International Union of Pharmacology. LXVIII. Mammalian bombesin receptors: nomenclature, distribution, pharmacology, signaling, and functions in normal and disease states

Discovery and functional characterization of a bombesin-type neuropeptide signaling system in an invertebrate

Neuropeptide signaling systems are key regulators of physiological and behavioral processes in animals. However, the evolutionary history of some neuropeptides originally discovered in vertebrates is unknown. The peptide bombesin (BN) was first isolated from the skin of the toad Bombina bombina and subsequently BN-related neuropeptides have been identified in other chordates, including gastrin-releasing peptide (GRP) and neuromedin B (NMB) in mammals, and a GRP-like peptide in the cephalochordate Branchiostoma japonicum. However, BN-type neuropeptides have hitherto not been identified in any nonchordate animals. Here, we report the discovery and functional characterization of a BN-type neuropeptide signaling system in an echinoderm-the starfish Asterias rubens. BN-type precursor proteins were identified in several echinoderm species based on their amino acid sequences and gene structures, and the mature structure of the A. rubens BN-type neuropeptide ArBN was determined using mass spectrometry. A protein related to vertebrate GRP/NMB-type G protein-coupled receptors was identified experimentally as the receptor for ArBN in A. rubens. Analysis of the distribution of the ArBN precursor in A. rubens using mRNA in situ hybridization and immunohistochemistry revealed a widespread pattern of expression in the central nervous system, digestive system, and locomotory organs. Moreover, effects of ArBN in A. rubens included contraction and retraction of the evertible stomach and inhibition of feeding behavior. Our findings show that the evolutionary history of BN-type neuropeptide signaling can be traced back to the deuterostome common ancestor of echinoderms and chordates. Furthermore, an ancient role of BN-type neuropeptides as regulators of feeding behavior has been revealed.

Biased signaling in drug discovery and precision medicine

Receptors are crucial for converting chemical and environmental signals into cellular responses, making them prime targets in drug discovery, with about 70% of drugs targeting these receptors. Biased signaling, or functional selectivity, has revolutionized drug development by enabling precise modulation of receptor signaling pathways. This concept is more firmly established in G protein-coupled receptor and has now been applied to other receptor types, including ion channels, receptor tyrosine kinases, and nuclear receptors. Advances in structural biology have further refined our understanding of biased signaling. This targeted approach enhances therapeutic efficacy and potentially reduces side effects. Numerous biased drugs have been developed and approved as therapeutics to treat various diseases, demonstrating their significant therapeutic potential. This review provides a comprehensive overview of biased signaling in drug discovery and disease treatment, highlighting recent advancements and exploring the therapeutic potential of these innovative modulators across various diseases.

Gastrin-releasing peptide receptor: a promising new biomarker to identify cervical precursor lesions and cancer

Objective

This study aimed to verify the relation between gastrin-releasing peptide receptor (GRPR), oncogenic Human Papillomavirus (HPV) and cervical lesions severity.

Methods

GRPR mRNA levels were evaluated in cervical cancer-derived cell lines and in primary keratinocytes expressing HPV16 oncogenes by RT-PCR. GRPR protein expression was assessed by immunohistochemistry in organotypic cell cultures derived from keratinocytes transduced with HPV16 oncogenes and in 208 cervical samples, including 59 non-neoplastic tissue, 28 cervical intraepithelial neoplasia grade 3 (CIN3), 44 squamous cell carcinomas (SCC) and 77 adenocarcinomas (ADC). Generic primers (GP5+/GP6+) were used to identify HPV infection in tissue samples. Experiments involving cell lines were analyzed through non-parametric tests (Kruskal Wallis), and Fisher's Exact Test for human tissues samples. All statistical tests were considered significant at p <0.05. Immunohistochemical evaluation was conducted independently and blindly by two observers (AD- LO). Any discordant findings were resolved through discussion to reach a consensus score.

Results

GRPR mRNA levels were not increased in cells expressing HPV16 or HPV18 oncogenes. However, at the protein level, GRPR was upregulated in organotypic cell cultures containing HPV oncogenes. Besides, it was identified an association between GRPR expression and cervical lesion severity (p < 0.0001). The detection rate of high-risk HPV DNA was directly correlated with cervical disease. Nonetheless, HPV infection was not directly associated with GRPR in cervical samples.

Conclusion

GRPR expression is highly predictive of cervical lesion severity, irrespective of HPV infection and might contribute to improving patient's therapeutic management as well as being used a marker of disease progression.

Is It Possible to Regenerate the Underactive Detrusor? Part 1. Molecular and Stem Cell Therapies Targeting the Urinary Bladder and Neural Axis - ICI-RS 2024

INTRODUCTION

Detrusor muscle weakness is commonly noted on urodynamics in patients with refractory voiding difficulty. No approved therapies have been proven to augment the strength of a detrusor voiding contraction.

METHODS

This subject was discussed by a think-tank at the International Consultation on Incontinence- Research Society (ICI-RS) meeting held in Bristol, June 2024. The discussions of the think-tank are being published in two parts. This first part discusses molecular and stem cell therapies targeting the urinary bladder and the neural axis.

RESULTS

Senescence of the urothelium and extracellular ATP acting through P2X3 receptors might be important in detrusor underactivity. Several molecules such as parasympathomimetics, acotiamide, ASP8302, neurokinin-2 agonists have been explored but none has shown unequivocal clinical benefit. Different stem cell therapy approaches have been used, chiefly in neurogenic dysfunction, with some studies showing benefit. Molecular targets for the neural axis have included TRPV-4, Bombesin, and serotoninergic receptors and TAC-302 which induces neurite growth.

CONCLUSIONS

Several options are currently being pursued in the search for an elusive molecular or stem cell option for enhancing the power of the detrusor muscle. These encompass a wide range of approaches that target each aspect of the contraction mechanism including the urothelium of bladder and urethra, myocyte, and neural pathways. While none of these have shown unequivocal clinical utility, some appear promising. Lessons from other fields of medicine might prove instructive.

CLINICAL TRIAL REGISTRATION

Not necessary. Not a clinical trial.

Synthesis and Evaluation of 68Ga- and 177Lu-Labeled [diF-Pro14]Bombesin(6-14) Analogs for Detection and Radioligand Therapy of Gastrin-Releasing Peptide Receptor-Expressing Cancer

Background/Objectives: Overexpressed in various solid tumors, the gastrin-releasing peptide receptor (GRPR) is a promising target for cancer diagnosis and therapy. However, the high pancreas uptake of the current clinically evaluated GRPR-targeted radiopharmaceuticals limits their applications. In this study, we replaced the Pro14 residue in our previously reported GRPR-targeted LW02056 and ProBOMB5 with 4,4-difluoroproline (diF-Pro) to obtain an agonist LW02060 (DOTA-Pip-[D-Phe6,Tle10,NMe-His12,diF-Pro14]Bombesin(6-14)) and an antagonist LW02080 (DOTA-Pip-[D-Phe6,NMe-Gly11,Leu13(ψ)diF-Pro14]Bombesin(6-14)), respectively. Methods/Results: The binding affinities (Ki) of Ga-LW02060, Ga-LW02080, Lu-LW02060, and Lu-LW02080 were measured by in vitro competition binding assays using PC-3 cells and were found to be 5.57 ± 2.47, 21.7 ± 6.69, 8.00 ± 2.61, and 32.1 ± 8.14 nM, respectively. The 68Ga- and 177Lu-labeled ligands were obtained in 36-75% decay-corrected radiochemical yields with >95% radiochemical purity. PET imaging, SPECT imaging, and ex vivo biodistribution studies were conducted in PC-3 tumor-bearing mice. Both [68Ga]Ga-LW02060 and [68Ga]Ga-LW02080 enabled clear tumor visualization in PET images at 1 h post-injection (pi). Tumor uptake values of [68Ga]Ga-LW02060 and [68Ga]Ga-LW02080 at 1 h pi were 16.8 ± 2.70 and 7.36 ± 1.33 %ID/g, respectively, while their pancreas uptake values were 3.12 ± 0.89 and 0.38 ± 0.04 %ID/g, respectively. Compared to [177Lu]Lu-LW02080, [177Lu]Lu-LW02060 showed higher tumor uptake at all time points (1, 4, 24, 72, and 120 h pi). However, fast tumor clearance was observed for both [177Lu]Lu-LW02060 and [177Lu]Lu-LW02080. Conclusions: Our data demonstrate that [68Ga]Ga-LW02060 is promising for clinical translation for the detection of GRPR-expressing tumor lesions. However, further optimizations are needed for [177Lu]Lu-LW02060 and [177Lu]Lu-LW02080 to prolong tumor retention for therapeutic applications.

