18/2023] [Accepted: 01/11/2024] [Indexed: 01/15/2024]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Kratom (Mitragyna speciosa) has generated substantial clinical and scientific interest as a complex natural product. Its predominant alkaloid mitragynine and several stereoisomers have been studied for activity in opioid, adrenergic, and serotonin receptors. While awaiting clinical trial results, the pre-clinical evidence suggests a range of potential therapeutic applications for kratom with careful consideration of potential adverse effects. AREAS COVERED The focus of this review is on the pharmacology, pharmacokinetics, and potential drug-drug interactions of kratom and its individual alkaloids. A discussion on the clinical pharmacology and toxicology of kratom is followed by a summary of user surveys and the evolving concepts of tolerance, dependence, and withdrawal associated with kratom use disorder. EXPERT OPINION With the increasing use of kratom in clinical practice, clinicians should be aware of the potential benefits and adverse effects associated with kratom. While many patients may benefit from kratom use with few or no reported adverse effects, escalating dose and increased use frequency raise the risk for toxic events in the setting of polysubstance use or development of a use disorder.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christopher R McCurdy
- College of Pharmacy, Department of Pharmaceutics, University of Florida, FL, 32610, U.S.A
- College of Pharmacy, Department of Medicinal Chemistry, University of Florida, FL, 32610, U.S.A
| | - Abhisheak Sharma
- College of Pharmacy, Department of Pharmaceutics, University of Florida, FL, 32610, U.S.A
| | - Kirsten E. Smith
- School of Medicine, Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Johns Hopkins University, MD, 21205, U.S.A
| | - Charles A. Veltri
- Midwestern University, College of Pharmacy, Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Glendale, AZ, 85308, U.S.A
| | - Stephanie T. Weiss
- Translational Addiction Medicine Branch, National Institute on Drug Abuse Intramural Research Program, Baltimore, MD, U.S.A
| | - Charles M. White
- University of Connecticut School of Pharmacy, Storrs, CT, and Department of Pharmacy, Hartford Hospital, Hartford, CT, U.S.A
| | - Oliver Grundmann
- College of Pharmacy, Department of Medicinal Chemistry, University of Florida, FL, 32610, U.S.A
- Midwestern University, College of Pharmacy, Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Glendale, AZ, 85308, U.S.A
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Grundmann O, Hill K, Al Barzanji E, Hazrat NG, Kaur G, Negeve RE, Shade S, Weber S, Veltri CA. Correlations of kratom (Mitragyna speciosa Korth.) tea bag preparations and reported pharmacological effects. JOURNAL OF ETHNOPHARMACOLOGY 2023; 317:116779. [PMID: 37364801 DOI: 10.1016/j.jep.2023.116779] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/06/2023] [Revised: 03/08/2023] [Accepted: 06/10/2023] [Indexed: 06/28/2023]
Abstract
ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE The use of herbal tea infusions is widespread in ethnomedicine throughout the world. One such ethnobotanical is kratom (Mitragyna speciosa Korth., Rubiaceae) which has gained considerable interest as an herbal supplement in recent years in the West beyond its native Southeast Asia. Traditional, kratom leaves are either chewed fresh or made into a tea infusion to treat fatigue, pain, or diarrhea. However, dried kratom leaf powder and hydroalcoholic extracts are more commonly used in Western countries, raising the question of exposure to kratom alkaloids and related effects. AIM OF THE STUDY A specific kratom tea bag product was analyzed for mitragynine content using tea infusion preparation and methanolic extraction. Consumers of both the tea bag product and other kratom products completed an online anonymous survey to determine demographics, kratom use patterns, and self-reported beneficial and detrimental effects. MATERIALS AND METHODS Kratom tea bag samples were extracted using pH-adjusted water or methanol and analyzed using an established LC-QTOF method. A modified kratom survey was distributed to consumers of the kratom tea bag products and other kratom products over a 14-month period. RESULTS Tea infusion extraction of tea bag samples resulted in lower mitragynine levels (0.062-0.131% (w/w)) compared to methanolic extraction (0.485-0.616% (w/w)). Kratom tea bag consumers did report similar, although often milder beneficial effects compared to consumers using other kratom products. Overall self-reported health was better among kratom tea bag consumers whereas improvement of a diagnosed medical condition was less in tea bag consumers compared to those using other kratom products. CONCLUSIONS Traditional tea infusions of Mitragyna speciosa dried leaves provide benefits to consumers despite substantially lower mitragynine content. These effects may be less pronounced but indicate that tea infusions provide a potentially safer formulation compared to more concentrated products.
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Affiliation(s)
- Oliver Grundmann
- College of Pharmacy, Department of Medicinal Chemistry, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, 32611, USA; College of Pharmacy, Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Midwestern University, Glendale, AZ, 85308, USA.
| | - Katherine Hill
- Department of Epidemiology of Microbial Diseases, Yale School of Public Health, New Haven, CT, 06520, USA
| | - Everest Al Barzanji
- College of Pharmacy, Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Midwestern University, Glendale, AZ, 85308, USA
| | - Nilofar Ghulam Hazrat
- College of Pharmacy, Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Midwestern University, Glendale, AZ, 85308, USA
| | - Gurnoor Kaur
- College of Pharmacy, Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Midwestern University, Glendale, AZ, 85308, USA
| | - Ryan Einstein Negeve
- College of Pharmacy, Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Midwestern University, Glendale, AZ, 85308, USA
| | | | - Sam Weber
- Top Tree Herbs, Denver, CO, 80222, USA
| | - Charles A Veltri
- College of Pharmacy, Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Midwestern University, Glendale, AZ, 85308, USA
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Yunusa S, Hassan Z, Müller CP. Mitragynine inhibits hippocampus neuroplasticity and its molecular mechanism. Pharmacol Rep 2023; 75:1488-1501. [PMID: 37924443 PMCID: PMC10661785 DOI: 10.1007/s43440-023-00541-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/20/2023] [Revised: 10/03/2023] [Accepted: 10/05/2023] [Indexed: 11/06/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Mitragynine (MIT), the primary indole alkaloid of kratom (Mitragyna speciosa), has been associated with addictive and cognitive decline potentials. In acute studies, MIT decreases spatial memory and inhibits hippocampal synaptic transmission in long-term potentiation (LTP). This study investigated the impacts of 14-day MIT treatment on hippocampus synaptic transmission and its possible underlying mechanisms. METHODS Under urethane anesthesia, field excitatory post-synaptic potentials (fEPSP) of the hippocampal CA1 region were recorded in the Sprague Dawley (SD) rats that received MIT (1, 5, and 10 mg/kg), morphine (MOR) 5 mg/kg, or vehicle (ip). The effects of the treatments on basal synaptic transmission, paired-pulse facilitation (PPF), and LTP were assessed in the CA1 region. Analysis of the brain's protein expression linked to neuroplasticity was then performed using a western blot. RESULTS The baseline synaptic transmission's amplitude was drastically decreased by MIT at 5 and 10 mg/kg doses, although the PPF ratio before TBS remained unchanged, the PPF ratio after TBS was significantly reduced by MIT (10 mg/kg). Strong and persistent inhibition of LTP was generated in the CA1 region by MIT (5 and 10 mg/kg) doses; this effect was not seen in MIT (1 mg/kg) treated rats. In contrast to MIT (1 mg/kg), MIT (5 and 10 mg/kg) significantly raised the extracellular glutamate levels. After exposure to MIT, GluR-1 receptor expression remained unaltered. However, NMDAε2 receptor expression was markedly downregulated. The expression of pCaMKII, pERK, pCREB, BDNF, synaptophysin, PSD-95, Delta fosB, and CDK-5 was significantly downregulated in response to MIT (5 and 10 mg/kg) exposure, while MOR (5 mg/kg) significantly raised synaptophysin and Delta fosB expression. CONCLUSION Findings from this work reveal that a smaller dose of MIT (1 mg/kg) poses no risk to hippocampal synaptic transmission. Alteration in neuroplasticity-associated proteins may be a molecular mechanism for MIT (5 and 10 mg/kg)-induced LTP disruption and cognitive impairments. Data from this work posit that MIT acted differently from MOR on neuroplasticity and its underlying mechanisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Suleiman Yunusa
- Centre for Drug Research, Universiti Sains Malaysia, 11800, Penang, Malaysia
- Department of Pharmacology, Bauchi State University Gadau, PMB 65 Itas/Gadau, Bauchi, Bauchi State, Nigeria
| | - Zurina Hassan
- Centre for Drug Research, Universiti Sains Malaysia, 11800, Penang, Malaysia.
| | - Christian P Müller
- Centre for Drug Research, Universiti Sains Malaysia, 11800, Penang, Malaysia.
- Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, University Clinic, Friedrich-Alexander-University Erlangen-Nuremberg, Schwabachanlage 6, 91054, Erlangen, Germany.
- Institute of Psychopharmacology, Central Institute of Mental Health, Faculty of Medicine Mannheim, University of Heidelberg, Heidelberg, Germany.
- Psychiatric and Psychotherapeutic University Hospital, Friedrich-Alexander-University Erlangen-Nuremberg, Schwabachanlage 6, 91054, Erlangen, Germany.
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15
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Farkas DJ, Inan S, Heydari LN, Johnson CT, Zhao P, Bradshaw HB, Ward SJ, Rawls SM. Cannabinoid mechanisms contribute to the therapeutic efficacy of the kratom alkaloid mitragynine against neuropathic, but not inflammatory pain. Life Sci 2023; 328:121878. [PMID: 37392779 PMCID: PMC10527577 DOI: 10.1016/j.lfs.2023.121878] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/17/2023] [Revised: 06/13/2023] [Accepted: 06/21/2023] [Indexed: 07/03/2023]
Abstract
AIMS Mitragynine (MG) is an alkaloid found in Mitragyna speciosa (kratom), a plant used to self-treat symptoms of opioid withdrawal and pain. Kratom products are commonly used in combination with cannabis, with the self-treatment of pain being a primary motivator of use. Both cannabinoids and kratom alkaloids have been characterized to alleviate symptoms in preclinical models of neuropathic pain such as chemotherapy-induced peripheral neuropathy (CIPN). However, the potential involvement of cannabinoid mechanisms in MG's efficacy in a rodent model of CIPN have yet to be explored. MAIN METHODS Prevention of oxaliplatin-induced mechanical hypersensitivity and formalin-induced nociception were assessed following intraperitoneal administration of MG and CB1, CB2, or TRPV1 antagonists in wildtype and cannabinoid receptor knockout mice. The effects of oxaliplatin and MG exposure on the spinal cord endocannabinoid lipidome was assessed by HPLC-MS/MS. KEY FINDINGS The efficacy of MG on oxaliplatin-induced mechanical hypersensitivity was partially attenuated upon genetic deletion of cannabinoid receptors, and completely blocked upon pharmacological inhibition of CB1, CB2, and TRPV1 channels. This cannabinoid involvement was found to be selective to a model of neuropathic pain, with minimal effects on MG-induced antinociception in a model of formalin-induced pain. Oxaliplatin was found to selectively disrupt the endocannabinoid lipidome in the spinal cord, which was prevented by repeated MG exposure. SIGNIFICANCE Our findings suggest that cannabinoid mechanisms contribute to the therapeutic efficacy of the kratom alkaloid MG in a model of CIPN, which may result in increased therapeutic efficacy when co-administered with cannabinoids.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel J Farkas
- Center for Substance Abuse Research, Lewis Katz School of Medicine, Temple University, 3500 North Broad Street, Philadelphia, PA, USA.
| | - Saadet Inan
- Center for Substance Abuse Research, Lewis Katz School of Medicine, Temple University, 3500 North Broad Street, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Laila N Heydari
- Center for Substance Abuse Research, Lewis Katz School of Medicine, Temple University, 3500 North Broad Street, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Clare T Johnson
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, Indiana University, Bloomington, IN, USA
| | - Pingwei Zhao
- Center for Substance Abuse Research, Lewis Katz School of Medicine, Temple University, 3500 North Broad Street, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Heather B Bradshaw
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, Indiana University, Bloomington, IN, USA
| | - Sara Jane Ward
- Center for Substance Abuse Research, Lewis Katz School of Medicine, Temple University, 3500 North Broad Street, Philadelphia, PA, USA; Department of Neural Sciences, Lewis Katz School of Medicine, Temple University, 3500 North Broad Street, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Scott M Rawls
- Center for Substance Abuse Research, Lewis Katz School of Medicine, Temple University, 3500 North Broad Street, Philadelphia, PA, USA; Department of Neural Sciences, Lewis Katz School of Medicine, Temple University, 3500 North Broad Street, Philadelphia, PA, USA
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16
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Ortiz YT, Bilbrey JA, Felix JS, Kienegger EA, Mottinelli M, Mukhopadhyay S, McCurdy CR, McMahon LR, Wilkerson JL. Cannabidiol and mitragynine exhibit differential interactive effects in the attenuation of paclitaxel-induced mechanical allodynia, acute antinociception, and schedule-controlled responding in mice. Pharmacol Rep 2023; 75:937-950. [PMID: 37243887 DOI: 10.1007/s43440-023-00498-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/27/2023] [Revised: 05/12/2023] [Accepted: 05/15/2023] [Indexed: 05/29/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND For many chemotherapy patients peripheral neuropathy is a debilitating side effect. Mitragyna speciosa (kratom) contains the alkaloid mitragynine (MG), which produces analgesia in multiple preclinical pain models. In humans, anecdotal reports suggest cannabidiol (CBD) may enhance kratom-related analgesia. We examined the interactive activity of MG and CBD in a mouse chemotherapy-induced peripheral neuropathy (CIPN) model. We also examined MG + CBD in acute antinociception and schedule-controlled responding assays, as well as examined underlying receptor mechanisms. METHODS Male and female C57BL/6J mice received a cycle of intraperitoneal (ip) paclitaxel injections (cumulative dose 32 mg/kg). The von Frey assay was utilized to assess CIPN allodynia. In paclitaxel-naïve mice, schedule-controlled responding for food was conducted under a fixed ratio (FR)-10, and hot plate antinociception was examined. RESULTS MG dose-relatedly attenuated CIPN allodynia (ED50 102.96 mg/kg, ip), reduced schedule-controlled responding (ED50 46.04 mg/kg, ip), and produced antinociception (ED50 68.83 mg/kg, ip). CBD attenuated allodynia (ED50 85.14 mg/kg, ip) but did not decrease schedule-controlled responding or produce antinociception. Isobolographic analysis revealed 1:1, 3:1 MG + CBD mixture ratios additively attenuated CIPN allodynia. All combinations decreased schedule-controlled responding and produced antinociception. WAY-100635 (serotonin 5-HT1A receptor antagonist) pretreatment (0.01 mg/kg, ip) antagonized CBD anti-allodynia. Naltrexone (pan opioid receptor antagonist) pretreatment (0.032 mg/kg, ip) antagonized MG anti-allodynia and acute antinociception but produced no change in MG-induced decreased schedule-controlled behavior. Yohimbine (α2 receptor antagonist) pretreatment (3.2 mg/kg, ip) antagonized MG anti-allodynia and produced no change in MG-induced acute antinociception or decreased schedule-controlled behavior. CONCLUSIONS Although more optimization is needed, these data suggest CBD combined with MG may be useful as a novel CIPN therapeutic.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuma T Ortiz
- Department of Pharmacodynamics, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Jerry H. Hodge School of Pharmacy, Texas Tech University Health Sciences Center, 1406 S. Coulter., Amarillo, TX, 79106, USA
| | - Joshua A Bilbrey
- College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
| | - Jasmine S Felix
- College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
| | - Erik A Kienegger
- College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
| | - Marco Mottinelli
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, College of Science, Northeastern University, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Sushobhan Mukhopadhyay
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
| | - Christopher R McCurdy
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
| | - Lance R McMahon
- Department of Pharmacodynamics, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Jerry H. Hodge School of Pharmacy, Texas Tech University Health Sciences Center, 1406 S. Coulter., Amarillo, TX, 79106, USA
| | - Jenny L Wilkerson
- Department of Pharmacodynamics, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA.
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Jerry H. Hodge School of Pharmacy, Texas Tech University Health Sciences Center, 1406 S. Coulter., Amarillo, TX, 79106, USA.
