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Czupryna P, Moniuszko-Malinowska A, Trojan G, Adamczuk J, Martonik D, Parfieniuk-Kowerda A, Kruszewska E, Giecko M, Grygorczuk S. The assessment of usefulness of cytokines and other soluble mediators as the predictors of sequalae development in various forms of tick-borne encephalitis (TBE). Cytokine 2024; 184:156767. [PMID: 39326199 DOI: 10.1016/j.cyto.2024.156767] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/12/2024] [Revised: 09/17/2024] [Accepted: 09/18/2024] [Indexed: 09/28/2024]
Abstract
AIM The aim of the study was to assess the usefulness of cytokines and other soluble mediators in differentiation between severe and mild course of tick-borne encephalitis (TBE) as well as the predictor of sequalae development. MATERIAL AND METHODS 122 patients (mean age 47.66 ± 14.77 years, 43 females, 79 males) with TBE were included in the study. Concentrations of 82 cytokines, growth factors, selectins, matrix metalloproteinases and other soluble mediators were measured in serum and CSF samples according to the manufacturer's instruction on a Bio-Plex 200 System using the custom made Luminex assays. Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays for the quantitative detection of human IL-26, IL-29 IL-22, CXCL12 were performed. RESULTS No significant differences between serum concentrations of examined factors between group with sequelae and group with complete recovery were observed. In the CSF the concentrations of GM-CSF, Il-1α, Il-2, Il-4, Il-6, Il-12p70, Il-17A, CXCL1, CXCL6, Il-8, CCL4, CCL20, TRAIL, CD40L, MMP8 were significantly higher in patients who developed sequelae than in patients with complete recovery. For TRAIL concentration over 26.65 pg/ml in CSF the probability of sequalae development was 10.5 higher. In case of CCL20 - the concentration over 21.38 pg/ml in CSF the odds ratio was 6.429 times. For MMP-8 over 4210.54 pg/ml, the odds ratio was 11.222 times. CONCLUSIONS TRAIL, CCL-20 and MMP-8 are promising biomarkers of prediction of the sequalae development of TBE. Pro-inflammatory cytokines IL-8, IL-1, IL-2, IL-12, IL-17A also associate well with the risk of sequelae and could be further evaluated as prognostic markers in TBE, individually or as elements of a larger model.
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Affiliation(s)
- Piotr Czupryna
- Department of Infectious Diseases and Neuroinfections, Medical University of Bialystok, Zurawia 14, 15-540 Bialystok, Poland
| | - Anna Moniuszko-Malinowska
- Department of Infectious Diseases and Neuroinfections, Medical University of Bialystok, Zurawia 14, 15-540 Bialystok, Poland
| | - Gabriela Trojan
- Department of Infectious Diseases and Neuroinfections, Medical University of Bialystok, Zurawia 14, 15-540 Bialystok, Poland
| | - Justyna Adamczuk
- Department of Infectious Diseases and Neuroinfections, Medical University of Bialystok, Zurawia 14, 15-540 Bialystok, Poland
| | - Diana Martonik
- Department of Infectious Diseases and Hepatology, Medical University of Bialystok, Zurawia 14, 15-540 Bialystok, Poland
| | - Anna Parfieniuk-Kowerda
- Department of Infectious Diseases and Hepatology, Medical University of Bialystok, Zurawia 14, 15-540 Bialystok, Poland
| | - Ewelina Kruszewska
- Department of Infectious Diseases and Neuroinfections, Medical University of Bialystok, Zurawia 14, 15-540 Bialystok, Poland
| | - Maciej Giecko
- Department of Infectious Diseases and Neuroinfections, Medical University of Bialystok, Zurawia 14, 15-540 Bialystok, Poland.