A novel bombesin-related peptide modulates glucose tolerance and insulin secretion in non-obese and hypothalamic-obese rats

This study investigated the effects of a novel bombesin-related peptide (BR-b), derived from the skin of the Chaco tree frog (Boana raniceps), on glucose homeostasis in non-obese and hypothalamic-obese male rats. Hypothalamic obesity was induced in neonatal rats through high-dose administration of monosodium glutamate (MSG; 4 g/kg), while control animals (CTL) received an equimolar saline solution. At 70 days of age, both MSG and CTL groups underwent an oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT; 2 g/kg) with or without prior intraperitoneal administration of BR-b at doses of 0.5 or 1.0 mg/kg, delivered 5 min before the glucose challenge. At 75 days of age, pancreatic islets were isolated and exposed to glucose in the presence or absence of BR-b (1.0 or 5.0 μM). MSG-treated rats developed obesity, hyperinsulinemia, and insulin resistance. BR-b administration exacerbated glucose intolerance during the OGTT, particularly at the 1.0 mg/kg dose, with more pronounced effects observed in the CTL group. Insulin secretion from pancreatic islets was influenced by both obesity status and glucose concentration. In islets from CTL rats, BR-b (5 μM) reduced insulin release under non-stimulatory glucose conditions but enhanced insulin secretion at stimulatory glucose levels. Conversely, in islets from MSG-obese rats, BR-b exhibited an inhibitory effect on insulin release at basal glucose concentrations, while the insulinotropic response to high glucose was abolished. In summary, BR-b administration shortly before the OGTT impaired glucose tolerance and modulated insulin secretion from pancreatic islets in a glucose-dependent manner in non-obese rats. These effects were attenuated or absent in MSG-obese rats, indicating that hypothalamic obesity alters the metabolic responses to bombesin-related peptides.

Surface modified proteins and peptides for targeted drug delivery

Surface modification of proteins and peptides has emerged as a promising strategy to enhance their therapeutic efficacy and target specificity. This chapter delves into the various techniques employed to modify the surface properties of these biomolecules, including chemical conjugation, site-specific mutagenesis, and peptide synthesis. The focus is on strategies that improve drug delivery to specific target sites, such as tumor cells or inflamed tissues. By modifying surface properties, it is possible to enhance drug stability, reduce immunogenicity, and prolong circulation time. This chapter explores the latest advancements in this field and discusses the potential applications of surface-modified proteins and peptides in the development of novel therapeutic agents.

Evaluation of maSSS/maSES-PEG2-RM26 for their potential therapeutic use after labeling with Re-188. Could their [99mTc]Tc-labeled counterparts be used to estimate dosimetry?

BACKGROUND

Gastrin releasing peptide receptor (GRPR)-directed radiopharmaceuticals for targeted radionuclide therapy may be a very promising addition in prostate and breast cancer patient management. Aiming to provide a GRPR-targeting theranostic pair, we have utilized the Tc-99m/Re-188 radiometal pair, in combination with two bombesin based antagonists, maSSS-PEG2-RM26 and maSES-PEG2-RM26. The two main aims of the current study were (i) to elucidate the influence of the radiometal-exchange on the biodistribution profile of the two peptides and (ii) to evaluate the feasibility of using the [99mTc]Tc labeled counterparts for the dosimetry estimation for the [188Re]Re-labeled conjugates.

RESULTS

Both peptides were successfully labeled with Re-188 and evaluated both in vitro and in vivo. In GRPR expressing PC-3 cells, both [188Re]Re-labeled peptides displayed high cellular uptake (8.5 ± 0.1% and 5 ± 0.3% of added activity, respectively), heavily GRPR-driven, while retaining the radioantagonistic profile with slow internalization rates. Both agents demonstrated high receptor affinity when loaded with natRe (7.5 nM and 8 nM, respectively). When tested in vivo in GRPR expressing PC-3 xenografts, both radioantagonists demonstrated high tumor accumulation (6.3 ± 0.5%IA/g and 5 ± 1%IA/g at 1 h pi, respectively), with good retention over time (4 ± 2%IA/g and 3.1 ± 0.1%IA/g at 4 h pi, respectively). In addition, their biodistribution profiles were closely mimicking their [99mTc]Tc-labeled counterparts. Statistically significant lower tumor uptake was found for both conjugates labeled with Tc-99m, which may result in underestimation of the dose delivered to the tumor.

CONCLUSIONS

All the results indicate that Tc-99 m could be used for dosimetry evaluation for the two [188Re]Re-labeled radioligands, with minimal alterations in their biodistribution pattern and tumor targeting capabilities.

Blockade of PVN neuromedin B receptor alleviates inflammation via the RAS/ROS/NF-κB pathway in spontaneously hypertensive rats

Neuromedin B (NMB) has potentially great impacts on the development of cardiovascular diseases by promoting hypertensive and sympatho-excitation effects. However, studies regarding the NMB function in paraventricular nucleus (PVN) are lacking. With selective neuromedin B receptor (NMBR) antagonist, BIM-23127, we aim to determine whether the blockade of NMB function in PVN could alleviate central inflammation and attenuate hypertensive responses. Spontaneously hypertensive rats (SHR) and Wistar Kyoto rats (WKY) were chronically infused with BIM-23127 in the PVN for 6 weeks. Mean arterial pressure (MAP) was assessed with tail cuff and electrophysiological acquisition systems. PVN tissues were collected to analyze expressions of Fra-LI, inflammatory cytokines (IL-1β, TNF-α, IL-6, IL-10, and IL-4), renin-angiotensin system (angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE), ACE2, and AT1-reporter (AT1-R)) and oxidative stress (reactive oxygen species (ROS), superoxide dismutase (SOD)1, NADPH oxidase (NOX)2, and NOX4). ELISA was used to detect inflammation indices, norepinephrine (NE), and nuclear factor κB (NF-κB) p65 in plasma and PVN tissue homogenate. Compared to WKY, SHR exhibited higher mean arterial pressure (MAP), plasma NE, and pro-inflammatory cytokines (PICs). Higher PVN levels of Fra-LI, PICs, ACE, AT1-R, ROS, NOX2, NOX4, and NF-κB p65, while lower central levels of anti-inflammatory cytokines (AICs), ACE2, and SOD1 were observed in SHR. Administration of BIM-23127 in PVN reversed all these changes in SHR. In SHR, blockade of NMBR in the PVN inhibited sympatho-excitation and attenuated hypertensive response. The attenuation mechanism may involve reducing inflammation and the RAS/ROS/ NF-κB pathways in PVN.

GRPR Drives Metastasis via CRABP2 and FNDC4 Pathways in Lung Adenocarcinoma

Metastasis is a leading cause of lung adenocarcinoma (LUAD)-related mortality and presents significant challenges for treatment. The gastrin-releasing peptide receptor (GRPR), a member of the G protein-coupled receptor (GPCR) family, has an unclear role in LUAD progression. This study aimed to investigate the function and underlying mechanisms of GRPR in LUAD metastasis. Our findings revealed that GRPR levels were significantly elevated in tumor tissues, and higher GRPR expression was associated with worse overall survival outcomes. Functional assays demonstrated that GRPR overexpression enhanced LUAD cell invasion, while GRPR knockdown inhibited invasion both in vitro and in vivo. RNA sequencing and gene set enrichment analysis (GSEA) identified an enrichment of metastasis-promoting genes in GRPR-overexpressing cells, with CRABP2 and FNDC4 emerging as key targets. Clinical analyses further confirmed a positive correlation between GRPR expression and the levels of CRABP2 and FNDC4 in LUAD patients. These results suggest that GRPR could serve as both a prognostic marker and a therapeutic target to inhibit metastasis in LUAD.

In vitro and in vivo evaluation of Bombesin-MMAE conjugates for targeted tumour therapy

Targeted tumour therapy has proved to be an efficient alternative to overcome the limitations of conventional chemotherapy. The upregulation of the bombesin receptor 2 (BB2) in several malignancies and the advantages offered by peptide drug conjugates over antibody drug conjugates in terms of production and tumour targeting motivated us to synthesise and test bombesin conjugates armed with the tubulin binder monomethyl auristatin E. The widely used Val-Cit-PABC was initially included as cathepsin cleavable self-immolative linker for the release of the free drug. However, the poor stability of the Val-Cit-conjugates in mouse plasma encouraged us to consider the optimised alternatives Glu-Val-Cit-PABC and Glu-Gly-Cit-PABC. Conjugate BN-EVcM1, featuring Glu-Val-Cit-PABC, combined suitable stability (t(½) in mouse and human plasma: 8.4 h and 4.6 h, respectively), antiproliferative activity in vitro (IC50 = 29.6 nM on the human prostate cancer cell line PC-3) and the full release of the free payload within 24 h. Three conjugates, namely BN-EGcM1, BN-EVcM1 and BN-EVcM2, improved the accumulation of MMAE in PC-3 human prostate cancer xenograft mice models, compared to the administration of the free drug. Among them, BN-EVcM1 also stood out for the significantly extended survival of mice in in vivo acute efficacy studies and for the significant inhibition of the growth of a PC-3 tumour in mice in both acute and chronic efficacy studies.