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Tobacyk J, Parks BJ, Salazar P, Coward LU, Berquist MD, Gorman GS, Brents LK. Interaction between buprenorphine and norbuprenorphine in neonatal opioid withdrawal syndrome. Drug Alcohol Depend 2023; 249:110832. [PMID: 37385117 PMCID: PMC10573081 DOI: 10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2023.110832] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2022] [Revised: 06/09/2023] [Accepted: 06/12/2023] [Indexed: 07/01/2023]
Abstract
Buprenorphine (BUP) is the preferred treatment for opioid use disorder during pregnancy but can cause neonatal opioid withdrawal syndrome (NOWS). Norbuprenorphine (NorBUP), an active metabolite of BUP, is implicated in BUP-associated NOWS. We hypothesized that BUP, a low-efficacy agonist of mu opioid receptors, will not antagonize NorBUP, a high-efficacy agonist of mu opioid receptors, in producing NOWS. To test this hypothesis, we treated pregnant Long-Evans rats with BUP (0, 0.01, 0.1 or 1mg/kg/day) ± NorBUP (1mg/kg/day) from gestation day 9 until pup delivery, and tested pups for opioid dependence using our established NOWS model. We used LC-MS-MS to quantify brain concentrations of BUP, NorBUP, and their glucuronide conjugates. BUP had little effect on NorBUP-induced NOWS, with the exception of 1mg/kg/day BUP significantly increasing NorBUP-induced NOWS by 58% in females. BUP and NorBUP brain concentrations predicted NOWS in multiple linear regression models. Interestingly, NorBUP contributed more to NOWS in females (βNorBUP = 51.34, p = 0.0001) than in males (βNorBUP = 19.21, P = 0.093), while BUP was similar for females (βBUP = 10.62, P = 0.0017) and males (βBUP = 11.38, P = 0.009). We are the first to report that NorBUP induces NOWS in the presence of BUP and it is more influential in females than males in the contribution of NorBUP to BUP-associated NOWS. These findings suggest that females are more susceptible to NorBUP-induced NOWS, and that treatment strategies that reduce prenatal NorBUP exposure may be more effective for females than males.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julia Tobacyk
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, College of Medicine, University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences, 4301 W. Markham Street, Mail Slot 611, Little Rock, AR72205, USA
| | - Brian J Parks
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, College of Medicine, University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences, 4301 W. Markham Street, Mail Slot 611, Little Rock, AR72205, USA
| | - Paloma Salazar
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, College of Medicine, University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences, 4301 W. Markham Street, Mail Slot 611, Little Rock, AR72205, USA
| | - Lori U Coward
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences in the McWhorter School of Pharmacy at Samford University, 800 Lakeshore Dr, Birmingham, AL35229, USA
| | - Michael D Berquist
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, College of Medicine, University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences, 4301 W. Markham Street, Mail Slot 611, Little Rock, AR72205, USA
| | - Gregory S Gorman
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences in the McWhorter School of Pharmacy at Samford University, 800 Lakeshore Dr, Birmingham, AL35229, USA
| | - Lisa K Brents
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, College of Medicine, University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences, 4301 W. Markham Street, Mail Slot 611, Little Rock, AR72205, USA.
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18
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Farkas DJ, Cooper ZD, Heydari LN, Hughes AC, Rawls SM, Ward SJ. Kratom Alkaloids, Cannabinoids, and Chronic Pain: Basis of Potential Utility and Role in Therapy. Cannabis Cannabinoid Res 2023. [PMID: 37466474 DOI: 10.1089/can.2023.0064] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 07/20/2023] Open
Abstract
Introduction: Chronic neuropathic pain is as a severe detriment to overall quality of life for millions of Americans. Current pharmacological treatment options for chronic neuropathic pain are generally limited in efficacy and may pose serious adverse effects such as risk of abuse, nausea, dizziness, and cardiovascular events. Therefore, many individuals have resorted to methods of pharmacological self-treatment. This narrative review summarizes the existing literature on the utilization of two novel approaches for the treatment of chronic pain, cannabinoid constituents of Cannabis sativa and alkaloid constituents of Mitragyna speciosa (kratom), and speculates on the potential therapeutic benefits of co-administration of these two classes of compounds. Methods: We conducted a narrative review summarizing the primary motivations for use of both kratom and cannabis products based on epidemiological data and summarize the pre-clinical evidence supporting the application of both kratom alkaloids and cannabinoids for the treatment of chronic pain. Data collection was performed using the PubMed electronic database. The following word combinations were used: kratom and cannabis, kratom and pain, cannabis and pain, kratom and chronic pain, and cannabis and chronic pain. Results: Epidemiological evidence reports that the self-treatment of pain is a primary motivator for use of both kratom and cannabinoid products among adult Americans. Further evidence shows that use of cannabinoid products may precede kratom use, and that a subset of individuals concurrently uses both kratom and cannabinoid products. Despite its growing popularity as a form of self-treatment of pain, there remains an immense gap in knowledge of the therapeutic efficacy of kratom alkaloids for chronic pain in comparison to that of cannabis-based products, with only three pre-clinical studies having been conducted to date. Conclusion: There is sufficient epidemiological evidence to suggest that both kratom and cannabis products are used to self-treat pain, and that some individuals actively use both drugs, which may produce potential additive or synergistic therapeutic benefits that have not yet been characterized. Given the lack of pre-clinical investigation into the potential therapeutic benefits of kratom alkaloids against forms of chronic pain, further research is warranted to better understand its application as a treatment alternative.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel J Farkas
- Center for Substance Abuse Research, Lewis Katz School of Medicine, Temple University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Ziva D Cooper
- Department of Psychiatry and Biobehavioral Sciences, University of California, Los Angeles, California, USA
- UCLA Center for Cannabis and Cannabinoids, Jane and Terry Semel Institute for Neuroscience and Human Behavior, University of California, Los Angeles, California, USA
- Department of Anesthesiology and Perioperative Medicine, University of California, Los Angeles, California, USA
| | - Laila N Heydari
- Center for Substance Abuse Research, Lewis Katz School of Medicine, Temple University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Amanda C Hughes
- Center for Substance Abuse Research, Lewis Katz School of Medicine, Temple University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Scott M Rawls
- Center for Substance Abuse Research, Lewis Katz School of Medicine, Temple University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA
- Department of Neural Sciences, Lewis Katz School of Medicine, Temple University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Sara Jane Ward
- Center for Substance Abuse Research, Lewis Katz School of Medicine, Temple University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA
- Department of Neural Sciences, Lewis Katz School of Medicine, Temple University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA
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Kamble SH, Obeng S, León F, Restrepo LF, King TI, Berthold EC, Kanumuri SRR, Gamez-Jimenez LR, Pallares VLC, Patel A, Ho NP, Hampson A, McCurdy CR, McMahon LR, Wilkerson JL, Sharma A, Hiranita T. Pharmacokinetic and Pharmacodynamic Consequences of Cytochrome P450 3A Inhibition on Mitragynine Metabolism in Rats. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 2023; 385:180-192. [PMID: 37019472 PMCID: PMC10201580 DOI: 10.1124/jpet.122.001525] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/23/2022] [Revised: 02/11/2023] [Accepted: 03/29/2023] [Indexed: 04/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Mitragynine, an opioidergic alkaloid present in Mitragyna speciosa (kratom), is metabolized by cytochrome P450 3A (CYP3A) to 7-hydroxymitragynine, a more potent opioid receptor agonist. The extent to which conversion to 7-hydroxymitragynine mediates the in vivo effects of mitragynine is unclear. The current study examined how CYP3A inhibition (ketoconazole) modifies the pharmacokinetics of mitragynine in rat liver microsomes in vitro. The study further examined how ketoconazole modifies the discriminative stimulus and antinociceptive effects of mitragynine in rats. Ketoconazole [30 mg/kg, oral gavage (o.g.)] increased systemic exposure to mitragynine (13.3 mg/kg, o.g.) by 120% and 7-hydroxymitragynine exposure by 130%. The unexpected increase in exposure to 7-hydroxymitragynine suggested that ketoconazole inhibits metabolism of both mitragynine and 7-hydroxymitragynine, a finding confirmed in rat liver microsomes. In rats discriminating 3.2 mg/kg morphine from vehicle under a fixed-ratio schedule of food delivery, ketoconazole pretreatment increased the potency of both mitragynine (4.7-fold) and 7-hydroxymitragynine (9.7-fold). Ketoconazole did not affect morphine's potency. Ketoconazole increased the antinociceptive potency of 7-hydroxymitragynine by 4.1-fold. Mitragynine (up to 56 mg/kg, i.p.) lacked antinociceptive effects both in the presence and absence of ketoconazole. These results suggest that both mitragynine and 7-hydroxymitragynine are cleared via CYP3A and that 7-hydroxymitragynine is formed as a metabolite of mitragynine by other routes. These results have implications for kratom use in combination with numerous medications and citrus juices that inhibit CYP3A. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT: Mitragynine is an abundant kratom alkaloid that exhibits low efficacy at the μ-opioid receptor (MOR). Its metabolite, 7-hydroxymitragynine, is also an MOR agonist but with higher affinity and efficacy than mitragynine. Our results in rats demonstrate that cytochrome P450 3A (CYP3A) inhibition can increase the systematic exposure of both mitragynine and 7-hydroxymitragynine and their potency to produce MOR-mediated behavioral effects. These data highlight potential interactions between kratom and CYP3A inhibitors, which include numerous medications and citrus juices.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shyam H Kamble
- Departments of Pharmaceutics (S.H.K., T.I.K., E.C.B., S.R.R.K., C.R.M., A.S.), Translational Drug Development Core (S.H.K., S.R.R.K., C.R.M., A.S.), Medicinal Chemistry (S.O., F.L., C.R.M.), and Pharmacodynamics (S.O., L.F.R., L.R.G.-J., V.L.C.P., A.P., N.P.H., L.R.M., J.L.W., T.H.), College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida; Department of Pharmaceutical, Social and Administrative Sciences, McWhorter School of Pharmacy, Samford University, Birmingham, Alabama (S.O.); Department of Drug Discovery and Biomedical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, University of South Carolina, Columbia, South Carolina (F.L.); Division of Therapeutics and Medical Consequences, National Institute on Drug Abuse, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland (A.H.); and Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Jerry H. Hodge School of Pharmacy, Texas Tech University Health Sciences Center at Amarillo, Amarillo, Texas (L.R.M., J.L.W., T.H.)
| | - Samuel Obeng
- Departments of Pharmaceutics (S.H.K., T.I.K., E.C.B., S.R.R.K., C.R.M., A.S.), Translational Drug Development Core (S.H.K., S.R.R.K., C.R.M., A.S.), Medicinal Chemistry (S.O., F.L., C.R.M.), and Pharmacodynamics (S.O., L.F.R., L.R.G.-J., V.L.C.P., A.P., N.P.H., L.R.M., J.L.W., T.H.), College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida; Department of Pharmaceutical, Social and Administrative Sciences, McWhorter School of Pharmacy, Samford University, Birmingham, Alabama (S.O.); Department of Drug Discovery and Biomedical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, University of South Carolina, Columbia, South Carolina (F.L.); Division of Therapeutics and Medical Consequences, National Institute on Drug Abuse, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland (A.H.); and Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Jerry H. Hodge School of Pharmacy, Texas Tech University Health Sciences Center at Amarillo, Amarillo, Texas (L.R.M., J.L.W., T.H.)
| | - Francisco León
- Departments of Pharmaceutics (S.H.K., T.I.K., E.C.B., S.R.R.K., C.R.M., A.S.), Translational Drug Development Core (S.H.K., S.R.R.K., C.R.M., A.S.), Medicinal Chemistry (S.O., F.L., C.R.M.), and Pharmacodynamics (S.O., L.F.R., L.R.G.-J., V.L.C.P., A.P., N.P.H., L.R.M., J.L.W., T.H.), College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida; Department of Pharmaceutical, Social and Administrative Sciences, McWhorter School of Pharmacy, Samford University, Birmingham, Alabama (S.O.); Department of Drug Discovery and Biomedical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, University of South Carolina, Columbia, South Carolina (F.L.); Division of Therapeutics and Medical Consequences, National Institute on Drug Abuse, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland (A.H.); and Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Jerry H. Hodge School of Pharmacy, Texas Tech University Health Sciences Center at Amarillo, Amarillo, Texas (L.R.M., J.L.W., T.H.)
| | - Luis F Restrepo
- Departments of Pharmaceutics (S.H.K., T.I.K., E.C.B., S.R.R.K., C.R.M., A.S.), Translational Drug Development Core (S.H.K., S.R.R.K., C.R.M., A.S.), Medicinal Chemistry (S.O., F.L., C.R.M.), and Pharmacodynamics (S.O., L.F.R., L.R.G.-J., V.L.C.P., A.P., N.P.H., L.R.M., J.L.W., T.H.), College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida; Department of Pharmaceutical, Social and Administrative Sciences, McWhorter School of Pharmacy, Samford University, Birmingham, Alabama (S.O.); Department of Drug Discovery and Biomedical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, University of South Carolina, Columbia, South Carolina (F.L.); Division of Therapeutics and Medical Consequences, National Institute on Drug Abuse, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland (A.H.); and Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Jerry H. Hodge School of Pharmacy, Texas Tech University Health Sciences Center at Amarillo, Amarillo, Texas (L.R.M., J.L.W., T.H.)
| | - Tamara I King
- Departments of Pharmaceutics (S.H.K., T.I.K., E.C.B., S.R.R.K., C.R.M., A.S.), Translational Drug Development Core (S.H.K., S.R.R.K., C.R.M., A.S.), Medicinal Chemistry (S.O., F.L., C.R.M.), and Pharmacodynamics (S.O., L.F.R., L.R.G.-J., V.L.C.P., A.P., N.P.H., L.R.M., J.L.W., T.H.), College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida; Department of Pharmaceutical, Social and Administrative Sciences, McWhorter School of Pharmacy, Samford University, Birmingham, Alabama (S.O.); Department of Drug Discovery and Biomedical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, University of South Carolina, Columbia, South Carolina (F.L.); Division of Therapeutics and Medical Consequences, National Institute on Drug Abuse, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland (A.H.); and Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Jerry H. Hodge School of Pharmacy, Texas Tech University Health Sciences Center at Amarillo, Amarillo, Texas (L.R.M., J.L.W., T.H.)
| | - Erin C Berthold
- Departments of Pharmaceutics (S.H.K., T.I.K., E.C.B., S.R.R.K., C.R.M., A.S.), Translational Drug Development Core (S.H.K., S.R.R.K., C.R.M., A.S.), Medicinal Chemistry (S.O., F.L., C.R.M.), and Pharmacodynamics (S.O., L.F.R., L.R.G.-J., V.L.C.P., A.P., N.P.H., L.R.M., J.L.W., T.H.), College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida; Department of Pharmaceutical, Social and Administrative Sciences, McWhorter School of Pharmacy, Samford University, Birmingham, Alabama (S.O.); Department of Drug Discovery and Biomedical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, University of South Carolina, Columbia, South Carolina (F.L.); Division of Therapeutics and Medical Consequences, National Institute on Drug Abuse, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland (A.H.); and Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Jerry H. Hodge School of Pharmacy, Texas Tech University Health Sciences Center at Amarillo, Amarillo, Texas (L.R.M., J.L.W., T.H.)
| | - Siva Rama Raju Kanumuri
- Departments of Pharmaceutics (S.H.K., T.I.K., E.C.B., S.R.R.K., C.R.M., A.S.), Translational Drug Development Core (S.H.K., S.R.R.K., C.R.M., A.S.), Medicinal Chemistry (S.O., F.L., C.R.M.), and Pharmacodynamics (S.O., L.F.R., L.R.G.-J., V.L.C.P., A.P., N.P.H., L.R.M., J.L.W., T.H.), College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida; Department of Pharmaceutical, Social and Administrative Sciences, McWhorter School of Pharmacy, Samford University, Birmingham, Alabama (S.O.); Department of Drug Discovery and Biomedical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, University of South Carolina, Columbia, South Carolina (F.L.); Division of Therapeutics and Medical Consequences, National Institute on Drug Abuse, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland (A.H.); and Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Jerry H. Hodge School of Pharmacy, Texas Tech University Health Sciences Center at Amarillo, Amarillo, Texas (L.R.M., J.L.W., T.H.)
| | - Lea R Gamez-Jimenez
- Departments of Pharmaceutics (S.H.K., T.I.K., E.C.B., S.R.R.K., C.R.M., A.S.), Translational Drug Development Core (S.H.K., S.R.R.K., C.R.M., A.S.), Medicinal Chemistry (S.O., F.L., C.R.M.), and Pharmacodynamics (S.O., L.F.R., L.R.G.-J., V.L.C.P., A.P., N.P.H., L.R.M., J.L.W., T.H.), College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida; Department of Pharmaceutical, Social and Administrative Sciences, McWhorter School of Pharmacy, Samford University, Birmingham, Alabama (S.O.); Department of Drug Discovery and Biomedical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, University of South Carolina, Columbia, South Carolina (F.L.); Division of Therapeutics and Medical Consequences, National Institute on Drug Abuse, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland (A.H.); and Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Jerry H. Hodge School of Pharmacy, Texas Tech University Health Sciences Center at Amarillo, Amarillo, Texas (L.R.M., J.L.W., T.H.)