Synthesis and Evaluation of 68Ga- and 177Lu-Labeled [Pro14]bombesin(8-14) Derivatives for Detection and Radioligand Therapy of Gastrin-Releasing Peptide Receptor-Expressing Cancer

The gastrin-releasing peptide receptor (GRPR) is overexpressed in a variety of cancers and represents a promising target for diagnosis and therapy. However, the extremely high accumulation in the pancreas observed for most of the clinically evaluated GRPR-targeted radiopharmaceuticals could limit their applications. In this study, we synthesized one GRPR antagonist (ProBOMB5) and two GRPR agonists (LW02056 and LW02057) by replacing the 4-thiazolidinecarboxylic acid (Thz14) residue in our previously reported GRPR-targeted tracers with Pro14. The 68Ga and 177Lu labeling were conducted in HEPES (2 M, pH 5.0) buffer and acetate (0.1 M, pH 4.5) buffer, respectively, and the radiolabeled products were obtained in a 24-57% decay-corrected radiochemical yield and >92% radiochemical purity. The binding affinities (Ki) of Ga-ProBOMB5, Ga-LW02056, Ga-LW02057, and Lu-ProBOMB5 were measured via in vitro competition binding assays and were 12.2 ± 1.89, 14.7 ± 4.81, 13.8 ± 2.24, and 13.6 ± 0.25 nM, respectively. The PET imaging and ex vivo biodistribution studies were conducted in PC-3 tumor-bearing mice at 1 h post injection. [68Ga]Ga-ProBOMB5, [68Ga]Ga-LW02056, and [68Ga]Ga-LW02057 enabled clear tumor visualization in PET images. The tumor uptake values of [68Ga]Ga-ProBOMB5, [68Ga]Ga-LW02056, and [68Ga]Ga-LW02057 were 12.4 ± 1.35, 8.93 ± 1.96, and 7.64 ± 0.55%ID/g, respectively, and their average pancreas uptake values were minimal (0.60-1.37%ID/g). Longitudinal SPECT imaging and ex vivo biodistribution studies were also conducted for [177Lu]Lu-ProBOMB5 and clinically validated [177Lu]Lu-RM2. Despite comparable tumor uptake at 1 h post injection ([177Lu]Lu-ProBOMB5:8.09 ± 1.70%ID/g; [177Lu]Lu-RM2:7.73 ± 0.96%ID/g), a faster clearance from PC-3 tumor xenografts was observed for [177Lu]Lu-ProBOMB5, leading to a lower radiation-absorbed dose delivered to tumors. Our data demonstrate that [68Ga]Ga-ProBOMB5 is a promising tracer for clinical translation for detecting GRPR-expressing tumor lesions. However, further optimizations are needed for [177Lu]Lu-ProBOMB5 to prolong tumor retention for therapeutic applications.

Radiolabeled peptides and their expanding role in clinical imaging and targeted cancer therapy

There is an expanding body of evidence showing that synthetic peptides in combination with radioactive isotopes can be utilized for medical purposes. This area is of particular interest in oncology where applications in diagnosis and therapy are at different stages of development. We review the contributions in this area by the group originally founded by Carlo Pedone in Naples many years ago. We highlight the work of this group in the context of other developments in this area, focusing on three biologically relevant receptor systems: somatostatin, gastrin-releasing peptide, and cholecystokinin-2/gastrin receptors. We focus on key milestones, state of the art, and challenges in this area of research as well as the current and future outlook for expanding clinical applications.

Peptide-Oligonucleotide Conjugation: Chemistry and Therapeutic Applications

Oligonucleotides have been identified as powerful therapeutics for treating genetic disorders and diseases related to epigenetic factors such as metabolic and immunological dysfunctions. However, they face certain obstacles in terms of limited delivery to tissues and poor cellular uptake due to their large size and often highly charged nature. Peptide-oligonucleotide conjugation is an extensively utilized approach for addressing the challenges associated with oligonucleotide-based therapeutics by improving their delivery, cellular uptake and bioavailability, consequently enhancing their overall therapeutic efficiency. In this review, we present an overview of the conjugation of oligonucleotides to peptides, covering the different strategies associated with the synthesis of peptide-oligonucleotide conjugates (POC), the commonly used peptides employed to generate POCs, with the aim to develop oligonucleotides with favourable pharmacokinetic (PK) or pharmacodynamic (PD) properties for therapeutic applications. The advantages and drawbacks of the synthetic methods and applications of POCs are also described.

Realizing active targeting in cancer nanomedicine with ultrasmall nanoparticles

Ultrasmall nanoparticles (usNPs) have emerged as promising theranostic tools in cancer nanomedicine. With sizes comparable to globular proteins, usNPs exhibit unique physicochemical properties and physiological behavior distinct from larger particles, including lack of protein corona formation, efficient renal clearance, and reduced recognition and sequestration by the reticuloendothelial system. In cancer treatment, usNPs demonstrate favorable tumor penetration and intratumoral diffusion. Active targeting strategies, incorporating ligands for specific tumor receptor binding, serve to further enhance usNP tumor selectivity and therapeutic performance. Numerous preclinical studies have already demonstrated the potential of actively targeted usNPs, revealing increased tumor accumulation and retention compared to non-targeted counterparts. In this review, we explore actively targeted inorganic usNPs, highlighting their biological properties and behavior, along with applications in both preclinical and clinical settings.

Radiopharmaceuticals Targeting Gastrin-Releasing Peptide Receptor for Diagnosis and Therapy of Prostate Cancer

The high incidence and heavy disease burden of prostate cancer (PC) require accurate and comprehensive assessment for appropriate disease management. Prostate-specific membrane antigen (PSMA) positron emission tomography (PET) cannot detect PSMA-negative lesions, despite its key role in PC disease management. The overexpression of gastrin-releasing peptide receptor (GRPR) in PC lesions reportedly performs as a complementary target for the diagnosis and therapy of PC. Radiopharmaceuticals derived from the natural ligands of GRPR have been developed. These radiopharmaceuticals enable the visualization and quantification of GRPR within the body, which can be used for disease assessment and therapeutic guidance. Recently developed radiopharmaceuticals exhibit improved pharmacokinetic parameters without deterioration in affinity. Several heterodimers targeting GRPR have been constructed as alternatives because of their potential to detect tumor lesions with a low diagnostic efficiency of single target detection. Moreover, some GRPR-targeted radiopharmaceuticals have entered clinical trials for the initial staging or biochemical recurrence detection of PC to guide disease stratification and therapy, indicating considerable potential in PC disease management. Herein, we comprehensively summarize the progress of radiopharmaceuticals targeting GRPR. In particular, we discuss the impact of ligands, chelators, and linkers on the distribution of radiopharmaceuticals. Furthermore, we summarize a potential design scheme to facilitate the advancement of radiopharmaceuticals and, thus, prompt clinical translation.

Structural insights into ligand recognition, selectivity, and activation of bombesin receptor subtype-3

Bombesin receptor subtype-3 (BRS3) is an important orphan G protein-coupled receptor that regulates energy homeostasis and insulin secretion. As a member of the bombesin receptor (BnR) family, the lack of known endogenous ligands and high-resolution structure has hindered the understanding of BRS3 signaling and function. We present two cryogenic electron microscopy (cryo-EM) structures of BRS3 in complex with the heterotrimeric Gq protein in its active states: one bound to the pan-BnR agonist BA1 and the other bound to the synthetic BRS3-specific agonist MK-5046. These structures reveal the architecture of the orthosteric ligand pocket underpinning molecular recognition and provide insights into the structural basis for BRS3's selectivity and low affinity for bombesin peptides. Examination of conserved micro-switches suggests a shared activation mechanism among BnRs. Our findings shed light on BRS3's ligand selectivity and signaling mechanisms, paving the way for exploring its therapeutic potential for diabetes, obesity, and related metabolic disorders.

Synthesis and Evaluation of the First 68Ga-Labeled C-Terminal Hydroxamate-Derived Gastrin-Releasing Peptide Receptor-Targeted Tracers for Cancer Imaging with Positron Emission Tomography

Gastrin-releasing peptide receptor (GRPR), overexpressed in many solid tumors, is a promising imaging marker and therapeutic target. Most reported GRPR-targeted radioligands contain a C-terminal amide. Based on the reported potent antagonist D-Phe-Gln-Trp-Ala-Val-Gly-His-Leu-NHOH, we synthesized C-terminal hydroxamate-derived [68Ga]Ga-LW02075 ([68Ga]Ga-DOTA-pABzA-DIG-D-Phe-Gln-Trp-Ala-Val-Gly-His-Leu-NHOH) and [68Ga]Ga-LW02050 ([68Ga]Ga-DOTA-Pip-D-Phe-Gln-Trp-Ala-Val-Gly-His-Leu-NHOH), and compared them with the closely related and clinically validated [68Ga]Ga-SB3 ([68Ga]Ga-DOTA-pABzA-DIG-D-Phe-Gln-Trp-Ala-Val-Gly-His-Leu-NHEt). Binding affinities (Ki) of Ga-SB3, Ga-LW02075, and Ga-LW02050 were 1.20 ± 0.31, 1.39 ± 0.54, and 8.53 ± 1.52 nM, respectively. Both Ga-LW02075 and Ga-LW02050 were confirmed to be GRPR antagonists by calcium release assay. Imaging studies showed that PC-3 prostate cancer tumor xenografts were clearly visualized at 1 h post injection by [68Ga]Ga-SB3 and [68Ga]Ga-LW02050 in PET images, but not by [68Ga]Ga-LW02075. Ex vivo biodistribution studies conducted at 1 h post injection showed that the tumor uptake of [68Ga]Ga-LW02050 was comparable to that of [68Ga]Ga-SB3 (5.38 ± 1.00 vs. 6.98 ± 1.36 %ID/g), followed by [68Ga]Ga-LW02075 (3.97 ± 1.71 %ID/g). [68Ga]Ga-SB3 had the highest pancreas uptake (37.3 ± 6.90 %ID/g) followed by [68Ga]Ga-LW02075 (17.8 ± 5.24 %ID/g), while the pancreas uptake of [68Ga]Ga-LW02050 was only 0.53 ± 0.11 %ID/g. Our data suggest that [68Ga]Ga-LW02050 is a promising PET tracer for detecting GRPR-expressing cancer lesions.

Synthesis and Evaluation of Novel 68Ga-Labeled [D-Phe6,Leu13ψThz14]bombesin(6-14) Analogs for Cancer Imaging with Positron Emission Tomography

Gastrin-releasing peptide receptor (GRPR) is overexpressed in various cancers and is a promising target for cancer diagnosis and therapy. However, the high pancreas uptake and/or metabolic instability observed for most reported GRPR-targeted radioligands might limit their clinical applications. Our group recently reported a GRPR-targeted antagonist tracer, [68Ga]Ga-TacsBOMB2 ([68Ga]Ga-DOTA-Pip-D-Phe6-Gln7-Trp8-Ala9-Val10-Gly11-His12-Leu13ψThz14-NH2), which showed a minimal pancreas uptake in a preclinical mouse model. In this study, we synthesized four derivatives with unnatural amino acid substitutions (Tle10-derived Ga-LW01158, NMe-His12-derived Ga-LW01160, α-Me-Trp8- and Tle10-derived Ga-LW01186, and Tle10- and N-Me-Gly11-derived Ga-LW02002) and evaluated their potential for detecting GRPR-expressing tumors with positron emission tomography (PET). The binding affinities (Ki(GRPR)) of Ga-LW01158, Ga-LW01160, Ga-LW01186, and Ga-LW02002 were 5.11 ± 0.47, 187 ± 17.8, 6.94 ± 0.95, and 11.0 ± 0.39 nM, respectively. [68Ga]Ga-LW01158, [68Ga]Ga-LW01186, and [68Ga]Ga-LW02002 enabled clear visualization of subcutaneously implanted human prostate cancer PC-3 tumor xenografts in mice in PET images. Ex vivo biodistribution studies showed that [68Ga]Ga-LW01158 had the highest tumor uptake (11.2 ± 0.65 %ID/g) and good tumor-to-background uptake ratios at 1 h post-injection. Comparable in vivo stabilities were observed for [68Ga]Ga-LW01158, [68Ga]Ga-LW01186, and [68Ga]Ga-LW02002 (76.5-80.7% remaining intact in mouse plasma at 15 min post-injection). In summary, the Tle10 substitution, either alone or combined with α-Me-Trp8 or NMe-Gly11 substitution, in Ga-TacsBOMB2 generates derivatives that retained good GRPR binding affinity and in vivo stability. With good tumor uptake and tumor-to-background imaging contrast, [68Ga]Ga-LW01158 is promising for detecting GRPR-expressing lesions with PET.

Development and Synthesis of Bombesin-Based Radiopharmaceutical Precursors Modified with Knottin

Bombesin receptors on the cell surface are of great interest as a target for targeted cancer therapy. One of the strategies of targeting bombesin receptors involves the use of tropic short peptides. However, the main limitation for the wide application of peptides as drugs is their low stability in vivo due to their sensitivity to extreme conditions of the internal body environment such as temperature and action of enzymes. In our work, a short bombesin peptide, taken as a basis, was modified with a knottin, a toxin with an inhibitor cystine knot, increasing thereby the stability of the short peptide under various conditions. The aim of the investigation is to study the chemical and radiochemical stability of the structure based on the short bombesin peptide and knottin, as well as the ability of the obtained structure to bind to tumor cells.

Materials and Methods

The work analyzed the chemical and radiochemical stability of the synthesized peptide labeled with a lutetium radioisotope using high-performance liquid chromatography. A fluorescent-labeled peptide, obtained by a solid-phase peptide synthesis, was used to analyze binding to cultures expressing bombesin receptors.

Results

The analysis has shown increased chemical and radiochemical stability of the knottin-modified peptide, as compared to the commercial analog, and maintenance of a high ability to bind to receptors on the surface of cancer cells.

Conclusion

The structure created on the basis of a short bombesin peptide and knottin possesses increased stability and retains the ability to bind to cancer cells. All this allows us to consider the creation of these structures as a strategy for fabricating stabilizing scaffolds for short peptides for a peptide-receptor therapy.

GRPR-Antagonists Carrying DOTAGA-Chelator via Positively Charged Linkers: Perspectives for Prostate Cancer Theranostics

Gastrin-releasing peptide receptor (GRPR)-antagonists have served as motifs in the development of theranostic radioligands for prostate cancer. Our efforts have been focused on the development of radiolabeled RM26 (H-DPhe6-Gln7-Trp8-Ala9-Val10-Gly11-His12-Sta13-Leu14-NH2) analogs, such as [111In]In-DOTAGA-PEG2-RM26. We recently showed that its Gly11/Sar11-substituted version, [111In]In-AU-RM26-M1, resisted degradation by neprilysin (NEP) while in circulation and achieved higher tumor uptake in mice. We herein introduce the following three new AU-RM26-M1 mimics labeled with In-111, with basic residues in the linker: (i) AU-RM26-M2 (PEG2-Pip), (ii) AU-RM26-M3 (PEG2-Arg), and (iii) AU-RM26-M4 (Arg-Arg-Pip). These analogs were compared in PC-3 cells and animal models vs. AU-RM26-M1 (reference). The new analogs showed high affinity and specificity for the GRPR, exhibiting an uptake and distribution pattern in PC-3 cells typical for a radiolabeled GRPR-antagonist. They showed high stability in peripheral mice blood, except for [111In]In-AU-RM26-M3. AU-RM26-M4 achieved the highest tumor uptake and promising background clearance, followed by [111In]In-RM26-M2, showing lower background levels. These findings were confirmed for [111In]In-AU-RM26-M2 and [111In]In-AU-RM26-M4 by micro-SPECT/CT at 4 and 24 h post-injection. Hence, the type of positively charged residues in the linker of AU-RM26-M1 mimics strongly influenced biological behavior. The analogs with Pip next to DPhe6 demonstrated the best overall characteristics and warrant further investigation.

Elevating theranostics: The emergence and promise of radiopharmaceutical cell-targeting heterodimers in human cancers

Optimal therapeutic and diagnostic efficacy is essential for healthcare's global mission of advancing oncologic drug development. Accurate diagnosis and detection are crucial prerequisites for effective risk stratification and personalized patient care in clinical oncology. A paradigm shift is emerging with the promise of multi-receptor-targeting compounds. While existing detection and staging methods have demonstrated some success, the traditional approach of monotherapy is being reevaluated to enhance therapeutic effectiveness. Heterodimeric site-specific agents are a versatile solution by targeting two distinct biomarkers with a single theranostic agent. This review describes the innovation of dual-targeting compounds, examining their design strategies, therapeutic implications, and the promising path they present for addressing complex diseases.

Gastrin-releasing peptide receptor as a theranostic target in breast cancer: a systematic scoping review

The gastrin-releasing peptide receptor (GRPR) is known to be overexpressed in breast cancer, making it a promising target for both imaging and therapy within a theranostic framework. Various radioligands targeting GRPR have undergone investigation in preclinical and clinical studies related to breast cancer. This systematic scoping review aimed to assess the current evidence on GRPR-targeted radioligands for diagnostic and therapeutic applications in breast cancer. The methodology followed the PRISMA-ScR protocol. The literature search was conducted in September 2023 and encompassed MEDLINE, Embase, Cochrane, and Scopus databases. We included original peer-reviewed studies focused on breast cancer patients or in vivo breast cancer models. Two reviewers performed the study selection process independently. Data were extracted, synthesized, and categorized into preclinical and clinical studies, further subdivided based on radioligand properties. A total of 35 original studies were included in the review, with three of them evaluating therapeutic outcomes. The results indicated that GRPR-radioantagonists are superior to GRPR-agonists, exhibiting preferable in vivo stability, rapid, specific tumor targeting, and enhanced retention. Both preclinical and clinical evaluations demonstrated renal excretion and high uptake in normal GRPR-expressing tissue, primarily the pancreas. A significant positive correlation was observed between GRPR and estrogen-receptor expression. In the clinical setting, GRPR-radioligands effectively detected primary tumors and, to a lesser extent, lymph node metastases. Moreover, GRPR-targeted radioantagonists successfully identified distant metastases originating from various sites in advanced metastatic disease, strongly correlated with positive estrogen receptor expression. Preclinical therapeutic evaluation of GRPR-radioligands labeled with lutetium-177 showed promising tumor responses, and none of the studies reported any observed or measured side effects, indicating a safe profile. In conclusion, the evidence presented in this review indicates a preference for GRPR-targeted antagonists over agonists, owing to their superior kinetics and promising diagnostic potential. Clinical assessments suggested diagnostic value for GRPR-targeted theranostics in breast cancer patients, particularly those with high estrogen receptor expression. Nevertheless, in the therapeutic clinical context, paying attention to the radiation dose administered to the pancreas and kidneys is crucial.

Oxime-Linked Peptide-Daunomycin Conjugates as Good Tools for Selection of Suitable Homing Devices in Targeted Tumor Therapy: An Overview

Chemotherapy is still one of the main therapeutic approaches in cancer therapy. Nevertheless, its poor selectivity causes severe toxic side effects that, together with the development of drug resistance in tumor cells, results in a limitation for its application. Tumor-targeted drug delivery is a possible choice to overcome these drawbacks. As well as monoclonal antibodies, peptides are promising targeting moieties for drug delivery. However, the development of peptide-drug conjugates (PDCs) is still a big challenge. The main reason is that the conjugates have to be stable in circulation, but the drug or its active metabolite should be released efficiently in the tumor cells. For this purpose, suitable linker systems are needed that connect the drug molecule with the homing peptide. The applied linker systems are commonly categorized as cleavable and non-cleavable linkers. Both the groups possess advantages and disadvantages that are summarized briefly in this manuscript. Moreover, in this review paper, we highlight the benefit of oxime-linked anthracycline-peptide conjugates in the development of PDCs. For instance, straightforward synthesis as well as a conjugation reaction proceed in excellent yields, and the autofluorescence of anthracyclines provides a good tool to select the appropriate homing peptides. Furthermore, we demonstrate that these conjugates can be used properly in in vivo studies. The results indicate that the oxime-linked PDCs are potential candidates for targeted tumor therapy.