| | - Victoria L C Pallares
- Departments of Pharmaceutics (S.H.K., T.I.K., E.C.B., S.R.R.K., C.R.M., A.S.), Translational Drug Development Core (S.H.K., S.R.R.K., C.R.M., A.S.), Medicinal Chemistry (S.O., F.L., C.R.M.), and Pharmacodynamics (S.O., L.F.R., L.R.G.-J., V.L.C.P., A.P., N.P.H., L.R.M., J.L.W., T.H.), College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida; Department of Pharmaceutical, Social and Administrative Sciences, McWhorter School of Pharmacy, Samford University, Birmingham, Alabama (S.O.); Department of Drug Discovery and Biomedical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, University of South Carolina, Columbia, South Carolina (F.L.); Division of Therapeutics and Medical Consequences, National Institute on Drug Abuse, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland (A.H.); and Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Jerry H. Hodge School of Pharmacy, Texas Tech University Health Sciences Center at Amarillo, Amarillo, Texas (L.R.M., J.L.W., T.H.)
| | - Avi Patel
- Departments of Pharmaceutics (S.H.K., T.I.K., E.C.B., S.R.R.K., C.R.M., A.S.), Translational Drug Development Core (S.H.K., S.R.R.K., C.R.M., A.S.), Medicinal Chemistry (S.O., F.L., C.R.M.), and Pharmacodynamics (S.O., L.F.R., L.R.G.-J., V.L.C.P., A.P., N.P.H., L.R.M., J.L.W., T.H.), College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida; Department of Pharmaceutical, Social and Administrative Sciences, McWhorter School of Pharmacy, Samford University, Birmingham, Alabama (S.O.); Department of Drug Discovery and Biomedical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, University of South Carolina, Columbia, South Carolina (F.L.); Division of Therapeutics and Medical Consequences, National Institute on Drug Abuse, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland (A.H.); and Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Jerry H. Hodge School of Pharmacy, Texas Tech University Health Sciences Center at Amarillo, Amarillo, Texas (L.R.M., J.L.W., T.H.)
| | - Nicholas P Ho
- Departments of Pharmaceutics (S.H.K., T.I.K., E.C.B., S.R.R.K., C.R.M., A.S.), Translational Drug Development Core (S.H.K., S.R.R.K., C.R.M., A.S.), Medicinal Chemistry (S.O., F.L., C.R.M.), and Pharmacodynamics (S.O., L.F.R., L.R.G.-J., V.L.C.P., A.P., N.P.H., L.R.M., J.L.W., T.H.), College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida; Department of Pharmaceutical, Social and Administrative Sciences, McWhorter School of Pharmacy, Samford University, Birmingham, Alabama (S.O.); Department of Drug Discovery and Biomedical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, University of South Carolina, Columbia, South Carolina (F.L.); Division of Therapeutics and Medical Consequences, National Institute on Drug Abuse, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland (A.H.); and Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Jerry H. Hodge School of Pharmacy, Texas Tech University Health Sciences Center at Amarillo, Amarillo, Texas (L.R.M., J.L.W., T.H.)
| | - Aidan Hampson
- Departments of Pharmaceutics (S.H.K., T.I.K., E.C.B., S.R.R.K., C.R.M., A.S.), Translational Drug Development Core (S.H.K., S.R.R.K., C.R.M., A.S.), Medicinal Chemistry (S.O., F.L., C.R.M.), and Pharmacodynamics (S.O., L.F.R., L.R.G.-J., V.L.C.P., A.P., N.P.H., L.R.M., J.L.W., T.H.), College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida; Department of Pharmaceutical, Social and Administrative Sciences, McWhorter School of Pharmacy, Samford University, Birmingham, Alabama (S.O.); Department of Drug Discovery and Biomedical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, University of South Carolina, Columbia, South Carolina (F.L.); Division of Therapeutics and Medical Consequences, National Institute on Drug Abuse, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland (A.H.); and Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Jerry H. Hodge School of Pharmacy, Texas Tech University Health Sciences Center at Amarillo, Amarillo, Texas (L.R.M., J.L.W., T.H.)
| | - Christopher R McCurdy
- Departments of Pharmaceutics (S.H.K., T.I.K., E.C.B., S.R.R.K., C.R.M., A.S.), Translational Drug Development Core (S.H.K., S.R.R.K., C.R.M., A.S.), Medicinal Chemistry (S.O., F.L., C.R.M.), and Pharmacodynamics (S.O., L.F.R., L.R.G.-J., V.L.C.P., A.P., N.P.H., L.R.M., J.L.W., T.H.), College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida; Department of Pharmaceutical, Social and Administrative Sciences, McWhorter School of Pharmacy, Samford University, Birmingham, Alabama (S.O.); Department of Drug Discovery and Biomedical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, University of South Carolina, Columbia, South Carolina (F.L.); Division of Therapeutics and Medical Consequences, National Institute on Drug Abuse, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland (A.H.); and Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Jerry H. Hodge School of Pharmacy, Texas Tech University Health Sciences Center at Amarillo, Amarillo, Texas (L.R.M., J.L.W., T.H.)
| | - Lance R McMahon
- Departments of Pharmaceutics (S.H.K., T.I.K., E.C.B., S.R.R.K., C.R.M., A.S.), Translational Drug Development Core (S.H.K., S.R.R.K., C.R.M., A.S.), Medicinal Chemistry (S.O., F.L., C.R.M.), and Pharmacodynamics (S.O., L.F.R., L.R.G.-J., V.L.C.P., A.P., N.P.H., L.R.M., J.L.W., T.H.), College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida; Department of Pharmaceutical, Social and Administrative Sciences, McWhorter School of Pharmacy, Samford University, Birmingham, Alabama (S.O.); Department of Drug Discovery and Biomedical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, University of South Carolina, Columbia, South Carolina (F.L.); Division of Therapeutics and Medical Consequences, National Institute on Drug Abuse, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland (A.H.); and Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Jerry H. Hodge School of Pharmacy, Texas Tech University Health Sciences Center at Amarillo, Amarillo, Texas (L.R.M., J.L.W., T.H.)
| | - Jenny L Wilkerson
- Departments of Pharmaceutics (S.H.K., T.I.K., E.C.B., S.R.R.K., C.R.M., A.S.), Translational Drug Development Core (S.H.K., S.R.R.K., C.R.M., A.S.), Medicinal Chemistry (S.O., F.L., C.R.M.), and Pharmacodynamics (S.O., L.F.R., L.R.G.-J., V.L.C.P., A.P., N.P.H., L.R.M., J.L.W., T.H.), College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida; Department of Pharmaceutical, Social and Administrative Sciences, McWhorter School of Pharmacy, Samford University, Birmingham, Alabama (S.O.); Department of Drug Discovery and Biomedical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, University of South Carolina, Columbia, South Carolina (F.L.); Division of Therapeutics and Medical Consequences, National Institute on Drug Abuse, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland (A.H.); and Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Jerry H. Hodge School of Pharmacy, Texas Tech University Health Sciences Center at Amarillo, Amarillo, Texas (L.R.M., J.L.W., T.H.)
| | - Abhisheak Sharma
- Departments of Pharmaceutics (S.H.K., T.I.K., E.C.B., S.R.R.K., C.R.M., A.S.), Translational Drug Development Core (S.H.K., S.R.R.K., C.R.M., A.S.), Medicinal Chemistry (S.O., F.L., C.R.M.), and Pharmacodynamics (S.O., L.F.R., L.R.G.-J., V.L.C.P., A.P., N.P.H., L.R.M., J.L.W., T.H.), College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida; Department of Pharmaceutical, Social and Administrative Sciences, McWhorter School of Pharmacy, Samford University, Birmingham, Alabama (S.O.); Department of Drug Discovery and Biomedical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, University of South Carolina, Columbia, South Carolina (F.L.); Division of Therapeutics and Medical Consequences, National Institute on Drug Abuse, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland (A.H.); and Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Jerry H. Hodge School of Pharmacy, Texas Tech University Health Sciences Center at Amarillo, Amarillo, Texas (L.R.M., J.L.W., T.H.)
| | - Takato Hiranita
- Departments of Pharmaceutics (S.H.K., T.I.K., E.C.B., S.R.R.K., C.R.M., A.S.), Translational Drug Development Core (S.H.K., S.R.R.K., C.R.M., A.S.), Medicinal Chemistry (S.O., F.L., C.R.M.), and Pharmacodynamics (S.O., L.F.R., L.R.G.-J., V.L.C.P., A.P., N.P.H., L.R.M., J.L.W., T.H.), College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida; Department of Pharmaceutical, Social and Administrative Sciences, McWhorter School of Pharmacy, Samford University, Birmingham, Alabama (S.O.); Department of Drug Discovery and Biomedical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, University of South Carolina, Columbia, South Carolina (F.L.); Division of Therapeutics and Medical Consequences, National Institute on Drug Abuse, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland (A.H.); and Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Jerry H. Hodge School of Pharmacy, Texas Tech University Health Sciences Center at Amarillo, Amarillo, Texas (L.R.M., J.L.W., T.H.)
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20
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Henningfield JE, Chawarski MC, Garcia-Romeu A, Grundmann O, Harun N, Hassan Z, McCurdy CR, McMahon LR, Sharma A, Shoaib M, Singh D, Smith KE, Swogger MT, Vicknasingam B, Walsh Z, Wang DW, Huestis MA. Kratom withdrawal: Discussions and conclusions of a scientific expert forum. DRUG AND ALCOHOL DEPENDENCE REPORTS 2023; 7:100142. [PMID: 37397437 PMCID: PMC10311168 DOI: 10.1016/j.dadr.2023.100142] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/06/2023] [Revised: 03/02/2023] [Accepted: 03/02/2023] [Indexed: 07/04/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Jack E. Henningfield
- PinneyAssociates, Bethesda, MD 20814, United States
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21205, United States
| | - Marek C. Chawarski
- Departments of Psychiatry and Emergency Medicine, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06519, United States
| | - Albert Garcia-Romeu
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21205, United States
| | - Oliver Grundmann
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32610, USA
| | - Norsyifa Harun
- Centre for Drug Research, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Penang 11800, Malaysia
| | - Zurina Hassan
- Centre for Drug Research, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Penang 11800, Malaysia
| | - Christopher R. McCurdy
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32610, USA
- Department of Pharmaceutics, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32610, United States
- Translational Drug Development Core, Clinical and Translational Sciences Institute, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32610, United States
| | - Lance R. McMahon
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Texas Tech University Health Sciences Center, Lubbock, TX 79430, United States
| | - Abhisheak Sharma
- Department of Pharmaceutics, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32610, United States
- Translational Drug Development Core, Clinical and Translational Sciences Institute, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32610, United States
| | - Mohammed Shoaib
- Institute of Neuroscience, Medical School, Newcastle University, Newcastle Upon Tyne NE2 4HH, United Kingdom
| | - Darshan Singh
- Centre for Drug Research, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Penang 11800, Malaysia
| | - Kirsten E. Smith
- Real-World Assessment, Prediction, and Treatment Unit, National Institute on Drug Abuse Intramural Research Program, Baltimore, MD, United States
| | - Marc T. Swogger
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Rochester Medical Center, Rochester, NY 14642, United States
| | | | - Zachary Walsh
- Department of Psychology, University of British Columbia, Kelowna, BC V1V 1V7, Canada
| | | | - Marilyn A. Huestis
- PinneyAssociates, Bethesda, MD 20814, United States
- Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, PA 19144, United States
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21
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Kelly E, Sutcliffe K, Cavallo D, Ramos-Gonzalez N, Alhosan N, Henderson G. The anomalous pharmacology of fentanyl. Br J Pharmacol 2023; 180:797-812. [PMID: 34030211 DOI: 10.1111/bph.15573] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 36.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2021] [Revised: 04/27/2021] [Accepted: 05/12/2021] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Fentanyl is a key therapeutic, used in anaesthesia and pain management. It is also increasingly used illicitly and is responsible for a large and growing number of opioid overdose deaths, especially in North America. A number of factors have been suggested to contribute to fentanyl's lethality, including rapid onset of action, in vivo potency, ligand bias, induction of muscle rigidity and reduced sensitivity to reversal by naloxone. Some of these factors can be considered to represent 'anomalous' pharmacological properties of fentanyl when compared with prototypical opioid agonists such as morphine. In this review, we examine the nature of fentanyl's 'anomalous' properties, to determine whether there is really a pharmacological basis to support the existence of such properties, and also discuss whether such properties are likely to contribute to overdose deaths involving fentanyls. LINKED ARTICLES: This article is part of a themed issue on Advances in Opioid Pharmacology at the Time of the Opioid Epidemic. To view the other articles in this section visit http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/bph.v180.7/issuetoc.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eamonn Kelly
- School of Physiology, Pharmacology and Neuroscience, University of Bristol, Bristol, UK
| | - Katy Sutcliffe
- School of Physiology, Pharmacology and Neuroscience, University of Bristol, Bristol, UK
| | - Damiana Cavallo
- School of Physiology, Pharmacology and Neuroscience, University of Bristol, Bristol, UK
| | | | - Norah Alhosan
- School of Physiology, Pharmacology and Neuroscience, University of Bristol, Bristol, UK
| | - Graeme Henderson
- School of Physiology, Pharmacology and Neuroscience, University of Bristol, Bristol, UK
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22
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Xie B, Le Rouzic VP, Goldberg A, Tsai MHM, Chen L, Zhang T, Sinha A, Pan YX, Baumann MH, Shi L. Binding preference at the μ-opioid receptor underlies distinct pharmacology of cyclopropyl versus valeryl analogs of fentanyl. Neuropharmacology 2023; 227:109442. [PMID: 36731721 PMCID: PMC9974845 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropharm.2023.109442] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/06/2022] [Revised: 01/12/2023] [Accepted: 01/25/2023] [Indexed: 01/31/2023]
Abstract
Illicitly manufactured fentanyl is driving the current opioid crisis, and various fentanyl analogs are appearing in recreational drug markets worldwide. To assess the potential health risks posed by fentanyl analogs, it is necessary to understand structure-activity relationships for these compounds. Here we compared the pharmacology of two structurally related fentanyl analogs implicated in opioid overdose: cyclopropylfentanyl and valerylfentanyl. Cyclopropylfentanyl has a three-carbon ring attached to the carbonyl group on the fentanyl scaffold, whereas valerylfentanyl has a four-carbon chain at the same position. In vitro assays examining μ-opioid receptor (MOR) coupling to G proteins in CHO cells showed that cyclopropylfentanyl is a full agonist (EC50 = 8.6 nM, %Emax = 113%), with potency and efficacy similar to fentanyl (EC50 = 10.3 nM, %Emax = 113%). By contrast, valerylfentanyl is a partial agonist at MOR (EC50 = 179.8 nM, %Emax = 60%). Similar results were found in assays assessing MOR-mediated β-arrestin recruitment in HEK cells. In vivo studies in male CD-1 mice demonstrated that both fentanyl analogs induce naloxone-reversible antinociception and respiratory suppression, but cyclopropylfentanyl is 100-times more potent as an antinociceptive agent (ED50 = 0.04 mg/kg, s. c.) than valerylfentanyl (ED50 = 4.0 mg/kg, s. c.). Molecular simulation results revealed that the alkyl chain of valerylfentanyl cannot be well accommodated by the active state of MOR and may transition the receptor toward an inactive state, converting the fentanyl scaffold to a partial agonist. Taken together, our results suggest that cyclopropylfentanyl presents much greater risk of adverse effects when compared to valerylfentanyl. Moreover, the summed findings may provide clues to the design of therapeutic opioids with reduced adverse side effects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bing Xie
- Computational Chemistry and Molecular Biophysics Section, Intramural Research Program, National Institute on Drug Abuse, National Institutes of Health, Baltimore, MD, 21224, USA
| | - Valerie P Le Rouzic
- Department of Neurology, Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center, New York, NY, 10065, USA
| | - Alexander Goldberg
- Computational Chemistry and Molecular Biophysics Section, Intramural Research Program, National Institute on Drug Abuse, National Institutes of Health, Baltimore, MD, 21224, USA
| | - Meng-Hua M Tsai
- Computational Chemistry and Molecular Biophysics Section, Intramural Research Program, National Institute on Drug Abuse, National Institutes of Health, Baltimore, MD, 21224, USA
| | - Li Chen
- Computational Chemistry and Molecular Biophysics Section, Intramural Research Program, National Institute on Drug Abuse, National Institutes of Health, Baltimore, MD, 21224, USA
| | - Tiffany Zhang
- Department of Neurology, Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center, New York, NY, 10065, USA
| | - Antara Sinha
- Department of Neurology, Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center, New York, NY, 10065, USA
| | - Ying-Xian Pan
- Department of Neurology, Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center, New York, NY, 10065, USA; Department of Anesthesiology, Rutgers New Jersey Medical School, Newark, NJ, 07103, USA
| | - Michael H Baumann
- Designer Drug Research Unit, Intramural Research Program, National Institute on Drug Abuse, National Institutes of Health, Baltimore, MD, 21224, USA
| | - Lei Shi
- Computational Chemistry and Molecular Biophysics Section, Intramural Research Program, National Institute on Drug Abuse, National Institutes of Health, Baltimore, MD, 21224, USA.