Unnatural amino acid substitutions to improve in vivo stability and tumor uptake of 68Ga-labeled GRPR-targeted TacBOMB2 derivatives for cancer imaging with positron emission tomography

BACKGROUND

Overexpressed in various solid tumors, gastrin-releasing peptide receptor (GRPR) is a promising cancer imaging marker and therapeutic target. Although antagonists are preferable for the development of GRPR-targeted radiopharmaceuticals due to potentially fewer side effects, internalization of agonists may lead to longer tumor retention and better treatment efficacy. In this study, we systematically investigated unnatural amino acid substitutions to improve in vivo stability and tumor uptake of a previously reported GRPR-targeted agonist tracer, [68Ga]Ga-TacBOMB2 (68Ga-DOTA-Pip-D-Phe6-Gln7-Trp8-Ala9-Val10-Gly11-His12-Leu13-Thz14-NH2).

RESULTS

Unnatural amino acid substitutions were conducted for Gln7, Trp8, Ala9, Val10, Gly11 and His12, either alone or in combination. Out of 25 unnatural amino acid substitutions, tert-Leu10 (Tle10) and NMe-His12 substitutions were identified to be preferable modifications especially in combination. Compared with the previously reported [68Ga]Ga-TacBOMB2, the Tle10 and NMe-His12 derived [68Ga]Ga-LW01110 showed retained agonist characteristics and improved GRPR binding affinity (Ki = 7.62 vs 1.39 nM), in vivo stability (12.7 vs 89.0% intact tracer in mouse plasma at 15 min post-injection) and tumor uptake (5.95 vs 16.6 %ID/g at 1 h post-injection).

CONCLUSIONS

Unnatural amino acid substitution is an effective strategy to improve in vivo stability and tumor uptake of peptide-based radiopharmaceuticals. With excellent tumor uptake and tumor-to-background contrast, [68Ga]Ga-LW01110 is promising for detecting GRPR-expressing cancer lesions with PET. Since agonists can lead to internalization upon binding to receptors and foreseeable long tumor retention, our optimized GRPR-targeted sequence, [Tle10,NMe-His12,Thz14]Bombesin(7-14), is a promising template for use for the design of GRPR-targeted radiotherapeutic agents.

Advances of radiolabeled GRPR ligands for PET/CT imaging of cancers

GRPR is a type of seven-transmembrane G-protein coupled receptor that belongs to the bombesin protein receptor family. It is highly expressed in various cancers, including prostate cancer, breast cancer, lung cancer, gastrointestinal cancer, and so on. As a result, molecular imaging studies have been conducted using radiolabeled GRPR ligands for tumor diagnosis, as well as monitoring of recurrence and metastasis. In this paper, we provided a comprehensive overview of relevant literature from the past two decades, with a specific focus on the advancements made in radiolabeled GRPR ligands for imaging prostate cancer and breast cancer.

Assessment of the bound conformation of bombesin to the BB1 and BB2 receptors

Bombesin is an endogenous peptide involved in a wide spectrum of physiological activities ranging from satiety, control of circadian rhythm and thermoregulation in the central nervous system, to stimulation of gastrointestinal hormone release, activation of macrophages and effects on development in peripheral tissues. Actions of the peptide are mediated through the two high affinity G-protein coupled receptors BB1R and BB2R. Under pathophysiological conditions, these receptors are overexpressed in many different types of tumors, such as prostate cancer, breast cancer, small and non-small cell lung cancer and pancreatic cancer. This observation has been used for designing cell markers, but it has not been yet exploited for therapeutical purposes. Despite the enormous biological interest of the peptide, little is known about the stereochemical features that contribute to their activity. On the one hand, mutagenesis studies identified a few receptor residues important for high bombesin affinity and on the other, a few studies focused on the relevance of diverse residues of the peptide for receptor activation. Models of the peptide bound to BB1R and BB2R can be helpful to improve our understanding of the stereochemical features granting bombesin activity. Accordingly, the present study describes the computational process followed to construct such models by means of Steered Molecular Dynamics, using models of the peptide and its receptors. Present results provide new insights into the structure-activity relationships of bombesin and its receptors, as well as render an explanation for the differential binding affinity observed towards BB1R and BB2R. Finally, these models can be further exploited to help for designing novel small molecule peptidomimetics with improved pharmacokinetics profile.

Imaging GRPr Expression in Metastatic Castration-Resistant Prostate Cancer with [68Ga]Ga-RM2-A Head-to-Head Pilot Comparison with [68Ga]Ga-PSMA-11

BACKGROUND

The gastrin-releasing peptide receptor (GRPr) is highly overexpressed in several solid tumors, including treatment-naïve and recurrent prostate cancer. [68Ga]Ga-RM2 is a well-established radiotracer for PET imaging of GRPr, and [177Lu]Lu-RM2 has been proposed as a therapeutic alternative for patients with heterogeneous and/or low expression of PSMA. In this study, we aimed to evaluate the expression of GRPr and PSMA in a group of patients diagnosed with castration-resistant prostate cancer (mCRPC) by means of PET imaging.

METHODS

Seventeen mCRPC patients referred for radio-ligand therapy (RLT) were enrolled and underwent [68Ga]Ga-PSMA-11 and [68Ga]Ga-RM2 PET/CT imaging, 8.8 ± 8.6 days apart, to compare the biodistribution of each tracer. Uptake in healthy organs and tumor lesions was assessed by SUV values, and tumor-to-background ratios were analyzed.

RESULTS

[68Ga]Ga-PSMA-11 showed significantly higher uptake in tumor lesions in bone, lymph nodes, prostate, and soft tissues and detected 23% more lesions compared to [68Ga]Ga-RM2. In 4/17 patients (23.5%), the biodistribution of both tracers was comparable.

CONCLUSIONS

Our results show that in our cohort of mCRPC patients, PSMA expression was higher compared to GRPr. Nevertheless, RLT with [177Lu]Lu-RM2 may be an alternative treatment option for selected patients or patients in earlier disease stages, such as biochemical recurrence.

Dietary Supplement with Tribulus terrestris L. Extract Exhibits Protective Effects on Ischemic Stroke Rats

SCOPE

Among herbal dietary supplements, the extract of Tribulus terrestris L. (TT) has been used as a commercially registered product in multiple studies. The previous studies demonstrate the protective effect of gross saponins of TT (GSTTF) on ischemic stroke. However, the mechanism by which GSTTF protects against ischemic stroke is still unclear.

METHODS AND RESULTS

The study applies molecular biology and unbiased transcriptomics to explore the pathways and targets underlying the therapeutic impact of GSTTF in treating ischemic stroke. The mRNA of brain tissues from different groups is analyzed using a transcriptomics method. The data reveal that treatment with GSTTF significantly reduces elevated CRP, IL-6, and Ca2+ levels induced by middle cerebral artery occlusion (MCAO). A total of 61 differentially expressed genes (DEGs) are identified, GSTTF is found to effectively reverse the abnormal mRNA expression levels in rat brain tissues affected by ischemic stroke models. These positive effects of GSTTF are likely achieved through the suppression of calcium ion and the MyD88/IKK/NF-κB signaling pathway.

CONCLUSIONS

This study uncovers the mechanisms behind the efficacy of GSTTF in treating ischemic stroke, which not only expands its potential medicinal applications but also confirmed its potential as a dietary supplement.

Prostaglandin E2 Induces Long-Lasting Inhibition of Noradrenergic Neurons in the Locus Coeruleus and Moderates the Behavioral Response to Stressors

Neuronal activity is modulated not only by inputs from other neurons but also by various factors, such as bioactive substances. Noradrenergic (NA) neurons in the locus coeruleus (LC-NA neurons) are involved in diverse physiological functions, including sleep/wakefulness and stress responses. Previous studies have identified various substances and receptors that modulate LC-NA neuronal activity through techniques including electrophysiology, calcium imaging, and single-cell RNA sequencing. However, many substances with unknown physiological significance have been overlooked. Here, we established an efficient screening method for identifying substances that modulate LC-NA neuronal activity through intracellular calcium ([Ca2+]i) imaging using brain slices. Using both sexes of mice, we screened 53 bioactive substances, and identified five novel substances: gastrin-releasing peptide, neuromedin U, and angiotensin II, which increase [Ca2+]i, and pancreatic polypeptide and prostaglandin D2, which decrease [Ca2+]i Among them, neuromedin U induced the greatest response in female mice. In terms of the duration of [Ca2+]i change, we focused on prostaglandin E2 (PGE2), since it induces a long-lasting decrease in [Ca2+]i via the EP3 receptor. Conditional knock-out of the receptor in LC-NA neurons resulted in increased depression-like behavior, prolonged wakefulness in the dark period, and increased [Ca2+]i after stress exposure. Our results demonstrate the effectiveness of our screening method for identifying substances that modulate a specific neuronal population in an unbiased manner and suggest that stress-induced prostaglandin E2 can suppress LC-NA neuronal activity to moderate the behavioral response to stressors. Our screening method will contribute to uncovering previously unknown physiological functions of uncharacterized bioactive substances in specific neuronal populations.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT Bioactive substances modulate the activity of specific neuronal populations. However, since only a limited number of substances with predicted effects have been investigated, many substances that may modulate neuronal activity have gone unrecognized. Here, we established an unbiased method for identifying modulatory substances by measuring the intracellular calcium signal, which reflects neuronal activity. We examined noradrenergic (NA) neurons in the locus coeruleus (LC-NA neurons), which are involved in diverse physiological functions. We identified five novel substances that modulate LC-NA neuronal activity. We also found that stress-induced prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) may suppress LC-NA neuronal activity and influence behavioral outcomes. Our screening method will help uncover previously overlooked functions of bioactive substances and provide insight into unrecognized roles of specific neuronal populations.