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23
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Mukhopadhyay S, Gupta S, Wilkerson JL, Sharma A, McMahon LR, McCurdy CR. Receptor Selectivity and Therapeutic Potential of Kratom in Substance Use Disorders. CURRENT ADDICTION REPORTS 2023. [DOI: 10.1007/s40429-023-00472-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/31/2023]
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24
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Bodnar RJ. Endogenous opiates and behavior: 2021. Peptides 2023; 164:171004. [PMID: 36990387 DOI: 10.1016/j.peptides.2023.171004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/26/2023] [Revised: 03/23/2023] [Accepted: 03/23/2023] [Indexed: 03/29/2023]
Abstract
This paper is the forty-fourth consecutive installment of the annual anthological review of research concerning the endogenous opioid system, summarizing articles published during 2021 that studied the behavioral effects of molecular, pharmacological and genetic manipulation of opioid peptides and receptors as well as effects of opioid/opiate agonizts and antagonists. The review is subdivided into the following specific topics: molecular-biochemical effects and neurochemical localization studies of endogenous opioids and their receptors (1), the roles of these opioid peptides and receptors in pain and analgesia in animals (2) and humans (3), opioid-sensitive and opioid-insensitive effects of nonopioid analgesics (4), opioid peptide and receptor involvement in tolerance and dependence (5), stress and social status (6), learning and memory (7), eating and drinking (8), drug abuse and alcohol (9), sexual activity and hormones, pregnancy, development and endocrinology (10), mental illness and mood (11), seizures and neurologic disorders (12), electrical-related activity and neurophysiology (13), general activity and locomotion (14), gastrointestinal, renal and hepatic functions (15), cardiovascular responses (16), respiration and thermoregulation (17), and immunological responses (18).
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Affiliation(s)
- Richard J Bodnar
- Department of Psychology and Neuropsychology Doctoral Sub-Program, Queens College, City University of New York, CUNY, 65-30 Kissena Blvd., Flushing, NY 11367, USA.
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25
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What Is the Kratom Overdose Risk? A Systematic Literature Review. CURRENT ADDICTION REPORTS 2023. [DOI: 10.1007/s40429-022-00464-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
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26
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Basheer M, Hassan Z, Gam LH. Upregulation of Brain's Calcium Binding Proteins in Mitragynine Dependence: A Potential Cellular Mechanism to Addiction. Int J Med Sci 2023; 20:102-113. [PMID: 36619231 PMCID: PMC9812809 DOI: 10.7150/ijms.78861] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/12/2022] [Accepted: 10/20/2022] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Background: Mitragyna speciosa Korth or Kratom is widely used traditionally for its medicinal values. The major alkaloid content of kratom leaves is mitragynine, which binds to opioid receptors to give opioid-like effects. This study aimed to analyse the brain proteome of animals that displayed addictive behaviors. Design and Methods: Six groups (n=6-8) of rats made up of negative control, positive control using morphine (10 mg/kg), and treatment groups at low (1mg/kg) and high doses of mitragynine (30 mg/kg) for 1 and 4 days. The rats' behaviors were evaluated and subsequently the rats' brains were harvested for proteomic analysis that was performed by using 2D gel electrophoresis and LC/MS/MS. Results: The rats developed physical dependence only on day 4 following morphine and mitragynine (1 and 30mg/kg) treatments. Among the proteins that were up-regulated in treatment groups were four calcium-binding proteins, namely calretinin, F-actin, annexin A3 and beta-centractin. Conclusions: Upregulation of calretinin acted as low Ca2+ buffering upon the blockage of Ca2+ ion channel by mitragynine in the brain, which subsequently caused a reduction of GABA released and inversely increased the dopamine secretions that contributed to dependence indicators.
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Affiliation(s)
- Murtadha Basheer
- School of pharmaceutical sciences, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Penang, Malaysia
| | - Zurina Hassan
- Center of Drug Research, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Penang, Malaysia
| | - Lay-Harn Gam
- School of pharmaceutical sciences, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Penang, Malaysia
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27
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Obeng S, Leon F, Patel A, Zuarth Gonzalez JD, Chaves Da Silva L, Restrepo LF, Gamez-Jimenez LR, Ho NP, Guerrero Calvache MP, Pallares VLC, Helmes JA, Shiomitsu SK, Soto PL, McCurdy CR, McMahon LR, Wilkerson JL, Hiranita T. Interactive Effects of µ-Opioid and Adrenergic- α 2 Receptor Agonists in Rats: Pharmacological Investigation of the Primary Kratom Alkaloid Mitragynine and Its Metabolite 7-Hydroxymitragynine. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 2022; 383:182-198. [PMID: 36153006 PMCID: PMC9667981 DOI: 10.1124/jpet.122.001192] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/07/2022] [Accepted: 09/09/2022] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Abstract
The primary kratom alkaloid mitragynine is proposed to act through multiple mechanisms, including actions at µ-opioid receptors (MORs) and adrenergic-α 2 receptors (Aα 2Rs), as well as conversion in vivo to a MOR agonist metabolite (i.e., 7-hydroxymitragynine). Aα 2R and MOR agonists can produce antinociceptive synergism. Here, contributions of both receptors to produce mitragynine-related effects were assessed by measuring receptor binding in cell membranes and, in rats, pharmacological behavioral effect antagonism studies. Mitragynine displayed binding affinity at both receptors, whereas 7-hydroxymitragynine only displayed MOR binding affinity. Compounds were tested for their capacity to decrease food-maintained responding and rectal temperature and to produce antinociception in a hotplate test. Prototypical MOR agonists and 7-hydroxymitragynine, but not mitragynine, produced antinociception. MOR agonist and 7-hydroxymitragynine rate-deceasing and antinociceptive effects were antagonized by the opioid antagonist naltrexone but not by the Aα 2R antagonist yohimbine. Hypothermia only resulted from reference Aα 2R agonists. The rate-deceasing and hypothermic effects of reference Aα 2R agonists were antagonized by yohimbine but not naltrexone. Neither naltrexone nor yohimbine antagonized the rate-decreasing effects of mitragynine. Mitragynine and 7-hydroxymitragynine increased the potency of the antinociceptive effects of Aα 2R but not MOR reference agonists. Only mitragynine produced hypothermic effects. Isobolographic analyses for the rate-decreasing effects of the reference Aα 2R and MOR agonists were also conducted. These results suggest mitragynine and 7-hydroxymitragynine may produce antinociceptive synergism with Aα 2R and MOR agonists. When combined with Aα 2R agonists, mitragynine could also produce hypothermic synergism. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT: Mitragynine is proposed to target the µ-opioid receptor (MOR) and adrenergic-α2 receptor (Aα2R) and to produce behavioral effects through conversion to its MOR agonist metabolite 7-hydroxymitragynine. Isobolographic analyses indicated supra-additivity in some dose ratio combinations. This study suggests mitragynine and 7-hydroxymitragynine may produce antinociceptive synergism with Aα2R and MOR agonists. When combined with Aα2R agonists, mitragynine could also produce hypothermic synergism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Samuel Obeng
- Departments of Pharmacodynamics (S.O., A.P., J.D.Z.G., L.C.D.S., L.F.R., L.R.G-J., N.P.H., M.P.G.C., V.L.C.P., J.A.H., S.K.S., L.R.M., J.L.W., T.H.), Medicinal Chemistry (S.O., F.L., C.R.M.), and Pharmaceutics (C.R.M.), and Translational Drug Development Core (C.R.M.), Clinical and Translational Sciences Institute, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida; Department of Drug Discovery and Biomedical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, University of South Carolina, Columbia, South Carolina (F.L.); Department of Psychology, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, Louisiana (P.L.S.), Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Texas Tech University Health Sciences Center, Jerry H. Hodge School of Pharmacy, Amarillo, Texas (L.R.M., J.L.W., T.H.); Department of Pharmaceutical, Social and Administrative Sciences, McWhorter School of Pharmacy, Samford University, Birmingham, Alabama (S.O.); Department of Pharmacology, Joe R. and Teresa Lozano Long School of Medicine, University of Texas Health San Antonio, San Antonio, Texas (T.H.)
| | - Francisco Leon
- Departments of Pharmacodynamics (S.O., A.P., J.D.Z.G., L.C.D.S., L.F.R., L.R.G-J., N.P.H., M.P.G.C., V.L.C.P., J.A.H., S.K.S., L.R.M., J.L.W., T.H.), Medicinal Chemistry (S.O., F.L., C.R.M.), and Pharmaceutics (C.R.M.), and Translational Drug Development Core (C.R.M.), Clinical and Translational Sciences Institute, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida; Department of Drug Discovery and Biomedical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, University of South Carolina, Columbia, South Carolina (F.L.); Department of Psychology, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, Louisiana (P.L.S.), Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Texas Tech University Health Sciences Center, Jerry H. Hodge School of Pharmacy, Amarillo, Texas (L.R.M., J.L.W., T.H.); Department of Pharmaceutical, Social and Administrative Sciences, McWhorter School of Pharmacy, Samford University, Birmingham, Alabama (S.O.); Department of Pharmacology, Joe R. and Teresa Lozano Long School of Medicine, University of Texas Health San Antonio, San Antonio, Texas (T.H.)
| | - Avi Patel
- Departments of Pharmacodynamics (S.O., A.P., J.D.Z.G., L.C.D.S., L.F.R., L.R.G-J., N.P.H., M.P.G.C., V.L.C.P., J.A.H., S.K.S., L.R.M., J.L.W., T.H.), Medicinal Chemistry (S.O., F.L., C.R.M.), and Pharmaceutics (C.R.M.), and Translational Drug Development Core (C.R.M.), Clinical and Translational Sciences Institute, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida; Department of Drug Discovery and Biomedical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, University of South Carolina, Columbia, South Carolina (F.L.); Department of Psychology, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, Louisiana (P.L.S.), Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Texas Tech University Health Sciences Center, Jerry H. Hodge School of Pharmacy, Amarillo, Texas (L.R.M., J.L.W., T.H.); Department of Pharmaceutical, Social and Administrative Sciences, McWhorter School of Pharmacy, Samford University, Birmingham, Alabama (S.O.); Department of Pharmacology, Joe R. and Teresa Lozano Long School of Medicine, University of Texas Health San Antonio, San Antonio, Texas (T.H.)
| | - Julio D Zuarth Gonzalez
- Departments of Pharmacodynamics (S.O., A.P., J.D.Z.G., L.C.D.S., L.F.R., L.R.G-J., N.P.H., M.P.G.C., V.L.C.P., J.A.H., S.K.S., L.R.M., J.L.W., T.H.), Medicinal Chemistry (S.O., F.L., C.R.M.), and Pharmaceutics (C.R.M.), and Translational Drug Development Core (C.R.M.), Clinical and Translational Sciences Institute, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida; Department of Drug Discovery and Biomedical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, University of South Carolina, Columbia, South Carolina (F.L.); Department of Psychology, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, Louisiana (P.L.S.), Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Texas Tech University Health Sciences Center, Jerry H. Hodge School of Pharmacy, Amarillo, Texas (L.R.M., J.L.W., T.H.); Department of Pharmaceutical, Social and Administrative Sciences, McWhorter School of Pharmacy, Samford University, Birmingham, Alabama (S.O.); Department of Pharmacology, Joe R. and Teresa Lozano Long School of Medicine, University of Texas Health San Antonio, San Antonio, Texas (T.H.)
| | - Lucas Chaves Da Silva
- Departments of Pharmacodynamics (S.O., A.P., J.D.Z.G., L.C.D.S., L.F.R., L.R.G-J., N.P.H., M.P.G.C., V.L.C.P., J.A.H., S.K.S., L.R.M., J.L.W., T.H.), Medicinal Chemistry (S.O., F.L., C.R.M.), and Pharmaceutics (C.R.M.), and Translational Drug Development Core (C.R.M.), Clinical and Translational Sciences Institute, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida; Department of Drug Discovery and Biomedical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, University of South Carolina, Columbia, South Carolina (F.L.); Department of Psychology, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, Louisiana (P.L.S.), Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Texas Tech University Health Sciences Center, Jerry H. Hodge School of Pharmacy, Amarillo, Texas (L.R.M., J.L.W., T.H.); Department of Pharmaceutical, Social and Administrative Sciences, McWhorter School of Pharmacy, Samford University, Birmingham, Alabama (S.O.); Department of Pharmacology, Joe R. and Teresa Lozano Long School of Medicine, University of Texas Health San Antonio, San Antonio, Texas (T.H.)
| | - Luis F Restrepo
- Departments of Pharmacodynamics (S.O., A.P., J.D.Z.G., L.C.D.S., L.F.R., L.R.G-J., N.P.H., M.P.G.C., V.L.C.P., J.A.H., S.K.S., L.R.M., J.L.W., T.H.), Medicinal Chemistry (S.O., F.L., C.R.M.), and Pharmaceutics (C.R.M.), and Translational Drug Development Core (C.R.M.), Clinical and Translational Sciences Institute, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida; Department of Drug Discovery and Biomedical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, University of South Carolina, Columbia, South Carolina (F.L.); Department of Psychology, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, Louisiana (P.L.S.), Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Texas Tech University Health Sciences Center, Jerry H. Hodge School of Pharmacy, Amarillo, Texas (L.R.M., J.L.W., T.H.); Department of Pharmaceutical, Social and Administrative Sciences, McWhorter School of Pharmacy, Samford University, Birmingham, Alabama (S.O.); Department of Pharmacology, Joe R. and Teresa Lozano Long School of Medicine, University of Texas Health San Antonio, San Antonio, Texas (T.H.)
| | - Lea R Gamez-Jimenez
- Departments of Pharmacodynamics (S.O., A.P., J.D.Z.G., L.C.D.S., L.F.R., L.R.G-J., N.P.H., M.P.G.C., V.L.C.P., J.A.H., S.K.S., L.R.M., J.L.W., T.H.), Medicinal Chemistry (S.O., F.L., C.R.M.), and Pharmaceutics (C.R.M.), and Translational Drug Development Core (C.R.M.), Clinical and Translational Sciences Institute, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida; Department of Drug Discovery and Biomedical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, University of South Carolina, Columbia, South Carolina (F.L.); Department of Psychology, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, Louisiana (P.L.S.), Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Texas Tech University Health Sciences Center, Jerry H. Hodge School of Pharmacy, Amarillo, Texas (L.R.M., J.L.W., T.H.); Department of Pharmaceutical, Social and Administrative Sciences, McWhorter School of Pharmacy, Samford University, Birmingham, Alabama (S.O.); Department of Pharmacology, Joe R. and Teresa Lozano Long School of Medicine, University of Texas Health San Antonio, San Antonio, Texas (T.H.)
| | - Nicholas P Ho
- Departments of Pharmacodynamics (S.O., A.P., J.D.Z.G., L.C.D.S., L.F.R., L.R.G-J., N.P.H., M.P.G.C., V.L.C.P., J.A.H., S.K.S., L.R.M., J.L.W., T.H.), Medicinal Chemistry (S.O., F.L., C.R.M.), and Pharmaceutics (C.R.M.), and Translational Drug Development Core (C.R.M.), Clinical and Translational Sciences Institute, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida; Department of Drug Discovery and Biomedical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, University of South Carolina, Columbia, South Carolina (F.L.); Department of Psychology, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, Louisiana (P.L.S.), Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Texas Tech University Health Sciences Center, Jerry H. Hodge School of Pharmacy, Amarillo, Texas (L.R.M., J.L.W., T.H.); Department of Pharmaceutical, Social and Administrative Sciences, McWhorter School of Pharmacy, Samford University, Birmingham, Alabama (S.O.); Department of Pharmacology, Joe R. and Teresa Lozano Long School of Medicine, University of Texas Health San Antonio, San Antonio, Texas (T.H.)
| | - Maria P Guerrero Calvache
- Departments of Pharmacodynamics (S.O., A.P., J.D.Z.G., L.C.D.S., L.F.R., L.R.G-J., N.P.H., M.P.G.C., V.L.C.P., J.A.H., S.K.S., L.R.M., J.L.W., T.H.), Medicinal Chemistry (S.O., F.L., C.R.M.), and Pharmaceutics (C.R.M.), and Translational Drug Development Core (C.R.M.), Clinical and Translational Sciences Institute, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida; Department of Drug Discovery and Biomedical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, University of South Carolina, Columbia, South Carolina (F.L.); Department of Psychology, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, Louisiana (P.L.S.), Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Texas Tech University Health Sciences Center, Jerry H. Hodge School of Pharmacy, Amarillo, Texas (L.R.M., J.L.W., T.H.); Department of Pharmaceutical, Social and Administrative Sciences, McWhorter School of Pharmacy, Samford University, Birmingham, Alabama (S.O.); Department of Pharmacology, Joe R. and Teresa Lozano Long School of Medicine, University of Texas Health San Antonio, San Antonio, Texas (T.H.)
| | - Victoria L C Pallares
- Departments of Pharmacodynamics (S.O., A.P., J.D.Z.G., L.C.D.S., L.F.R., L.R.G-J., N.P.H., M.P.G.C., V.L.C.P., J.A.H., S.K.S., L.R.M., J.L.W., T.H.), Medicinal Chemistry (S.O., F.L., C.R.M.), and Pharmaceutics (C.R.M.), and Translational Drug Development Core (C.R.M.), Clinical and Translational Sciences Institute, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida; Department of Drug Discovery and Biomedical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, University of South Carolina, Columbia, South Carolina (F.L.); Department of Psychology, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, Louisiana (P.L.S.), Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Texas Tech University Health Sciences Center, Jerry H. Hodge School of Pharmacy, Amarillo, Texas (L.R.M., J.L.W., T.H.); Department of Pharmaceutical, Social and Administrative Sciences, McWhorter School of Pharmacy, Samford University, Birmingham, Alabama (S.O.); Department of Pharmacology, Joe R. and Teresa Lozano Long School of Medicine, University of Texas Health San Antonio, San Antonio, Texas (T.H.)
| | - Justin A Helmes
- Departments of Pharmacodynamics (S.O., A.P., J.D.Z.G., L.C.D.S., L.F.R., L.R.G-J., N.P.H., M.P.G.C., V.L.C.P., J.A.H., S.K.S., L.R.M., J.L.W., T.H.), Medicinal Chemistry (S.O., F.L., C.R.M.), and Pharmaceutics (C.R.M.), and Translational Drug Development Core (C.R.M.), Clinical and Translational Sciences Institute, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida; Department of Drug Discovery and Biomedical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, University of South Carolina, Columbia, South Carolina (F.L.); Department of Psychology, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, Louisiana (P.L.S.), Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Texas Tech University Health Sciences Center, Jerry H. Hodge School of Pharmacy, Amarillo, Texas (L.R.M., J.L.W., T.H.); Department of Pharmaceutical, Social and Administrative Sciences, McWhorter School of Pharmacy, Samford University, Birmingham, Alabama (S.O.); Department of Pharmacology, Joe R. and Teresa Lozano Long School of Medicine, University of Texas Health San Antonio, San Antonio, Texas (T.H.)
| | - Sakura K Shiomitsu
- Departments of Pharmacodynamics (S.O., A.P., J.D.Z.G., L.C.D.S., L.F.R., L.R.G-J., N.P.H., M.P.G.C., V.L.C.P., J.A.H., S.K.S., L.R.M., J.L.W., T.H.), Medicinal Chemistry (S.O., F.L., C.R.M.), and Pharmaceutics (C.R.M.), and Translational Drug Development Core (C.R.M.), Clinical and Translational Sciences Institute, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida; Department of Drug Discovery and Biomedical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, University of South Carolina, Columbia, South Carolina (F.L.); Department of Psychology, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, Louisiana (P.L.S.), Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Texas Tech University Health Sciences Center, Jerry H. Hodge School of Pharmacy, Amarillo, Texas (L.R.M., J.L.W., T.H.); Department of Pharmaceutical, Social and Administrative Sciences, McWhorter School of Pharmacy, Samford University, Birmingham, Alabama (S.O.); Department of Pharmacology, Joe R. and Teresa Lozano Long School of Medicine, University of Texas Health San Antonio, San Antonio, Texas (T.H.)
| | - Paul L Soto
- Departments of Pharmacodynamics (S.O., A.P., J.D.Z.G., L.C.D.S., L.F.R., L.R.G-J., N.P.H., M.P.G.C., V.L.C.P., J.A.H., S.K.S., L.R.M., J.L.W., T.H.), Medicinal Chemistry (S.O., F.L., C.R.M.), and Pharmaceutics (C.R.M.), and Translational Drug Development Core (C.R.M.), Clinical and Translational Sciences Institute, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida; Department of Drug Discovery and Biomedical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, University of South Carolina, Columbia, South Carolina (F.L.); Department of Psychology, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, Louisiana (P.L.S.), Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Texas Tech University Health Sciences Center, Jerry H. Hodge School of Pharmacy, Amarillo, Texas (L.R.M., J.L.W., T.H.); Department of Pharmaceutical, Social and Administrative Sciences, McWhorter School of Pharmacy, Samford University, Birmingham, Alabama (S.O.); Department of Pharmacology, Joe R. and Teresa Lozano Long School of Medicine, University of Texas Health San Antonio, San Antonio, Texas (T.H.)
| | - Christopher R McCurdy
- Departments of Pharmacodynamics (S.O., A.P., J.D.Z.G., L.C.D.S., L.F.R., L.R.G-J., N.P.H., M.P.G.C., V.L.C.P., J.A.H., S.K.S., L.R.M., J.L.W., T.H.), Medicinal Chemistry (S.O., F.L., C.R.M.), and Pharmaceutics (C.R.M.), and Translational Drug Development Core (C.R.M.), Clinical and Translational Sciences Institute, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida; Department of Drug Discovery and Biomedical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, University of South Carolina, Columbia, South Carolina (F.L.); Department of Psychology, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, Louisiana (P.L.S.), Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Texas Tech University Health Sciences Center, Jerry H. Hodge School of Pharmacy, Amarillo, Texas (L.R.M., J.L.W., T.H.); Department of Pharmaceutical, Social and Administrative Sciences, McWhorter School of Pharmacy, Samford University, Birmingham, Alabama (S.O.); Department of Pharmacology, Joe R. and Teresa Lozano Long School of Medicine, University of Texas Health San Antonio, San Antonio, Texas (T.H.)
| | - Lance R McMahon
- Departments of Pharmacodynamics (S.O., A.P., J.D.Z.G., L.C.D.S., L.F.R., L.R.G-J., N.P.H., M.P.G.C., V.L.C.P., J.A.H., S.K.S., L.R.M., J.L.W., T.H.), Medicinal Chemistry (S.O., F.L., C.R.M.), and Pharmaceutics (C.R.M.), and Translational Drug Development Core (C.R.M.), Clinical and Translational Sciences Institute, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida; Department of Drug Discovery and Biomedical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, University of South Carolina, Columbia, South Carolina (F.L.); Department of Psychology, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, Louisiana (P.L.S.), Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Texas Tech University Health Sciences Center, Jerry H. Hodge School of Pharmacy, Amarillo, Texas (L.R.M., J.L.W., T.H.); Department of Pharmaceutical, Social and Administrative Sciences, McWhorter School of Pharmacy, Samford University, Birmingham, Alabama (S.O.); Department of Pharmacology, Joe R. and Teresa Lozano Long School of Medicine, University of Texas Health San Antonio, San Antonio, Texas (T.H.)
| | - Jenny L Wilkerson
- Departments of Pharmacodynamics (S.O., A.P., J.D.Z.G., L.C.D.S., L.F.R., L.R.G-J., N.P.H., M.P.G.C., V.L.C.P., J.A.H., S.K.S., L.R.M., J.L.W., T.H.), Medicinal Chemistry (S.O., F.L., C.R.M.), and Pharmaceutics (C.R.M.), and Translational Drug Development Core (C.R.M.), Clinical and Translational Sciences Institute, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida; Department of Drug Discovery and Biomedical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, University of South Carolina, Columbia, South Carolina (F.L.); Department of Psychology, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, Louisiana (P.L.S.), Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Texas Tech University Health Sciences Center, Jerry H. Hodge School of Pharmacy, Amarillo, Texas (L.R.M., J.L.W., T.H.); Department of Pharmaceutical, Social and Administrative Sciences, McWhorter School of Pharmacy, Samford University, Birmingham, Alabama (S.O.); Department of Pharmacology, Joe R. and Teresa Lozano Long School of Medicine, University of Texas Health San Antonio, San Antonio, Texas (T.H.)
| | - Takato Hiranita
- Departments of Pharmacodynamics (S.O., A.P., J.D.Z.G., L.C.D.S., L.F.R., L.R.G-J., N.P.H., M.P.G.C., V.L.C.P., J.A.H., S.K.S., L.R.M., J.L.W., T.H.), Medicinal Chemistry (S.O., F.L., C.R.M.), and Pharmaceutics (C.R.M.), and Translational Drug Development Core (C.R.M.), Clinical and Translational Sciences Institute, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida; Department of Drug Discovery and Biomedical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, University of South Carolina, Columbia, South Carolina (F.L.); Department of Psychology, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, Louisiana (P.L.S.), Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Texas Tech University Health Sciences Center, Jerry H. Hodge School of Pharmacy, Amarillo, Texas (L.R.M., J.L.W., T.H.); Department of Pharmaceutical, Social and Administrative Sciences, McWhorter School of Pharmacy, Samford University, Birmingham, Alabama (S.O.); Department of Pharmacology, Joe R. and Teresa Lozano Long School of Medicine, University of Texas Health San Antonio, San Antonio, Texas (T.H.)
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Smith KE, Dunn KE, Grundmann O, Garcia-Romeu A, Rogers JM, Swogger MT, Epstein DH. Social, psychological, and substance use characteristics of U.S. adults who use kratom: Initial findings from an online, crowdsourced study. Exp Clin Psychopharmacol 2022; 30:983-996. [PMID: 34735202 PMCID: PMC10726725 DOI: 10.1037/pha0000518] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Kratom, a plant that produces opioid-like effects, has gained popularity in the U.S. for self-treating symptoms of chronic pain, mood disorders, and substance-use disorders (SUDs). Most data on kratom are from surveys into which current kratom-using adults could self-select; such surveys may underrepresent people who have used kratom and chosen to stop. Available data also do not adequately assess important psychosocial factors surrounding kratom use. In this study, U.S. adults who reported past 6-month alcohol, opioid, and/or stimulant use (N = 1,670) were recruited via Amazon Mechanical Turk between September and December 2020. Of the 1,510 evaluable respondents, 202 (13.4%) reported lifetime kratom use. Kratom-using adults, relative to others, were typically younger, male, unpartnered, without children, and had lower income. They had higher rates of chronic pain (31.7% vs. 21.9%, p = .003), childhood adversity, anxiety, and depression (p < .001), and lower perceived social rank (d = .19, .02-.22) and socioeconomic status (d = .37 .16-.26). They also reported higher use rates for most substances (except alcohol); this included medically supervised and unsupervised use of prescription opioids and diverted opioid agonist therapy (OAT) medications. Most (83.2%) met diagnostic criteria for any past-year SUD. Those reporting kratom use were less likely to reside in an urban/suburban area. The strongest predictors of kratom use were use of other drugs: cannabidiol (OR = 3.73), psychedelics (OR = 3.39), and nonmedical prescription opioids (OR = 1.72). Another strong predictor was lifetime OAT utilization (OR = 2.31). Despite seemingly poorer psychosocial functioning and health among respondents reporting lifetime kratom use, use of other substances may be the strongest indicators of kratom use. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).
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Affiliation(s)
- Kirsten E. Smith
- Real-world Assessment, Prediction, and Treatment Unit, National Institute on Drug Abuse Intramural Research Program, Baltimore, Maryland, United States
| | - Kelly E. Dunn
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine
| | - Oliver Grundmann
- College of Pharmacy, Department of Medicinal Chemistry, University of Florida
| | - Albert Garcia-Romeu
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine
| | - Jeffrey M. Rogers
- Real-world Assessment, Prediction, and Treatment Unit, National Institute on Drug Abuse Intramural Research Program, Baltimore, Maryland, United States
| | - Marc T. Swogger
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Rochester Medical Center
| | - David H. Epstein
- Real-world Assessment, Prediction, and Treatment Unit, National Institute on Drug Abuse Intramural Research Program, Baltimore, Maryland, United States
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29
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Zul Aznal AN, Mohamad Nor Hazalin NA, Hassan Z, Mat NH, Chear NJY, Teh LK, Salleh MZ, Suhaimi FW. Adolescent kratom exposure affects cognitive behaviours and brain metabolite profiles in Sprague-Dawley rats. Front Pharmacol 2022; 13:1057423. [PMID: 36518677 PMCID: PMC9744228 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2022.1057423] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/29/2022] [Accepted: 11/17/2022] [Indexed: 08/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Adolescence is a critical developmental period during which exposure to psychoactive substances like kratom (Mitragyna speciosa) can cause long-lasting deleterious effects. Here, we evaluated the effects of mitragynine, the main alkaloid of kratom, and lyophilised kratom decoction (LKD) on cognitive behaviours and brain metabolite profiles in adolescent rats. Male Sprague-Dawley rats (Postnatal day, PND31) were given vehicle, morphine (5 mg/kg), mitragynine (3, 10, or 30 mg/kg), or LKD (equivalent dose of 30 mg/kg mitragynine) for 15 consecutive days. Later, a battery of behavioural testing was conducted, brain was extracted and metabolomic analysis was performed using LCMS-QTOF. The results showed that mitragynine did not affect the recognition memory in the novel object recognition task. In the social interaction task, morphine, mitragynine, and LKD caused a marked deficit in social behaviour, while in Morris water maze task, mitragynine and LKD only affected reference memory. Metabolomic analysis revealed distinct metabolite profiles of animals with different treatments. Several pathways that may be involved in the effects of kratom exposure include arachidonic acid, pantothenate and CoA, and tryptophan pathways, with several potential biomarkers identified. These findings suggest that adolescent kratom exposure can cause cognitive behavioural deficits that may be associated with changes in the brain metabolite profiles.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Nurul Aqmar Mohamad Nor Hazalin
- Integrative Pharmacogenomics Institute (iPROMISE), Universiti Teknologi MARA, Cawangan Selangor, Kampus Puncak Alam, Puncak Alam, Malaysia
| | - Zurina Hassan
- Centre for Drug Research, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Pulau Pinang, Malaysia
| | - Noorul Hamizah Mat
- Centre for Drug Research, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Pulau Pinang, Malaysia
| | | | - Lay Kek Teh
- Integrative Pharmacogenomics Institute (iPROMISE), Universiti Teknologi MARA, Cawangan Selangor, Kampus Puncak Alam, Puncak Alam, Malaysia
| | - Mohd Zaki Salleh
- Integrative Pharmacogenomics Institute (iPROMISE), Universiti Teknologi MARA, Cawangan Selangor, Kampus Puncak Alam, Puncak Alam, Malaysia
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30
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Smith KE, Rogers JM, Strickland JC. Associations of Lifetime Nonmedical Opioid, Methamphetamine, and Kratom Use within a Nationally Representative US Sample. J Psychoactive Drugs 2022; 54:429-439. [PMID: 34842079 PMCID: PMC9148372 DOI: 10.1080/02791072.2021.2006374] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/23/2021] [Revised: 08/23/2021] [Accepted: 09/07/2021] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Co-use of non-medical opioids (NMO) and methamphetamine is increasing. So too is the use of the psychoactive botanical "kratom," including among people with NMO and methamphetamine use histories. We assessed characteristics associated with respondent groups who reported lifetime methamphetamine and/or kratom use within a nationally representative US sample using 2019 National Survey on Drug Use and Health data from respondents reporting lifetime NMO use (diverted prescription opioids, heroin). Weighted prevalence estimates for demographic, mental health, and substance use outcomes were determined. Logistic regression examined associations between group membership and outcomes. Among this sample of respondents with lifetime NMO use, 67.6% (95% CI = 65.6-69.4%) reported only NMO use; 4.6% (3.9-5.4%) reported NMO+Kratom; 24.7% (22.7-26.7%) reported NMO+Methamphetamine; and 3.2% (2.5-3.9%) reported NMO+Methamphetamine+Kratom. Compared to those in the NMO-only group, the NMO+Kratom group was more likely to report past-year serious mental illness (SMI; OR = 2.27), suicidality (OR = 1.89), and past-month psychological distress (OR = 1.88). The NMO+Methamphetamine+Kratom group was more likely to report past-year SMI (OR = 2.65), past-month psychological distress (OR = 2.06), and unmet mental health needs (OR = 2.03); increased odds for drug injection, opioid withdrawal, and perceived treatment need also emerged. Risk factors were observed for all groups but were greatest among those reporting use of all three substances.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kirsten E. Smith
- National Institute on Drug Abuse Intramural Research Program, 251 Bayview Blvd. Baltimore, Maryland 21224, USA
| | - Jeffrey M. Rogers
- National Institute on Drug Abuse Intramural Research Program, 251 Bayview Blvd. Baltimore, Maryland 21224, USA
| | - Justin C. Strickland
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, 5510 Nathan Shock Drive, Baltimore, MD 21224, USA
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Stanciu C, Ahmed S, Gnanasegaram S, Gibson S, Penders T, Grundmann O, McCurdy C. Kratom as an opioid alternative: harm, or harm reduction? A systematic review of literature. THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF DRUG AND ALCOHOL ABUSE 2022; 48:509-528. [PMID: 36001875 DOI: 10.1080/00952990.2022.2111685] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/31/2023]
Abstract
Background: Kratom (Mitragyna speciosa Korth.) products are increasingly endorsed for self-management of multiple ailments, including as opioid substitution. The FDA has expressed that there is no evidence to indicate that this botanical is safe or effective for any medical use.Objective: We systematically review the current state of the literature concerning the impact of kratom and its alkaloids in all paradigms that involve opioids.Methods: A keyword search of online literature databases identified 16 preclinical studies, 25 case reports, and 10 observational studies meeting our pre-selected criteria.Results: All rodent models support alkaloids' action on opioid receptors, translating in their ability to mitigate opioid withdrawal. Some studies found mitragynine (MG) to have less reinforcing properties than morphine, and possessing tolerance-sparing properties when coadministered with morphine. Two studies that assessed 7-hydroxymitragynine (7OHMG) found it to substitute for morphine with potential for tolerance and dependence. Aside from addiction development, case reports outline a variety of confounding toxicities. Ten surveys of users, some conducted with assistance from pro-kratom lobbying organizations, find a high self-reported efficacy as an opioid substitute, with minimal reported adverse effects.Conclusion: With no reported controlled human clinical trials, in the light of rising concerns surrounding kratom's liabilities, there is insufficient evidence to allow any conclusions to be drawn. Case reports and observational studies carry significant bias toward harm and efficacy, respectively. Existing animal studies are heterogeneous in methodology and ultimately findings, with concern for interspecies variability and human translatability. Further research should investigate the safety and efficacy of using kratom alkaloids as opioid substitutes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cornel Stanciu
- New Hampshire Hospital, Psychiatry at Dartmouth's Geisel School of Medicine, Concord, NH, USA
| | - Saeed Ahmed
- Department of Psychiatry, Rutland Regional Medical Centre, Rutland, VT, USA
| | | | - Stephen Gibson
- Pharmacy Department, New Hampshire Hospital, Concord, NH, USA
| | - Thomas Penders
- Department of Addiction, Brody School of Medicine, East Carolina University, Greenville, NC, USA
| | - Oliver Grundmann
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
| | - Christopher McCurdy
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
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Abstract
Kratom is the common term for Mitragyna speciosa and its products. Its major active compounds are mitragynine and 7-hydroxymitragynine. An estimated 2.1 million US residents used kratom in 2020, as a "legal high" and self-medication for pain, opioid withdrawal, and other conditions. Up to 20% of US kratom users report symptoms consistent with kratom use disorder. Kratom use is associated with medical toxicity and death. Causality is difficult to prove as almost all cases involve other psychoactive substances. Daily, high-dose use may result in kratom use disorder and opioid-like withdrawal on cessation of use. These are best treated with buprenorphine.