Bombesins: A New Frontier in Hybrid Compound Development

Recently, bombesin (BN) and its analogs have attracted much attention as excellent anticancer agents because they interact with specific receptors widely distributed on the surface of various cancer cells. However, their biological properties proceed far beyond this, given a broad spectrum of activity. Bombesin receptor ligands are effective drugs for the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis or gastrointestinal diseases. However, most diseases are complex, and the use of polytherapy may lead to pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic drug-drug interactions, resulting in side effects. Therefore, there is a need to develop effective compounds that also contain BN or its analogs, which are combined with other structural entities, thus generating a so-called hybrid drug. Hybrid drugs that contain bombesin pharmacophore(s) may be proposed as a solution to the problem of polytherapy or the lack of an effective cure. Such structures have now demonstrated the desired efficacy, though information on these aforementioned compounds is relatively scarce. Therefore, our paper aims to encourage researchers to focus on bombesins. Herein, we indicate that the hybrid approach should also be firmly applied to bombesins and the BN receptor family. This paper's structure is divided into two main sections demonstrating bombesins and their properties, as well as recent data on bombesin-based hybrid compounds and their potential usefulness in medicine. Overall, it refers to the discovery and synthesis of modified bombesin-based hybrid compounds.

GRPR-targeting radiotheranostics for breast cancer management

Breast Cancer (BC) is the most common cancer worldwide and, despite the advancements made toward early diagnosis and novel treatments, there is an urgent need to reduce its mortality. The Gastrin-Releasing Peptide Receptor (GRPR) is a promising target for the development of theranostic radioligands for luminal BC with positive estrogen receptor (ER) expression, because GRPR is expressed not only in primary lesions but also in lymph nodes and distant metastasis. In the last decades, several GRPR-targeting molecules have been evaluated both at preclinical and clinical level, however, most of the studies have been focused on prostate cancer (PC). Nonetheless, given the relevance of non-invasive diagnosis and potential treatment of BC through Peptide Receptor Radioligand Therapy (PRRT), this review aims at collecting the available preclinical and clinical data on GRPR-targeting radiopeptides for the imaging and therapy of BC, to better understand the current state-of-the-art and identify future perspectives and possible limitations to their clinical translation. In fact, since luminal-like tumors account for approximately 80% of all BC, many BC patients are likely to benefit from the development of GRPR-radiotheranostics.

Side-by-side comparison of the two widely studied GRPR radiotracers, radiolabeled NeoB and RM2, in a preclinical setting

INTRODUCTION

NeoB and RM2 are the most investigated gastrin-releasing peptide receptor (GRPR)-targeting radiotracers in preclinical and clinical studies. Therefore, an extensive side-by-side comparison of the two radiotracers is valuable to demonstrate whether one has advantages over the other. Accordingly, this study aims to compare the in vitro and in vivo characteristics of radiolabeled NeoB and RM2 to guide future clinical studies.

METHOD

The stability of the radiolabeled GRPR analogs was determined in phosphate buffered saline (PBS), and commercially available mouse and human serum. Target affinity was determined by incubating human prostate cancer PC-3 cells with [177Lu]Lu-NeoB or [177Lu]Lu-RM2, + / - increasing concentrations of unlabeled NeoB, RM2, or Tyr4-bombesin (BBN). To determine uptake and specificity cells were incubated with [177Lu]Lu-NeoB or [177Lu]Lu-RM2 + / - Tyr4-BBN. Moreover, in vivo studies were performed to determine biodistribution and pharmacokinetics. Finally, radiotracer binding to various GRPR-expressing human cancer tissues was investigated.

RESULTS

Both radiotracers demonstrated high stability in PBS and human serum, but stability in mouse serum decreased substantially over time. Moreover, both radiotracers demonstrated high GRPR affinity and specificity, but a higher uptake of [177Lu]Lu-NeoB was observed in in vitro studies. In vivo, no difference in tumor uptake was seen. The most prominent difference in uptake in physiological organs was observed in the GRPR-expressing pancreas; [177Lu]Lu-RM2 had less pancreatic uptake and a shorter pancreatic half-life than [177Lu]Lu-NeoB. Furthermore, [177Lu]Lu-RM2 presented with a lower tumor-to-kidney ratio, while the tumor-to-blood ratio was lower for [177Lu]Lu-NeoB. The autoradiography studies revealed higher binding of radiolabeled NeoB to all human tumor tissues.

CONCLUSION

Based on these findings, we conclude that the in vivo tumor-targeting capability of radiolabeled NeoB and RM2 is similar. Additional studies are needed to determine whether the differences observed in physiological organ uptakes, i.e., the pancreas, kidneys, and blood, result in relevant differences in organ absorbed doses when the radiotracers are applied for therapeutic purposes.

Dynamic Phosphoproteomics of BRS3 Activation Reveals the Hippo Signaling Pathway for Cell Migration

Bombesin receptor subtype-3 (BRS3) is an orphan G-protein coupled receptor (GPCR) that is involved in a variety of pathological and physiological processes, while its biological functions and underlying regulatory mechanisms remain largely unknown. In this study, a quantitative phosphoproteomics approach was employed to comprehensively decipher the signal transductions that occurred upon intracellular BRS3 activation. The lung cancer cell line H1299-BRS3 was treated with MK-5046, an agonist of BRS3, for different durations. Harvested cellular proteins were digested and phosphopeptides were enriched by immobilized titanium (IV) ion affinity chromatography (Ti⁴⁺-IMAC) for label-free quantification (LFQ) analysis. A total of 11,938 phosphopeptides were identified, corresponding to 3,430 phosphoproteins and 10,820 phosphosites. Data analysis revealed that 27 phosphopeptides corresponding to six proteins were involved in the Hippo signaling pathway, which was significantly regulated by BRS3 activation. Verification experiments demonstrated that downregulation of the Hippo signaling pathway caused by BRS3 activation could induce the dephosphorylation and nucleus localization of the Yes-associated protein (YAP), and its association with cell migration was further confirmed by kinase inhibition. Our data collectively demonstrate that BRS3 activation contributes to cell migration through downregulation of the Hippo signaling pathway.

Novel neuroendocrine role of γ-aminobutyric acid and gastrin-releasing peptide in the host response to influenza infection

Gastrin-releasing peptide (GRP), an evolutionarily conserved neuropeptide, significantly contributes to influenza-induced lethality and inflammation in rodent models. Because GRP is produced by pulmonary neuroendocrine cells (PNECs) in response to γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA), we hypothesized that influenza infection promotes GABA release from PNECs that activate GABAB receptors on PNECs to secrete GRP. Oxidative stress was increased in the lungs of influenza A/PR/8/34 (PR8)-infected mice, as well as serum glutamate decarboxylase 1, the enzyme that converts L-glutamic acid into GABA. The therapeutic administration of saclofen, a GABAB receptor antagonist, protected PR8-infected mice, reduced lung proinflammatory gene expression of C-C chemokine receptor type 2 (Ccr2), cluster of differentiation 68 (Cd68), and Toll like receptor 4 (Tlr4) and decreased the levels of GRP and high-mobility group box 1 (HMGB1) in sera. Conversely, baclofen, a GABAB receptor agonist, significantly increased the lethality and inflammatory responses. The GRP antagonist, NSC77427, as well as the GABAB antagonist, saclofen, blunted the PR8-induced monocyte infiltration into the lung. Together, these data provide the first report of neuroregulatory control of influenza-induced disease.

Peptide Radioligands in Cancer Theranostics: Agonists and Antagonists

The clinical success of radiolabeled somatostatin analogs in the diagnosis and therapy-"theranostics"-of tumors expressing the somatostatin subtype 2 receptor (SST₂R) has paved the way for the development of a broader panel of peptide radioligands targeting different human tumors. This approach relies on the overexpression of other receptor-targets in different cancer types. In recent years, a shift in paradigm from internalizing agonists to antagonists has occurred. Thus, SST₂R-antagonist radioligands were first shown to accumulate more efficiently in tumor lesions and clear faster from the background in animal models and patients. The switch to receptor antagonists was soon adopted in the field of radiolabeled bombesin (BBN). Unlike the stable cyclic octapeptides used in the case of somatostatin, BBN-like peptides are linear, fast to biodegradable and elicit adverse effects in the body. Thus, the advent of BBN-like antagonists provided an elegant way to obtain effective and safe radiotheranostics. Likewise, the pursuit of gastrin and exendin antagonist-based radioligands is advancing with exciting new outcomes on the horizon. In the present review, we discuss these developments with a focus on clinical results, commenting on challenges and opportunities for personalized treatment of cancer patients by means of state-of-the-art antagonist-based radiopharmaceuticals.