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Affiliation(s)
- David A Gorelick
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Maryland School of Medicine, PO Box 21247, MPRC-Tawes Building, Baltimore, MD 21228, USA.
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33
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Vandeputte MM, Vasudevan L, Stove CP. In vitro functional assays as a tool to study new synthetic opioids at the μ-opioid receptor: Potential, pitfalls and progress. Pharmacol Ther 2022; 235:108161. [DOI: 10.1016/j.pharmthera.2022.108161] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2021] [Revised: 01/30/2022] [Accepted: 02/14/2022] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
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Grundmann O, Hendrickson RG, Greenberg MI. Kratom: History, pharmacology, current user trends, adverse health effects and potential benefits. Dis Mon 2022; 69:101442. [PMID: 35732553 DOI: 10.1016/j.disamonth.2022.101442] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Kratom (Mitragyna speciosa Korth.) is a tree native to Southeast Asia with dose-dependent stimulant and opioid-like effects. Dried, powdered leaf material is among the kratom products most commonly consumed in the US and Europe, but other formulations also exist including enriched extracts, resins, tinctures, and edibles. Its prevalence in the US remains debated and the use pattern includes self-treatment of mood disorders, pain, and substance use disorders. Most of the adverse effects of kratom and its alkaloid mitragynine have been reported in the literature as case reports or part of surveys necessitating confirmation by clinical trials. Toxicities associated with kratom consumption have focused on hepatic, cardiac, and CNS effects with the potential to cause fatalities primarily as part of polydrug exposures. Kratom may also present with drug-drug interactions primarily through CYP 3A4 and 2D6 inhibition, although the clinical significance remains unknown to date. The variability in composition of commercially available kratom products complicates generalization of findings and requires further investigation by employing clinical trials. Healthcare professionals should remain cautious in counseling patients on the use of kratom in a therapeutic setting.
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Affiliation(s)
- Oliver Grundmann
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, 1345 Center Drive, Room P3-20, Gainesville, FL 32611, United States.
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35
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Smith KE, Dunn KE, Epstein DH, Feldman JD, Garcia-Romeu A, Grundmann O, Henningfield JE, McCurdy CR, Rogers JM, Schriefer D, Singh D, Weiss ST. Need for clarity and context in case reports on kratom use, assessment, and intervention. Subst Abus 2022; 43:1221-1224. [PMID: 35657649 DOI: 10.1080/08897077.2022.2074608] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
This Letter to the Editor is a response to Broyan and colleagues who recently published a Case Report presenting data on 28 patients in the United States who identified kratom as their primary substance of use and who were subsequently induced on buprenorphine/naloxone for a reported diagnosis of kratom use disorder. We applaud the authors for helping to advance the science on kratom and recognize the difficulties in conducting kratom-related clinical assessment and research. However, a number of inconsistences and generalizations were identified in this Case Report, which also lacked some critical context. Importantly, such inconsistencies and generalizations can be observed throughout kratom-specific case reports. We feel this is now an important opportunity to highlight these issues that are present in the Broyan and colleagues Case report but emphasize that they are not unique to it. We do this with the hope that by acknowledging these issues it can help inform editors, clinicians, and researchers who may not be familiar with kratom and, as a result of this unfamiliarity, may inadvertently present findings in a manner that could confuse readers and even misinform clinical researchers and practitioners.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kirsten E Smith
- Translational Addiction Medicine Branch, National Institute on Drug Abuse Intramural Research Program, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Kelly E Dunn
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, The Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - David H Epstein
- Translational Addiction Medicine Branch, National Institute on Drug Abuse Intramural Research Program, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Jeffrey D Feldman
- Translational Addiction Medicine Branch, National Institute on Drug Abuse Intramural Research Program, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Albert Garcia-Romeu
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, The Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Oliver Grundmann
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
| | - Jack E Henningfield
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, The Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA.,Pinney Associates, Inc, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Christopher R McCurdy
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
| | - Jeffrey M Rogers
- Translational Addiction Medicine Branch, National Institute on Drug Abuse Intramural Research Program, Baltimore, MD, USA.,SDSU/UCSD Joint Doctoral Program in Clinical Psychology, San Diego, CA, USA
| | - Destiny Schriefer
- Translational Addiction Medicine Branch, National Institute on Drug Abuse Intramural Research Program, Baltimore, MD, USA.,The Johns Hopkins University Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Darshan Singh
- Centre for Drug Research, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Penang, Malaysia
| | - Stephanie T Weiss
- Translational Addiction Medicine Branch, National Institute on Drug Abuse Intramural Research Program, Baltimore, MD, USA
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36
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Hughes S, van de Klashorst D, Veltri CA, Grundmann O. Acute, Sublethal, and Developmental Toxicity of Kratom ( Mitragyna speciosa Korth.) Leaf Preparations on Caenorhabditis elegans as an Invertebrate Model for Human Exposure. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2022; 19:6294. [PMID: 35627831 PMCID: PMC9140534 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph19106294] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/28/2022] [Revised: 05/12/2022] [Accepted: 05/18/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Kratom (Mitragyna speciosa Korth.) is a tree native to Southeast Asia with stimulant and opioid-like effects which has seen increased use in Europe and North America in recent years. Its safety and pharmacological effects remain under investigation, especially in regard to developmental and generational toxicity. In the current study, we investigated commercial kratom preparations using the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans as a translational model for toxicity and pharmacological effects. The pure alkaloids mitragynine and 7-hydroxymitragynine as well as aqueous, ethanolic, and methanolic extracts of three commercial kratom products were evaluated using a battery of developmental, genotoxic, and opioid-related experiments. As determined previously, the mitragynine and 7-hydroxymitragynine content in kratom samples was higher in the alcoholic extracts than the aqueous extracts. Above the human consumption range equivalent of 15-70 µg/mL, kratom dose-dependently reduced brood size and health of parent worms and their progeny. 7-hydroxymitragynine, but not mitragynine, presented with toxic and developmental effects at very high concentrations, while the positive control, morphine, displayed toxic effects at 0.5 mM. Kratom and its alkaloids did not affect pumping rate or interpump interval in the same way as morphine, suggesting that kratom is unlikely to act primarily via the opioid-signalling pathway. Only at very high doses did kratom cause developmental and genotoxic effects in nematodes, indicating its relative safety.
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Affiliation(s)
- Samantha Hughes
- A-LIFE Amsterdam Institute for Life and Environment, Section Environmental Health and Toxicology, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, 1081 HV Amsterdam, The Netherlands;
| | | | - Charles A. Veltri
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, Midwestern University, Glendale, AZ 85308, USA;
| | - Oliver Grundmann
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, Midwestern University, Glendale, AZ 85308, USA;
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32610, USA
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Swogger MT, Smith KE, Garcia-Romeu A, Grundmann O, Veltri CA, Henningfield JE, Busch LY. Understanding Kratom Use: A Guide for Healthcare Providers. Front Pharmacol 2022; 13:801855. [PMID: 35308216 PMCID: PMC8924421 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2022.801855] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/25/2021] [Accepted: 02/02/2022] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Kratom (Mitragyna speciosa Korth., Rubiaceae) is a plant native to Southeast Asia, where it has been used for centuries as a mild stimulant and as medicine for various ailments. More recently, as kratom has gained popularity in the West, United States federal agencies have raised concerns over its safety leading to criminalization in some states and cities. Some of these safety concerns have echoed across media and broad-based health websites and, in the absence of clinical trials to test kratom’s efficacy and safety, considerable confusion has arisen among healthcare providers. There is, however, a growing literature of peer-reviewed science that can inform healthcare providers so that they are better equipped to discuss kratom use with consumers and people considering kratom use within the context of their overall health and safety, while recognizing that neither kratom nor any of its constituent substances or metabolites have been approved as safe and effective for any disease. An especially important gap in safety-related science is the use of kratom in combination with physiologically active substances and medicines. With these caveats in mind we provide a comprehensive overview of the available science on kratom that has the potential to i clarity for healthcare providers and patients. We conclude by making recommendations for best practices in working with people who use kratom.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marc T Swogger
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Rochester Medical Center, Rochester, NY, United States
| | - Kirsten E Smith
- Translational Addiction Medicine Branch, National Institute on Drug Abuse Intramural Research Program, Baltimore, MD, United States
| | - Albert Garcia-Romeu
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, United States
| | - Oliver Grundmann
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Midwestern University College of Pharmacy, Glendale, AZ, United States.,College of Pharmacy, Department of Medicinal Chemistry, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, United States
| | - Charles A Veltri
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Midwestern University College of Pharmacy, Glendale, AZ, United States
| | - Jack E Henningfield
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, United States.,Pinney Associates, Bethesda, MD, United States
| | - Lorna Y Busch
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Rochester Medical Center, Rochester, NY, United States
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Smith KE, Rogers JM, Dunn KE, Grundmann O, McCurdy CR, Schriefer D, Epstein DH. Searching for a Signal: Self-Reported Kratom Dose-Effect Relationships Among a Sample of US Adults With Regular Kratom Use Histories. Front Pharmacol 2022; 13:765917. [PMID: 35300296 PMCID: PMC8921773 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2022.765917] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/27/2021] [Accepted: 01/31/2022] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
There is limited understanding regarding kratom use among US adults. Although motivations for use are increasingly understood, typical kratom doses, threshold of (low and high) doses for perceived effectiveness, and effects produced during cessation are not well documented. We aimed to extend prior survey work by recruiting adults with current and past kratom exposure. Our goal was to better understand kratom dosing, changes in routines, and perception of effects, including time to onset, duration, and variability of beneficial and adverse outcomes from use and cessation. Among respondents who reported experiencing acute kratom effects, we also sought to determine if effects were perceived as helpful or unhelpful in meeting daily obligations. Finally, we attempted to detect any signal of a relationship between the amount of kratom consumed weekly and weeks of regular use with ratings of beneficial effects from use and ratings of adverse effects from cessation. We conducted an online survey between April-May 2021 by re-recruiting participants from a separate study who reported lifetime kratom use. A total of 129 evaluable surveys were collected. Most (59.7%) had used kratom >100 times and reported currently or having previously used kratom >4 times per week (62 weeks on average). Under half (41.9%) reported that they considered themselves to be a current "regular kratom user." A majority (79.8%) reported experiencing acute effects from their typical kratom dose and that onset of effects began in minutes but dissipated within hours. Over a quarter reported that they had increased their kratom dose since use initiation, whereas 18.6% had decreased. Greater severity of unwanted effects from ≥1 day of kratom cessation was predicted by more weeks of regular kratom use (β = 6.74, p = 0.02). Acute kratom effects were largely reported as compatible with, and sometimes helpful in, meeting daily obligations. In the absence of human laboratory studies, survey methods must be refined to more precisely assess dose-effect relationships. These can help inform the development of controlled observational and experimental studies needed to advance the public health understanding of kratom product use.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kirsten E Smith
- Real-World Assessment, Prediction, and Treatment Unit, National Institute on Drug Abuse Intramural Research Program, Baltimore, MD, United States
| | - Jeffrey M Rogers
- Real-World Assessment, Prediction, and Treatment Unit, National Institute on Drug Abuse Intramural Research Program, Baltimore, MD, United States
| | - Kelly E Dunn
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, United States
| | - Oliver Grundmann
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, United States
| | - Christopher R McCurdy
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, United States
| | - Destiny Schriefer
- Real-World Assessment, Prediction, and Treatment Unit, National Institute on Drug Abuse Intramural Research Program, Baltimore, MD, United States
| | - David H Epstein
- Real-World Assessment, Prediction, and Treatment Unit, National Institute on Drug Abuse Intramural Research Program, Baltimore, MD, United States
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Physiological dependence to mitragynine indicated by a rapid cross-dependence procedure with heroin-dependent mice. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2022; 239:897-908. [PMID: 35107609 DOI: 10.1007/s00213-022-06080-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/03/2021] [Accepted: 01/27/2022] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
The potential of mitragynine to produce physiological dependence (withdrawal) was assessed using a rapid assessment procedure with male ICR mice exposed to heroin-admixed food followed by naloxone (subcutaneously, s.c.) precipitation of withdrawal. Initial studies indicated that 3 days of exposure to 3.0 mg/g of heroin-admixed food followed by naloxone (0.6 mg/kg) reliably precipitated withdrawal jumping and weight loss. Lower concentrations of heroin-admixed food and lower doses of naloxone produced fewer withdrawal signs. A longer exposure to heroin-admixed food did not produce significantly greater amounts of jumping or weight loss. Further, these withdrawal signs were dose-dependently reversed by s.c. administration of heroin immediately following naloxone administration. Mitragynine (s.c.) also dose-dependently suppressed naloxone-precipitated withdrawal signs. Additionally, both jumping and weight loss were suppressed over a comparable range of mitragynine doses when administered by gavage with a noticeably, but not significantly, higher potency than with s.c. administration. The ED50 values for mitragynine for the suppression of withdrawal by any route (354-911 μmol/kg) were greater than the minimally effective dose that decreased locomotor activity (251 μmol/kg) and from 40- to 104-fold greater than those for heroin. The results suggest inherent opioid dependence liability of mitragynine. The in vivo potency relations between mitragynine and heroin are consistent with a conclusion of dependence-producing effects, indicated by the suppression of withdrawal, comparable to standard opioid μ-receptor agonists, differing primarily in terms of potency. The present paper provides a method for the rapid assessment of physiological dependence liability applicable to other kratom plant constituents or any potential opioid dependence-producing agents.