Scandium-44: Diagnostic Feasibility in Tumor-Related Angiogenesis

Angiogenesis-related cell-surface molecules, including integrins, aminopeptidase N, vascular endothelial growth factor, and gastrin-releasing peptide receptor (GRPR), play a crucial role in tumour formation. Radiolabelled imaging probes targeting angiogenic biomarkers serve as valuable vectors in tumour identification. Nowadays, there is a growing interest in novel radionuclides other than gallium-68 (⁶⁸Ga) or copper-64 (⁶⁴Cu) to establish selective radiotracers for the imaging of tumour-associated neo-angiogenesis. Given its ideal decay characteristics (E_β⁺_average: 632 KeV) and a half-life (T_1/2 = 3.97 h) that is well matched to the pharmacokinetic profile of small molecules targeting angiogenesis, scandium-44 (⁴⁴Sc) has gained meaningful attention as a promising radiometal for positron emission tomography (PET) imaging. More recently, intensive research has been centered around the investigation of ⁴⁴Sc-labelled angiogenesis-directed radiopharmaceuticals. Previous studies dealt with the evaluation of ⁴⁴Sc-appended a_vb₃ integrin-affine Arg-Gly-Asp (RGD) tripeptides, GRPR-selective aminobenzoyl-bombesin analogue (AMBA), and hypoxia-associated nitroimidazole derivatives in the identification of various cancers using experimental tumour models. Given the tumour-related hypoxia- and angiogenesis-targeting capability of these PET probes, ⁴⁴Sc seems to be a strong competitor of the currently used positron emitters in radiotracer development. In this review, we summarize the preliminary preclinical achievements with ⁴⁴Sc-labelled angiogenesis-specific molecular probes.

Novel insight on GRP/GRPR axis in diseases

The gastrin-releasing peptide receptor (GRPR), a member of the G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs), binds to ligands such as gastrin-releasing peptide (GRP) and plays a variety of biological roles. GRP/GRPR signalling is involved in the pathophysiological processes of many diseases, including inflammatory diseases, cardiovascular diseases, neurological diseases, and various cancers. In the immune system, the unique function of GRP/GRPR in neutrophil chemotaxis suggests that GRPR can be directly stimulated through GRP-mediated neutrophils to activate selective signalling pathways, such as PI3K, PKC, and MAPK, and participate in the occurrence and development of inflammation-related diseases. In the cardiovascular system, GRP increases intercellular adhesion molecule 1 (ICAM-1) and induces vascular cell adhesion molecule-1 (VCAM-1). GRP activates ERK1/2, MAPK, and AKT, leading to cardiovascular diseases, including myocardial infarction. Central nervous system signal transduction mediated by the GRP/GRPR axis plays a vital role in emotional responses, social interaction, and memory. The GRP/GRPR axis is elevated in various cancers, including lung, cervical, colorectal, renal cell, and head and neck squamous cell carcinomas. GRP is a mitogen in a variety of tumour cell lines. Its precursor, pro-gastrin-releasing peptide (ProGRP), may play an important role as an emerging tumour marker in early tumour diagnosis. GPCRs serve as therapeutic targets for drug development, but their function in each disease remains unclear, and their involvement in disease progression has not been well explored or summarised. This review lays out the above mentioned pathophysiological processes based on previous research conclusions. The GRP/GRPR axis may be a potential target for treating multiple diseases, and the study of this signalling axis is particularly important.

[99mTc]Tc-HYNIC-RM2: A potential SPECT probe targeting GRPR expression in prostate cancers

INTRODUCTION

Elevated density of gastrin releasing peptide receptors (GRPR) in prostate cancer has led to exploration of several radiolabeled peptides for imaging and staging of the disease. The GRPR antagonist peptide RM2 has been successfully conjugated with several chelators and radiolabeled with gallium-68. The goal of this study was to synthesize a ^99mTc-labeled probe and investigate its potential for SPECT imaging of prostate cancer. Towards this HYNIC-RM2 peptide conjugate was synthesized, radiolabeled with ^99mTc and evaluated in GRPR-positive PC3 tumor xenografts.

METHODS

HYNIC-RM2 was manually synthesized by standard Fmoc solid phase strategy and radiolabeled with ^99mTc. In vitro cell studies were performed in GRPR-positive human prostate carcinoma (PC3) cells. Metabolic stability studies of [^99mTc]Tc-HYNIC-RM2 were performed in normal mice in the presence as well as absence of neutral endopeptidase (NEP) inhibitor, phosphoramidon (PA). Biodistribution and imaging studies of [^99mTc]Tc-HYNIC-RM2 were performed in SCID mice bearing PC3-xenograft.

RESULTS

[^99mTc]Tc-HYNIC-RM2 exhibited high binding affinity in low nanomolar range (K_d = 1.83 ± 0.31 nM). Metabolic stability studies in mice indicated that in the absence of PA, radiolabeled peptide was about 65 % intact in the blood at 15 min p.i., whereas proportion of intact radiolabeled peptide was enhanced to 90 % on co-administration of PA. Biodistribution studies in PC3 tumor bearing mice demonstrated high tumor uptake (8.02 ± 0.9%ID/g and 6.13 ± 0.44%ID/g at 1 h and 3 h p.i.). Co-administration of PA with the radiolabeled peptide resulted in further enhancement of tumor uptake (14.24 ± 0.76 % ID/g and 11.71 ± 0.59%ID/g at 1 h and 3 h p.i.). SPECT/CT images of [^99mTc]Tc-HYNIC-RM2 could clearly visualize the tumor. Significant (p < 0.001) reduction in the tumor uptake with a co-injected blocking dose of unlabeled peptide ascertained the GRPR specificity of [^99mTc]Tc-HYNIC-RM2.

CONCLUSION

Encouraging results obtained in biodistribution and imaging studies indicate the potential of [^99mTc]Tc-HYNIC-RM2 for further exploration as GRPR targeting agent.

Mechanism of traditional Chinese medicine in treating overactive bladder

Overactive bladder syndrome (OAB) has made increasing progress in mechanism and treatment research. Traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) is a common complementary therapy for OAB, and it has been found to be effective. However, the intervention mechanism of TCM in the treatment of OAB is still unclear. The aim of this review is to consolidate the current knowledge about the mechanism of TCM: acupuncture, moxibustion, herbs in treating OAB, and the animal models of OAB commonly used in TCM. Finally, we put forward the dilemma of TCM treatment of OAB and discussed the insufficiency and future direction of TCM treatment of OAB.

68Ga-Labeled [Thz14]Bombesin(7-14) Analogs: Promising GRPR-Targeting Agonist PET Tracers with Low Pancreas Uptake

With overexpression in various cancers, the gastrin-releasing peptide receptor (GRPR) is a promising target for cancer imaging and therapy. However, the high pancreas uptake of reported GRPR-targeting radioligands limits their clinical application. Our goal was to develop ⁶⁸Ga-labeled agonist tracers for detecting GRPR-expressing tumors with positron emission tomography (PET), and compare them with the clinically validated agonist PET tracer, [⁶⁸Ga]Ga-AMBA. Ga-TacBOMB2, TacBOMB3, and TacBOMB4, derived from [Thz¹⁴]Bombesin(7-14), were confirmed to be GRPR agonists by a calcium mobilization study, and their binding affinities (K_i(GRPR)) were determined to be 7.62 ± 0.19, 6.02 ± 0.59, and 590 ± 36.5 nM, respectively, via in vitro competition binding assays. [⁶⁸Ga]Ga-TacBOMB2, [⁶⁸Ga]Ga-TacBOMB3, and [⁶⁸Ga]Ga-AMBA clearly visualized PC-3 tumor xenografts in a PET imaging study. [⁶⁸Ga]Ga-TacBOMB2 showed comparable tumor uptake but superior tumor-to-background contrast ratios when compared to [⁶⁸Ga]Ga-AMBA. Moreover, [⁶⁸Ga]Ga-TacBOMB2 and [⁶⁸Ga]Ga-TacBOMB3 showed a much lower rate of uptake in the pancreas (1.30 ± 0.14 and 2.41 ± 0.72%ID/g, respectively) than [⁶⁸Ga]Ga-AMBA (62.4 ± 4.26%ID/g). In conclusion, replacing Met¹⁴ in the GRPR-targeting sequence with Thz¹⁴ retains high GRPR-binding affinity and agonist properties. With good tumor uptake and tumor-to-background uptake ratios, [⁶⁸Ga]Ga-TacBOMB2 is promising for detecting GRPR-expressing tumors. The much lower pancreas uptake of [⁶⁸Ga]Ga-TacBOMB2 and [⁶⁸Ga]Ga-TacBOMB3 suggests that [Thz¹⁴]Bombesin(7-14) is a promising targeting vector for the design of GRPR-targeting radiopharmaceuticals, especially for radioligand therapy application.

Towards Selective Delivery of a Ruthenium(II) Polypyridyl Complex-Containing Bombesin Conjugate into Cancer Cells

An increasing number of novel Ru(II) polypyridyl complexes have been successfully applied as photosensitizers (PSs) for photodynamic therapy (PDT). Despite recent advances in optimized PSs with refined photophysical properties, the lack of tumoral selectivity is often a major hurdle for their clinical development. Here, classical maleimide and versatile NHS-activated acrylamide strategies were employed to site-selectively conjugate a promising Ru(II) polypyridyl complex to the N-terminally Cys-modified Bombesin (BBN) targeting unit. Surprisingly, the decreased cell uptake of these novel Ru-BBN conjugates in cancer cells did not hamper the high phototoxic activity of the Ru-containing bioconjugates and even decreased the toxicity of the constructs in the absence of light irradiation. Overall, although deceiving in terms of selectivity, our new bioconjugates could still be useful for advanced cancer treatment due to their nontoxicity in the dark.