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Karunakaran T, Ngew KZ, Zailan AAD, Mian Jong VY, Abu Bakar MH. The Chemical and Pharmacological Properties of Mitragynine and Its Diastereomers: An Insight Review. Front Pharmacol 2022; 13:805986. [PMID: 35281925 PMCID: PMC8907881 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2022.805986] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2021] [Accepted: 01/24/2022] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Mitragynine, is a naturally occurring indole alkaloid that can be isolated from the leaves of a psychoactive medicinal plant. Mitragyna speciosa, also known as kratom, is found to possess promising analgesic effects on mediating the opioid receptors such as µ (MOR), δ (DOR), and κ (KOR). This alkaloid has therapeutic potential for pain management as it has limited adverse effect compared to a classical opioid, morphine. Mitragynine is frequently regarded to behave like an opioid but possesses milder withdrawal symptoms. The use of this alkaloid as the source of an analgesic candidate has been proven through comprehensive preclinical and clinical studies. The present data have shown that mitragynine is able to bind to opioid receptors, particularly MOR, to exhibit the analgesic effect. Moreover, the chemical and pharmacological aspects of mitragynine and its diastereomers, speciogynine, speciociliatine, and mitraciliatine, are discussed. It is interesting to know how the difference in stereochemical configuration could lead to the difference in the bioactivity of the respective compounds. Hence, in this review, the updated pharmacological and toxicological properties of mitragynine and its diastereomers are discussed to render a comprehensive understanding of the pharmacological properties of mitragynine and its diastereomers based on their structure-activity relationship study.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thiruventhan Karunakaran
- Centre for Drug Research, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Pulau Pinang, Malaysia
- School of Chemical Sciences, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Pulau Pinang, Malaysia
| | - Kok Zhuo Ngew
- Centre for Drug Research, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Pulau Pinang, Malaysia
- School of Chemical Sciences, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Pulau Pinang, Malaysia
| | | | - Vivien Yi Mian Jong
- Centre of Applied Science Studies, Universiti Teknologi MARA, Kuching, Malaysia
| | - Mohamad Hafizi Abu Bakar
- Bioprocess Technology Division, School of Industrial Technology, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Pulau Pinang, Malaysia
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Berthold EC, Kamble SH, Raju KS, Kuntz MA, Senetra AS, Mottinelli M, León F, Restrepo LF, Patel A, Ho NP, Hiranita T, Sharma A, McMahon LR, McCurdy CR. The Lack of Contribution of 7-Hydroxymitragynine to the Antinociceptive Effects of Mitragynine in Mice: A Pharmacokinetic and Pharmacodynamic Study. Drug Metab Dispos 2022; 50:158-167. [PMID: 34759012 PMCID: PMC8969138 DOI: 10.1124/dmd.121.000640] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/12/2020] [Accepted: 11/05/2021] [Indexed: 02/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Kratom (Mitragyna speciosa), a Southeast Asian tree, has been used for centuries in pain relief and mitigation of opium withdrawal symptoms. Mitragynine (MTG), the major kratom alkaloid, is being investigated for its potential to provide analgesia without the deleterious effects associated with typical opioids. Concerns have been raised regarding the active metabolite of MTG, 7-hydroxymitragynine (7HMG), which has higher affinity and efficacy at µ-opioid receptors than MTG. Here we investigated the hotplate antinociception, pharmacokinetics, and tissue distribution of MTG and 7HMG at equianalgesic oral doses in male and female C57BL/6 mice to determine the extent to which 7HMG metabolized from MTG accounts for the antinociceptive effects of MTG and investigate any sex differences. The mechanism of action was examined by performing studies with the opioid receptor antagonist naltrexone. A population pharmacokinetic/pharmacodynamic model was developed to predict the behavioral effects after administration of various doses of MTG and 7HMG. When administered alone, 7HMG was 2.8-fold more potent than MTG to produce antinociception. At equivalent effective doses of MTG and 7HMG, there was a marked difference in the maximum brain concentration of 7HMG achieved, i.e., 11-fold lower as a metabolite of MTG. The brain concentration of 7HMG observed 4 hours post administration, producing an analgesic effect <10%, was still 1.5-fold higher than the maximum concentration of 7HMG as a metabolite of MTG. These results provide strong evidence that 7HMG has a negligible role in the antinociceptive effects of MTG in mice. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT: Mitragynine (MTG) is being investigated for its potential to aid in pain relief, opioid withdrawal syndrome, and opioid use disorder. The active metabolite of MTG, 7-hydroxymitragynine (7HMG), has been shown to have abuse potential and has been implicated in the opioid-like analgesic effect after MTG administration. The results of this study suggest a lack of involvement of 7HMG in the antinociceptive effects of MTG in mice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Erin C Berthold
- Department of Pharmaceutics, College of Pharmacy, (E.C.B., S.H.K., K.S.R., M.A.K., A.S.S., A.S., C.R.M.), Translational Drug Development Core, Clinical and Translational Science Institute (S.H.K., K.S.R., A.S., C.R.M.), Department of Medicinal Chemistry, College of Pharmacy (M.M., F.L., C.R.M.), and Department of Pharmacodynamics, College of Pharmacy, USA (L.F.R., A.P., N.P.H., T.H., L.R.M.) University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida
| | - Shyam H Kamble
- Department of Pharmaceutics, College of Pharmacy, (E.C.B., S.H.K., K.S.R., M.A.K., A.S.S., A.S., C.R.M.), Translational Drug Development Core, Clinical and Translational Science Institute (S.H.K., K.S.R., A.S., C.R.M.), Department of Medicinal Chemistry, College of Pharmacy (M.M., F.L., C.R.M.), and Department of Pharmacodynamics, College of Pharmacy, USA (L.F.R., A.P., N.P.H., T.H., L.R.M.) University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida
| | - Kanumuri S Raju
- Department of Pharmaceutics, College of Pharmacy, (E.C.B., S.H.K., K.S.R., M.A.K., A.S.S., A.S., C.R.M.), Translational Drug Development Core, Clinical and Translational Science Institute (S.H.K., K.S.R., A.S., C.R.M.), Department of Medicinal Chemistry, College of Pharmacy (M.M., F.L., C.R.M.), and Department of Pharmacodynamics, College of Pharmacy, USA (L.F.R., A.P., N.P.H., T.H., L.R.M.) University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida
| | - Michelle A Kuntz
- Department of Pharmaceutics, College of Pharmacy, (E.C.B., S.H.K., K.S.R., M.A.K., A.S.S., A.S., C.R.M.), Translational Drug Development Core, Clinical and Translational Science Institute (S.H.K., K.S.R., A.S., C.R.M.), Department of Medicinal Chemistry, College of Pharmacy (M.M., F.L., C.R.M.), and Department of Pharmacodynamics, College of Pharmacy, USA (L.F.R., A.P., N.P.H., T.H., L.R.M.) University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida
| | - Alexandria S Senetra
- Department of Pharmaceutics, College of Pharmacy, (E.C.B., S.H.K., K.S.R., M.A.K., A.S.S., A.S., C.R.M.), Translational Drug Development Core, Clinical and Translational Science Institute (S.H.K., K.S.R., A.S., C.R.M.), Department of Medicinal Chemistry, College of Pharmacy (M.M., F.L., C.R.M.), and Department of Pharmacodynamics, College of Pharmacy, USA (L.F.R., A.P., N.P.H., T.H., L.R.M.) University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida
| | - Marco Mottinelli
- Department of Pharmaceutics, College of Pharmacy, (E.C.B., S.H.K., K.S.R., M.A.K., A.S.S., A.S., C.R.M.), Translational Drug Development Core, Clinical and Translational Science Institute (S.H.K., K.S.R., A.S., C.R.M.), Department of Medicinal Chemistry, College of Pharmacy (M.M., F.L., C.R.M.), and Department of Pharmacodynamics, College of Pharmacy, USA (L.F.R., A.P., N.P.H., T.H., L.R.M.) University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida
| | - Francisco León
- Department of Pharmaceutics, College of Pharmacy, (E.C.B., S.H.K., K.S.R., M.A.K., A.S.S., A.S., C.R.M.), Translational Drug Development Core, Clinical and Translational Science Institute (S.H.K., K.S.R., A.S., C.R.M.), Department of Medicinal Chemistry, College of Pharmacy (M.M., F.L., C.R.M.), and Department of Pharmacodynamics, College of Pharmacy, USA (L.F.R., A.P., N.P.H., T.H., L.R.M.) University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida
| | - Luis F Restrepo
- Department of Pharmaceutics, College of Pharmacy, (E.C.B., S.H.K., K.S.R., M.A.K., A.S.S., A.S., C.R.M.), Translational Drug Development Core, Clinical and Translational Science Institute (S.H.K., K.S.R., A.S., C.R.M.), Department of Medicinal Chemistry, College of Pharmacy (M.M., F.L., C.R.M.), and Department of Pharmacodynamics, College of Pharmacy, USA (L.F.R., A.P., N.P.H., T.H., L.R.M.) University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida
| | - Avi Patel
- Department of Pharmaceutics, College of Pharmacy, (E.C.B., S.H.K., K.S.R., M.A.K., A.S.S., A.S., C.R.M.), Translational Drug Development Core, Clinical and Translational Science Institute (S.H.K., K.S.R., A.S., C.R.M.), Department of Medicinal Chemistry, College of Pharmacy (M.M., F.L., C.R.M.), and Department of Pharmacodynamics, College of Pharmacy, USA (L.F.R., A.P., N.P.H., T.H., L.R.M.) University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida
| | - Nicholas P Ho
- Department of Pharmaceutics, College of Pharmacy, (E.C.B., S.H.K., K.S.R., M.A.K., A.S.S., A.S., C.R.M.), Translational Drug Development Core, Clinical and Translational Science Institute (S.H.K., K.S.R., A.S., C.R.M.), Department of Medicinal Chemistry, College of Pharmacy (M.M., F.L., C.R.M.), and Department of Pharmacodynamics, College of Pharmacy, USA (L.F.R., A.P., N.P.H., T.H., L.R.M.) University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida
| | - Takato Hiranita
- Department of Pharmaceutics, College of Pharmacy, (E.C.B., S.H.K., K.S.R., M.A.K., A.S.S., A.S., C.R.M.), Translational Drug Development Core, Clinical and Translational Science Institute (S.H.K., K.S.R., A.S., C.R.M.), Department of Medicinal Chemistry, College of Pharmacy (M.M., F.L., C.R.M.), and Department of Pharmacodynamics, College of Pharmacy, USA (L.F.R., A.P., N.P.H., T.H., L.R.M.) University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida
| | - Abhisheak Sharma
- Department of Pharmaceutics, College of Pharmacy, (E.C.B., S.H.K., K.S.R., M.A.K., A.S.S., A.S., C.R.M.), Translational Drug Development Core, Clinical and Translational Science Institute (S.H.K., K.S.R., A.S., C.R.M.), Department of Medicinal Chemistry, College of Pharmacy (M.M., F.L., C.R.M.), and Department of Pharmacodynamics, College of Pharmacy, USA (L.F.R., A.P., N.P.H., T.H., L.R.M.) University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida
| | - Lance R McMahon
- Department of Pharmaceutics, College of Pharmacy, (E.C.B., S.H.K., K.S.R., M.A.K., A.S.S., A.S., C.R.M.), Translational Drug Development Core, Clinical and Translational Science Institute (S.H.K., K.S.R., A.S., C.R.M.), Department of Medicinal Chemistry, College of Pharmacy (M.M., F.L., C.R.M.), and Department of Pharmacodynamics, College of Pharmacy, USA (L.F.R., A.P., N.P.H., T.H., L.R.M.) University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida
| | - Christopher R McCurdy
- Department of Pharmaceutics, College of Pharmacy, (E.C.B., S.H.K., K.S.R., M.A.K., A.S.S., A.S., C.R.M.), Translational Drug Development Core, Clinical and Translational Science Institute (S.H.K., K.S.R., A.S., C.R.M.), Department of Medicinal Chemistry, College of Pharmacy (M.M., F.L., C.R.M.), and Department of Pharmacodynamics, College of Pharmacy, USA (L.F.R., A.P., N.P.H., T.H., L.R.M.) University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida
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Henningfield JE, Wang DW, Huestis MA. Kratom Abuse Potential 2021: An Updated Eight Factor Analysis. Front Pharmacol 2022; 12:775073. [PMID: 35197848 PMCID: PMC8860177 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2021.775073] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/13/2021] [Accepted: 11/22/2021] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Drugs are regulated in the United States (US) by the Controlled Substances Act (CSA) if assessment of their abuse potential, including public health risks, show such control is warranted. An evaluation via the 8 factors of the CSA provides the comprehensive assessment required for permanent listing of new chemical entities and previously uncontrolled substances. Such an assessment was published for two kratom alkaloids in 2018 that the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) have identified as candidates for CSA listing: mitragynine (MG) and 7-hydroxymitragynine (7-OH-MG) (Henningfield et al., 2018a). That assessment concluded the abuse potential of MG was within the range of many other uncontrolled substances, that there was not evidence of an imminent risk to public health, and that a Schedule I listing (the only option for substances that are not FDA approved for therapeutic use such as kratom) carried public health risks including drug overdoses by people using kratom to abstain from opioids. The purpose of this review is to provide an updated abuse potential assessment reviewing greater than 100 studies published since January 1, 2018. These include studies of abuse potential and physical dependence/withdrawal in animals; in-vitro receptor binding; assessments of potential efficacy treating pain and substance use disorders; pharmacokinetic/pharmacodynamic studies with safety-related findings; clinical studies of long-term users with various physiological endpoints; and surveys of patterns and reasons for use and associated effects including dependence and withdrawal. Findings from these studies suggest that public health is better served by assuring continued access to kratom products by consumers and researchers. Currently, Kratom alkaloids and derivatives are in development as safer and/or more effective medicines for treating pain, substances use disorders, and mood disorders. Placing kratom in the CSA via scheduling would criminalize consumers and possession, seriously impede research, and can be predicted to have serious adverse public health consequences, including potentially thousands of drug overdose deaths. Therefore, CSA listing is not recommended. Regulation to minimize risks of contaminated, adulterated, and inappropriately marketed products is recommended.
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Grundmann O, Veltri CA, Morcos D, Knightes D, Smith KE, Rogers JM. How essential is kratom availability and use during COVID-19? Use pattern analysis based on survey and social media data. Subst Abus 2022; 43:865-877. [PMID: 35179453 PMCID: PMC9808747 DOI: 10.1080/08897077.2021.2007517] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
Background: Kratom, a tree native to Southeast Asia, is increasingly used in Western countries for self-treatment of pain, psychiatric disorders, and mitigation of withdrawal symptoms from drugs of abuse. Because kratom is solely supplied from its native locations, supply shortages during the COVID-19 pandemic may impact the availability of preparations and hence force consumers to change their patterns of use. The aim of this study was to understand if and how COVID-19 was influencing kratom purchasing and use. Methods: Additional questions specific to kratom availability and changes in use during COVID-19 were added to an international online survey with responses collected between January and July 2020. During the same period, kratom-related social media posts to Twitter, Reddit, and Bluelight were analyzed for themes similar to the survey questions. Results: The survey results indicated no changes in kratom use patterns although the sample size was relatively small (n = 70) with younger consumers reporting a potential issue in obtaining their desired products from their usual sources. The survey respondents identified primarily as non-Hispanic whites (87.1%). Social media themes revolved primarily around quitting kratom during COVID-19, misinformation about the effects of kratom on COVID-19, and other non-COVID-related discussions. While some consumers may increase their kratom dose because of additional stress, a majority of discussions centered around reducing or rationing kratom due to COVID-19 or a perceived dependence. Access to quality kratom products was also a major discussion topic on social media. Conclusions: Kratom use patterns did not change due to COVID-19 but consumers were concerned about potential product shortages and resulting quality issues. Clinicians and public health officials need to be informed and educated about kratom use as a potential mitigation strategy for substance use disorders and for self-treatment of pain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Oliver Grundmann
- College of Pharmacy, Department of Medicinal Chemistry, University of Florida, FL 32611, USA.,College of Pharmacy, Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Midwestern University, Glendale, AZ, 85308, USA
| | - Charles A. Veltri
- College of Pharmacy, Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Midwestern University, Glendale, AZ, 85308, USA
| | - Diana Morcos
- College of Pharmacy, Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Midwestern University, Glendale, AZ, 85308, USA
| | - David Knightes
- College of Pharmacy, Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Midwestern University, Glendale, AZ, 85308, USA
| | - Kirsten E. Smith
- National Institute on Drug Abuse Intramural Research Program, 251 Bayview Blvd. Baltimore, MD 21224, USA
| | - Jeffery M. Rogers
- National Institute on Drug Abuse Intramural Research Program, 251 Bayview Blvd. Baltimore, MD 21224, USA
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Respiratory effects of oral mitragynine and oxycodone in a rodent model. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2022; 239:3793-3804. [PMID: 36308562 PMCID: PMC9671979 DOI: 10.1007/s00213-022-06244-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/18/2022] [Accepted: 09/20/2022] [Indexed: 10/31/2022]
Abstract
RATIONALE Kratom derives from Mitragyna speciosa (Korth.), a tropical tree in the genus Mitragyna (Rubiaceae) that also includes the coffee tree. Kratom leaf powders, tea-like decoctions, and commercial extracts are taken orally, primarily for health and well-being by millions of people globally. Others take kratom to eliminate opioid use for analgesia and manage opioid withdrawal and use disorder. There is debate over the possible respiratory depressant overdose risk of the primary active alkaloid, mitragynine, a partial μ-opioid receptor agonist, that does not signal through ß-arrestin, the primary opioid respiratory depressant pathway. OBJECTIVES Compare the respiratory effects of oral mitragynine to oral oxycodone in rats with the study design previously published by US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) scientists for evaluating the respiratory effects of opioids (Xu et al., Toxicol Rep 7:188-197, 2020). METHODS Blood gases, observable signs, and mitragynine pharmacokinetics were assessed for 12 h after 20, 40, 80, 240, and 400 mg/kg oral mitragynine isolate and 6.75, 60, and 150 mg/kg oral oxycodone hydrochloride. FINDINGS Oxycodone administration produced significant dose-related respiratory depressant effects and pronounced sedation with one death each at 60 and 150 mg/kg. Mitragynine did not yield significant dose-related respiratory depressant or life-threatening effects. Sedative-like effects, milder than produced by oxycodone, were evident at the highest mitragynine dose. Maximum oxycodone and mitragynine plasma concentrations were dose related. CONCLUSIONS Consistent with mitragynine's pharmacology that includes partial µ-opioid receptor agonism with little recruitment of the respiratory depressant activating β-arrestin pathway, mitragynine produced no evidence of respiratory depression at doses many times higher than known to be taken by humans.
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Harun N, Azzalia Kamaruzaman N, Mohamed Sofian Z, Hassan Z. Mini Review: Potential Therapeutic Values of Mitragynine as an Opioid Substitution Therapy. Neurosci Lett 2022; 773:136500. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neulet.2022.136500] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/01/2021] [Revised: 12/29/2021] [Accepted: 01/27/2022] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
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Rogers JM, Smith KE, Schriefer D, Epstein DH. For Better or Worse: Self-reported Changes in Kratom and Other Substance Use as a Result of the COVID-19 Pandemic. Subst Abuse 2022; 16:11782218221123977. [PMID: 36199697 PMCID: PMC9527987 DOI: 10.1177/11782218221123977] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/05/2022] [Accepted: 08/10/2022] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Abstract
Background: Kratom is taken to self-treat pain and symptoms of psychiatric disorders, including substance-use disorders (SUDs) and opioid withdrawal. Before COVID-19, kratom use was increasing in the US, however, there are few published data on whether that trend continued during the COVID-19 pandemic, which could have affected kratom use in multiple ways. Aim: To examine COVID-19-related changes in kratom use and how these changes were experienced, relative to changes in other commonly used substances. Methods: Using Amazon Mechanical Turk, 2615 evaluable surveys were completed between September 2020 and March 2021. Responses from past-month and past-year kratom-using adults (N = 174) indicating changes for the better or worse were examined using generalized linear mixed effects models, and relevant open-text responses (n = 85) were thematically coded. Results: For kratom 33% (n = 58) reported a Covid-related increase and 24% (n = 42) reported a Covid-related decrease. Controlling for changes in amount used, alcohol (OR = 5.02), tobacco (OR = 4.72), and nonmedical opioid use (OR = 3.42) were all more likely to have changed for the worse, compared with kratom use. Relative to decreases in kratom use, decreases in alcohol (OR = 3.21) and tobacco (OR = 6.18) use were more likely to be changes for the better. Cannabis use was the only substance to display a probability lower than 50% of being a decrease for the better, and of the increases, cannabis use displayed the highest probability of being for the better. Conclusions: Increases in kratom and cannabis use were less likely than alcohol and tobacco to be reported as changes for the worse, and decreases in kratom and cannabis use were more likely than alcohol and tobacco to be reported as changes for the better. These findings indicate that people differently conceptualize their relationships with kratom and cannabis, compared to their relationships with alcohol and tobacco.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeffrey M Rogers
- National Institute on Drug Abuse Intramural Research Program, Baltimore, MD, USA
- San Diego State University/University of California San Diego Joint Doctoral Program in Clinical Psychology, San Diego, CA, USA
| | - Kirsten E Smith
- National Institute on Drug Abuse Intramural Research Program, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Destiny Schriefer
- National Institute on Drug Abuse Intramural Research Program, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - David H Epstein
- National Institute on Drug Abuse Intramural Research Program, Baltimore, MD, USA
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47
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Rogers JM, Smith KE, Strickland JC, Epstein DH. Kratom Use in the US: Both a Regional Phenomenon and a White Middle-Class Phenomenon? Evidence From NSDUH 2019 and an Online Convenience Sample. Front Pharmacol 2021; 12:789075. [PMID: 34987402 PMCID: PMC8721145 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2021.789075] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/04/2021] [Accepted: 11/18/2021] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
Kratom products available in the United States are becoming increasingly diverse both in terms of content and in terms of how they are marketed. Prior survey research indicates that kratom has been primarily used in the US to self-treat anxiety, depression, pain, fatigue, and substance use disorder (SUD) symptoms. Kratom is also well-known for its use as a short- or long-term full opioid agonist substitute. Therefore, use may be greater in regions particularly impacted by addiction to prescription opioids. Use may also be greater in demographic groups targeted by media outlets (such as specific podcasts) in which kratom is touted. Here, we aimed to determine whether lifetime and past-year kratom use were associated with region of residence and with being young, White, post-secondary educated, and employed. To strengthen confidence in our findings, we analyzed data from two sources: our own crowdsourced online convenience sample and the 2019 National Survey on Drug Use and Health (NSDUH). In our sample (N = 2,615), 11.1% reported lifetime and 6.7% reported past-year kratom use, and the odds of kratom use were higher among people who were White, younger, at least high school educated, employed, and above the poverty line, as well as those reporting nonmedical opioid use, past-year SUD, or lifetime SUD treatment; residence was not a significant predictor. In NSDUH data, suburban residence and other demographic factors, concordant with those from the crowdsourced sample, were associated with kratom use. Taken together, the findings support a general "White middle-class suburban" profile of the modal kratom user, but more research is needed to understand it. In the interim, focus should be on our finding that lifetime nonmedical opioid use was associated with an up to five times greater likelihood of past-year kratom use, suggesting that drug-use history may presently be the strongest predictor of kratom use.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeffrey M. Rogers
- Real-world Assessment, Prediction, and Treatment Unit, National Institute on Drug Abuse Intramural Research Program, Baltimore, MD, United States
| | - Kirsten E. Smith
- Real-world Assessment, Prediction, and Treatment Unit, National Institute on Drug Abuse Intramural Research Program, Baltimore, MD, United States
| | - Justin C. Strickland
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, United States
| | - David H. Epstein
- Real-world Assessment, Prediction, and Treatment Unit, National Institute on Drug Abuse Intramural Research Program, Baltimore, MD, United States
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48
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Hiranita T, Obeng S, Sharma A, Wilkerson JL, McCurdy CR, McMahon LR. In vitro and in vivo pharmacology of kratom. ADVANCES IN PHARMACOLOGY (SAN DIEGO, CALIF.) 2021; 93:35-76. [PMID: 35341571 DOI: 10.1016/bs.apha.2021.10.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Kratom products have been historically and anecdotally used in south Asian countries for centuries to manage pain and opioid withdrawal. The use of kratom products has dramatically increased in the United States. More than 45 kratom alkaloids have been isolated, yet the overall pharmacology of the individual alkaloids is still not well characterized. The purpose of this chapter is to summarize in vitro and in vivo opioid activities of the primary kratom alkaloid mitragynine and its more potent metabolite 7-hydroxymitragynine. Following are experimental procedures described to characterize opioid receptor activity; receptor binding and functional assays, antinociceptive assays, operant conditioning assays, and respiratory plethysmography. The capacity of kratom alkaloids to confer tolerance and physical dependence as well as their pharmacokinetic properties are also summarized. The data reviewed here suggest that kratom products and mitragynine possess low efficacy agonist activity at the mu-opioid receptor in vivo. In addition, kratom products and mitragynine have been demonstrated to antagonize the effects of high efficacy mu-opioid agonists. The data further suggest that 7-hydroxymitragynine formed in vivo by metabolism of mitragynine may be minimally involved in the overall behavioral profile of mitragynine and kratom, whereas 7-hydroxymitragynine itself, at sufficiently high doses administered exogenously, shares many of the same abuse- and dependence-related behavioral effects associated with traditional opioid agonists. The apparent low efficacy of kratom products and mitragynine at mu-opioid receptors supports the development of these ligands as effective and potentially safe medications for opioid use disorder.
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Affiliation(s)
- Takato Hiranita
- Department of Pharmacodynamics, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, United States
| | - Samuel Obeng
- Department of Pharmacodynamics, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, United States; Department of Medicinal Chemistry, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, United States
| | - Abhisheak Sharma
- Department of Pharmaceutics, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, United States; Translational Drug Development Core, Clinical and Translational Sciences Institute, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, United States
| | - Jenny L Wilkerson
- Department of Pharmacodynamics, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, United States
| | - Christopher R McCurdy
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, United States; Department of Pharmaceutics, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, United States; Translational Drug Development Core, Clinical and Translational Sciences Institute, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, United States
| | - Lance R McMahon
- Department of Pharmacodynamics, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, United States.
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49
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Chakraborty S, Uprety R, Slocum ST, Irie T, Le Rouzic V, Li X, Wilson LL, Scouller B, Alder AF, Kruegel AC, Ansonoff M, Varadi A, Eans SO, Hunkele A, Allaoa A, Kalra S, Xu J, Pan YX, Pintar J, Kivell BM, Pasternak GW, Cameron MD, McLaughlin JP, Sames D, Majumdar S. Oxidative Metabolism as a Modulator of Kratom's Biological Actions. J Med Chem 2021; 64:16553-16572. [PMID: 34783240 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jmedchem.1c01111] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
The leaves of Mitragyna speciosa (kratom), a plant native to Southeast Asia, are increasingly used as a pain reliever and for attenuation of opioid withdrawal symptoms. Using the tools of natural products chemistry, chemical synthesis, and pharmacology, we provide a detailed in vitro and in vivo pharmacological characterization of the alkaloids in kratom. We report that metabolism of kratom's major alkaloid, mitragynine, in mice leads to formation of (a) a potent mu opioid receptor agonist antinociceptive agent, 7-hydroxymitragynine, through a CYP3A-mediated pathway, which exhibits reinforcing properties, inhibition of gastrointestinal (GI) transit and reduced hyperlocomotion, (b) a multifunctional mu agonist/delta-kappa antagonist, mitragynine pseudoindoxyl, through a CYP3A-mediated skeletal rearrangement, displaying reduced hyperlocomotion, inhibition of GI transit and reinforcing properties, and (c) a potentially toxic metabolite, 3-dehydromitragynine, through a non-CYP oxidation pathway. Our results indicate that the oxidative metabolism of the mitragynine template beyond 7-hydroxymitragynine may have implications in its overall pharmacology in vivo.
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Affiliation(s)
- Soumen Chakraborty
- Center for Clinical Pharmacology, University of Health Sciences & Pharmacy and Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri 63110, United States
| | - Rajendra Uprety
- Department of Neurology and Molecular Pharmacology, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York 10065, United States
| | - Samuel T Slocum
- Department of Pharmacology, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27599, United States
| | - Takeshi Irie
- Department of Anesthesiology and Critical Care Medicine, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York 10065, United States
| | - Valerie Le Rouzic
- Department of Neurology and Molecular Pharmacology, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York 10065, United States
| | - Xiaohai Li
- Department of Molecular Therapeutics, Scripps Research Institute, Jupiter, Florida 33458, United States
| | - Lisa L Wilson
- Department of Pharmacodynamics, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32610, United States
| | - Brittany Scouller
- Centre for Biodiscovery, School of Biological Science, Victoria University of Wellington, Wellington 6012, New Zealand
| | - Amy F Alder
- Centre for Biodiscovery, School of Biological Science, Victoria University of Wellington, Wellington 6012, New Zealand
| | - Andrew C Kruegel
- Department of Chemistry, Columbia University, New York 10027, United States
| | - Michael Ansonoff
- Department of Neuroscience and Cell Biology, Rutgers Robert Wood Johnson Medical School, Piscataway, New Jersey 08854-8021, United States
| | - Andras Varadi
- Department of Neurology and Molecular Pharmacology, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York 10065, United States
| | - Shainnel O Eans
- Department of Pharmacodynamics, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32610, United States
| | - Amanda Hunkele
- Department of Neurology and Molecular Pharmacology, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York 10065, United States
| | - Abdullah Allaoa
- Department of Neurology and Molecular Pharmacology, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York 10065, United States
| | - Sanjay Kalra
- Department of Neurology and Molecular Pharmacology, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York 10065, United States
| | - Jin Xu
- Department of Neurology and Molecular Pharmacology, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York 10065, United States
| | - Ying Xian Pan
- Department of Neurology and Molecular Pharmacology, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York 10065, United States
| | - John Pintar
- Department of Neuroscience and Cell Biology, Rutgers Robert Wood Johnson Medical School, Piscataway, New Jersey 08854-8021, United States
| | - Bronwyn M Kivell
- Centre for Biodiscovery, School of Biological Science, Victoria University of Wellington, Wellington 6012, New Zealand
| | - Gavril W Pasternak
- Department of Neurology and Molecular Pharmacology, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York 10065, United States
| | - Michael D Cameron
- Department of Molecular Therapeutics, Scripps Research Institute, Jupiter, Florida 33458, United States
| | - Jay P McLaughlin
- Department of Pharmacodynamics, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32610, United States
| | - Dalibor Sames
- Department of Chemistry, Columbia University, New York 10027, United States
| | - Susruta Majumdar
- Center for Clinical Pharmacology, University of Health Sciences & Pharmacy and Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri 63110, United States
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50
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Gutridge AM, Chakraborty S, Varga BR, Rhoda ES, French AR, Blaine AT, Royer QH, Cui H, Yuan J, Cassell RJ, Szabó M, Majumdar S, van Rijn RM. Evaluation of Kratom Opioid Derivatives as Potential Treatment Option for Alcohol Use Disorder. Front Pharmacol 2021; 12:764885. [PMID: 34803709 PMCID: PMC8596301 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2021.764885] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/26/2021] [Accepted: 10/08/2021] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Background and Purpose:Mitragyna speciosa extract and kratom alkaloids decrease alcohol consumption in mice at least in part through actions at the δ-opioid receptor (δOR). However, the most potent opioidergic kratom alkaloid, 7-hydroxymitragynine, exhibits rewarding properties and hyperlocomotion presumably due to preferred affinity for the mu opioid receptor (µOR). We hypothesized that opioidergic kratom alkaloids like paynantheine and speciogynine with reduced µOR potency could provide a starting point for developing opioids with an improved therapeutic window to treat alcohol use disorder. Experimental Approach: We characterized paynantheine, speciociliatine, and four novel kratom-derived analogs for their ability to bind and activate δOR, µOR, and κOR. Select opioids were assessed in behavioral assays in male C57BL/6N WT and δOR knockout mice. Key Results: Paynantheine (10 mg∙kg−1, i.p.) produced aversion in a limited conditioned place preference (CPP) paradigm but did not produce CPP with additional conditioning sessions. Paynantheine did not produce robust antinociception but did block morphine-induced antinociception and hyperlocomotion. Yet, at 10 and 30 mg∙kg−1 doses (i.p.), paynantheine did not counteract morphine CPP. 7-hydroxypaynantheine and 7-hydroxyspeciogynine displayed potency at δOR but limited µOR potency relative to 7-hydroxymitragynine in vitro, and dose-dependently decreased voluntary alcohol consumption in WT but not δOR in KO mice. 7-hydroxyspeciogynine has a maximally tolerated dose of at least 10 mg∙kg−1 (s.c.) at which it did not produce significant CPP neither alter general locomotion nor induce noticeable seizures. Conclusion and Implications: Derivatizing kratom alkaloids with the goal of enhancing δOR potency and reducing off-target effects could provide a pathway to develop novel lead compounds to treat alcohol use disorder with an improved therapeutic window.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna M Gutridge
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry and Molecular Pharmacology, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, United States
| | - Soumen Chakraborty
- Center for Clinical Pharmacology, University of Heath Sciences and Pharmacy at St. Louis and Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, United States
| | - Balazs R Varga
- Center for Clinical Pharmacology, University of Heath Sciences and Pharmacy at St. Louis and Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, United States
| | - Elizabeth S Rhoda
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry and Molecular Pharmacology, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, United States
| | - Alexander R French
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry and Molecular Pharmacology, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, United States.,Purdue Institute for Integrative Neuroscience, West Lafayette, IN, United States
| | - Arryn T Blaine
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry and Molecular Pharmacology, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, United States
| | - Quinten H Royer
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry and Molecular Pharmacology, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, United States
| | - Haoyue Cui
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry and Molecular Pharmacology, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, United States
| | - Jinling Yuan
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry and Molecular Pharmacology, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, United States
| | - Robert J Cassell
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry and Molecular Pharmacology, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, United States.,Purdue Institute for Drug Discovery, West Lafayette, IN, United States
| | | | - Susruta Majumdar
- Center for Clinical Pharmacology, University of Heath Sciences and Pharmacy at St. Louis and Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, United States
| | - Richard M van Rijn
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry and Molecular Pharmacology, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, United States.,Purdue Institute for Integrative Neuroscience, West Lafayette, IN, United States.,Purdue Institute for Drug Discovery, West Lafayette, IN, United States
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