Nanostrategies for Therapeutic and Diagnostic Targeting of Gastrin-Releasing Peptide Receptor

Advances in nanomedicine bring the attention of researchers to the molecular targets that can play a major role in the development of novel therapeutic and diagnostic modalities for cancer management. The choice of a proper molecular target can decide the efficacy of the treatment and endorse the personalized medicine approach. Gastrin-releasing peptide receptor (GRPR) is a G-protein-coupled membrane receptor, well known to be overexpressed in numerous malignancies including pancreatic, prostate, breast, lung, colon, cervical, and gastrointestinal cancers. Therefore, many research groups express a deep interest in targeting GRPR with their nanoformulations. A broad spectrum of the GRPR ligands has been described in the literature, which allows tuning of the properties of the final formulation, particularly in the field of the ligand affinity to the receptor and internalization possibilities. Hereby, the recent advances in the field of applications of various nanoplatforms that are able to reach the GRPR-expressing cells are reviewed.

Targeting the Gastrin-Releasing Peptide Receptor (GRP-R) in Cancer Therapy: Development of Bombesin-Based Peptide-Drug Conjugates

Targeted tumour therapy has proved to be an efficient alternative to overcome the limitations of conventional chemotherapy. Among several receptors upregulated in cancer cells, the gastrin-releasing peptide receptor (GRP-R) has recently emerged as a promising target for cancer imaging, diagnosing and treatment due to its overexpression on cancerous tissues such as breast, prostate, pancreatic and small-cell lung cancer. Herein, we report on the in vitro and in vivo selective delivery of the cytotoxic drug daunorubicin to prostate and breast cancer, by targeting GRP-R. Exploiting many bombesin analogues as homing peptides, including a newly developed peptide, we produced eleven daunorubicin-containing peptide-drug conjugates (PDCs), acting as drug delivery systems to safely reach the tumour environment. Two of our bioconjugates revealed remarkable anti-proliferative activity, an efficient uptake by all three tested human breast and prostate cancer cell lines, high stability in plasma and a prompt release of the drug-containing metabolite by lysosomal enzymes. Moreover, they revealed a safe profile and a consistent reduction of the tumour volume in vivo. In conclusion, we highlight the importance of GRP-R binding PDCs in targeted cancer therapy, with the possibility of further tailoring and optimisation.

Structures of human gastrin-releasing peptide receptors bound to antagonist and agonist for cancer and itch therapy

Gastrin releasing peptide receptor (GRPR), a member of the bombesin (BBN) G protein-coupled receptors, is aberrantly overexpressed in several malignant tumors, including those of the breast, prostate, pancreas, lung, and central nervous system. Additionally, it also mediates non-histaminergic itch and pathological itch conditions in mice. Thus, GRPR could be an attractive target for cancer and itch therapy. Here, we report the inactive state crystal structure of human GRPR in complex with the non-peptide antagonist PD176252, as well as two active state cryo-electron microscopy (cryo-EM) structures of GRPR bound to the endogenous peptide agonist gastrin-releasing peptide and the synthetic BBN analog [D-Phe⁶, β-Ala¹¹, Phe¹³, Nle¹⁴] Bn (6-14), in complex with G_q heterotrimers. These structures revealed the molecular mechanisms for the ligand binding, receptor activation, and G_q proteins signaling of GRPR, which are expected to accelerate the structure-based design of GRPR antagonists and agonists for the treatments of cancer and pruritus.

Advances in Lung Cancer Treatment Using Nanomedicines

Carcinoma of the lungs is among the most menacing forms of malignancy and has a poor prognosis, with a low overall survival rate due to delayed detection and ineffectiveness of conventional therapy. Therefore, drug delivery strategies that may overcome undesired damage to healthy cells, boost therapeutic efficacy, and act as imaging tools are currently gaining much attention. Advances in material science have resulted in unique nanoscale-based theranostic agents, which provide renewed hope for patients suffering from lung cancer. Nanotechnology has vastly modified and upgraded the existing techniques, focusing primarily on increasing bioavailability and stability of anti-cancer drugs. Nanocarrier-based imaging systems as theranostic tools in the treatment of lung carcinoma have proven to possess considerable benefits, such as early detection and targeted therapeutic delivery for effectively treating lung cancer. Several variants of nano-drug delivery agents have been successfully studied for therapeutic applications, such as liposomes, dendrimers, polymeric nanoparticles, nanoemulsions, carbon nanotubes, gold nanoparticles, magnetic nanoparticles, solid lipid nanoparticles, hydrogels, and micelles. In this Review, we present a comprehensive outline on the various types of overexpressed receptors in lung cancer, as well as the various targeting approaches of nanoparticles.

Identification of Sex-Specific Genetic Polymorphisms Associated with Asthma in Middle-Aged and Older Canadian Adults: An Analysis of CLSA Data

Purpose

Asthma is a chronic heterogeneous respiratory disease resulting from a complex interplay between genetic variations and environmental exposures. There are sex disparities in the prevalence and severity of asthma in males and females. Asthma prevalence is higher in males during childhood but increases in females in adulthood. The mechanisms underlying these sex differences are not well understood; nevertheless, genetic variations, hormonal changes, and environmental influences are thought to play important roles. This study aimed to identify sex-specific genetic variants associated with asthma using CLSA genomic and questionnaire data.

Methods

First, we conducted a genome-wide SNP-by-sex interaction analysis on 23,323 individuals, examining 416,562 single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) after quality control, followed by sex-stratified survey logistic regression of SNPs with interaction p-value less than 10^¯5.

Results

Out of the 49 SNPs with interaction p-value less than 10^-5, a sex-stratified survey logistic regression showed that five male-specific SNPs (rs6701638, rs17071077, rs254804, rs6013213, and rs2968822) in/near KIF26B, NMBR, PEPD, RTN4, and NFATC2 loci, and three female-specific SNPs (rs2968801, rs2864052, and rs9525931) in/near RTN4, and SERP2 loci were significantly associated with asthma after Bonferroni correction. An SNP (rs36213) in the EPHB1 gene was significantly associated with an increased risk of asthma in males [OR=1.35, 95% CI (1.14, 1.60)] but with a reduced risk of asthma in females [OR=0.84, 95% CI (0.76, 0.92)] after Bonferroni correction.

Conclusion

We discovered novel sex-specific genetic markers in/near the KIF26B, RTN4, EPHB1, NMBR, SERP2, PEPD, and NFATC2 genes that could potentially shed light on the sex differences in asthma susceptibility in males and females. Future mechanistic studies are required to understand better the underlying sex-related pathways of the identified loci in asthma development.

Modulation of inspiratory burst duration and frequency by bombesin in vitro

Mammalian respiratory rhythm-generating circuits in the brainstem are subject to neuromodulation by multiple peptidergic afferent inputs controlling circuit behavior and outputs. Although functionally important, actions of neuropeptide modulators have not been fully characterized. We analyzed at cellular and circuit levels two inspiratory patterns intrinsically generated by the preBötzinger complex (preBötC) and their modulation by the neuropeptides bombesin and substance P (SP) in neonatal rat medullary slices in vitro. We found that, in recordings of hypoglossal nerve and preBötC neuron inspiratory activity, some inspiratory bursts occurring spontaneously under basal conditions have a biphasic shape with longer duration than normal inspiratory bursts and occur at a lower frequency. This biphasic burst pattern has been proposed to represent inspiratory activity underling periodic sighs. Bath-applied bombesin or SP decreased the period and increased the duration of both normal inspiratory and biphasic bursts and their underlying synaptic drives. The ratio of the biphasic long-duration burst period to the normal inspiratory burst period and the ratio of their burst durations remained the same before and after peptidergic modulation. Bombesin increased the frequency of the inspiratory rhythm in a Ca²⁺-independent manner and the frequency of long-duration bursts in a Ca²⁺-dependent manner. This finding suggests that period and burst duration coupling are due to intrinsic mechanisms controlling simultaneously timing and burst termination within the inspiratory rhythm-generating network. We propose a model in which signaling cascades activated by bombesin and SP modulate mechanisms controlling inspiratory burst frequency and duration to coordinate preBötC circuit behavioral outputs.

Lack of bombesin receptor-activated protein homologous protein impairs hippocampal synaptic plasticity and promotes chronic unpredictable mild stress induced behavioral changes in mice

Bombesin receptor-activated protein (BRAP) and its homologous protein in mice, which is encoded by bc004004 gene, were expressed abundantly in brain tissues with unknown functions. We treated bc004004^-/- mice with chronic unpredictable mild stress (CUMS) to test whether those mice were more vulnerable to stress-related disorders. The results of forced swimming test, sucrose preference test, and open field test showed that after being treated with CUMS for 28 days or 35 days both bc004004^-/- and bc004004^+/+ mice exhibited behavioural changes and there was no significant difference between bc004004^+/+ and bc004004^-/-. However, behavioural changes were observed only in bc004004^-/- mice after being exposed to CUMS for 21 days, but not in bc004004^+/+ after 21-day CUMS exposure, indicating that lack of BRAP homologous protein may cause vulnerability to stress-related disorders in mice. In addition, bc004004^-/- mice showed a reduction in recognition memory as revealed by novel object recognition test. Since memory changes and stress related behavioural changes are all closely related to the hippocampus function we further analyzed the changes of dendrites and synapses of hippocampal neurons as well as expression levels of some proteins closely related to synaptic function. bc004004^-/- mice exhibited decreased dendritic lengths and increased amount of immature spines, as well as altered expression pattern of synaptic related proteins including GluN2A, synaptophysin and BDNF in the hippocampus. Those findings suggest that BRAP homologous protein may have a protective effect on the behavioural response to stress via regulating dendritic spine formation and synaptic plasticity in the hippocampus.