| | - Sambor Grygorczuk
- Department of Infectious Diseases and Neuroinfections, Medical University of Bialystok, Zurawia 14, 15-540 Bialystok, Poland
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Melrose J. CNS/PNS proteoglycans functionalize neuronal and astrocyte niche microenvironments optimizing cellular activity by preserving membrane polarization dynamics, ionic microenvironments, ion fluxes, neuronal activation, and network neurotransductive capacity. J Neurosci Res 2024; 102:e25361. [PMID: 39034899 DOI: 10.1002/jnr.25361] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/12/2023] [Revised: 03/22/2024] [Accepted: 05/27/2024] [Indexed: 07/23/2024]
Abstract
Central and peripheral nervous system (CNS/PNS) proteoglycans (PGs) have diverse functional roles, this study examined how these control cellular behavior and tissue function. The CNS/PNS extracellular matrix (ECM) is a dynamic, responsive, highly interactive, space-filling, cell supportive, stabilizing structure maintaining tissue compartments, ionic microenvironments, and microgradients that regulate neuronal activity and maintain the neuron in an optimal ionic microenvironment. The CNS/PNS contains a high glycosaminoglycan content (60% hyaluronan, HA) and a diverse range of stabilizing PGs. Immobilization of HA in brain tissues by HA interactive hyalectan PGs preserves tissue hydration and neuronal activity, a paucity of HA in brain tissues results in a pro-convulsant epileptic phenotype. Diverse CS, KS, and HSPGs stabilize the blood-brain barrier and neurovascular unit, provide smart gel neurotransmitter neuron vesicle storage and delivery, organize the neuromuscular junction basement membrane, and provide motor neuron synaptic plasticity, and photoreceptor and neuron synaptic functions. PG-HA networks maintain ionic fluxes and microgradients and tissue compartments that contribute to membrane polarization dynamics essential to neuronal activation and neurotransduction. Hyalectans form neuroprotective perineuronal nets contributing to synaptic plasticity, memory, and cognitive learning. Sialoglycoprotein associated with cones and rods (SPACRCAN), an HA binding CSPG, stabilizes the inter-photoreceptor ECM. HSPGs pikachurin and eyes shut stabilize the photoreceptor synapse aiding in phototransduction and neurotransduction with retinal bipolar neurons crucial to visual acuity. This is achieved through Laminin G motifs in pikachurin, eyes shut, and neurexins that interact with the dystroglycan-cytoskeleton-ECM-stabilizing synaptic interconnections, neuronal interactive specificity, and co-ordination of regulatory action potentials in neural networks.
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Affiliation(s)
- James Melrose
- Raymond Purves Bone and Joint Research Laboratory, Kolling Institute, Northern Sydney Local Health District, St. Leonards, New South Wales, Australia
- Graduate School of Biomedical Engineering, University of New South Wales, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
- Sydney Medical School, Northern, The University of Sydney Faculty of Medicine and Health, Royal North Shore Hospital, St. Leonards, New South Wales, Australia
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Saleki K, Aram C, Alijanizadeh P, Khanmirzaei MH, Vaziri Z, Ramzankhah M, Azadmehr A. Matrix metalloproteinase/Fas ligand (MMP/FasL) interaction dynamics in COVID-19: An in silico study and neuroimmune perspective. Heliyon 2024; 10:e30898. [PMID: 38803919 PMCID: PMC11128882 DOI: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2024.e30898] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/04/2023] [Revised: 05/03/2024] [Accepted: 05/07/2024] [Indexed: 05/29/2024] Open
Abstract
Background The initiator of cytokine storm in Coronavirus disease (COVID-19) is still unknown. We recently suggested a complex interaction of matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs), Fas ligand (FasL), and viral entry factors could be responsible for the cytokine outrage In COVID-19. We explored the molecular dynamics of FasL/MMP7-9 in COVID-19 conditions in silico and provide neuroimmune insights for future. Methods We enrolled and analyzed a clinical cohort of COVID-19 patients, and recorded their blood Na + levels and temperature at admission. A blood-like molecular dynamics simulation (MDS) box was then built. Four conditions were studied; MMP7/FasL (healthy), MMP7/FasL (COVID-19), MMP9-FasL (healthy), and MMP9/FasL (COVID-19). MDS was performed by GROningen MAchine for Chemical Simulation (GROMACS). We analyzed bonds, short-range energies, and free binding energies to draw conclusions on the interaction of MMP7/MMP9 and FasL to gain insights into COVID-19 immunopathology. Genevestigator was used study RNA-seq/microarray expression data of MMPs in the cells of immune and nervous systems. Finally, epitopes of MMP/FasL complexes were identified as drug targets by machine learning (ML) tools. Results MMP7-FasL (Healthy), MMP7-FasL (COVID-19), MMP9-FasL (Healthy), and MMP9-FasL (COVID-19) systems showed 0, 1, 4, and 2 salt bridges, indicating MMP9 had more salt bridges. Moreover, in both COVID-19 and normal conditions, the number of interacting residues and surface area was higher for MMP9 compared to MMP7 group. The COVID-19 MMP9-FasL group had more H-bonds compared to MMP7-FasL group (12 vs. 7). 15 epitopes for FasL-MMP9 and 10 epitopes for FasL-MMP7 were detected. Extended MD simulation for 100 ns confirmed stronger binding of MMP9 based on Molecular Mechanics Generalized Borne Surface analysis (MM-GBSA) and Coul and Leonard-Jones (LJ) short-range energies. Conclusions MMP9 interacts stronger than MMP7 with FasL, however, both molecules maintained strong interaction through the MDS. We suggested epitopes for MMP-FasL complexes as valuable therapeutic targets in COVID-19. These data could be utilized in future immune drug and protein design and repurposing efforts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kiarash Saleki
- Student Research Committee, Babol University of Medical Sciences, Babol, Iran
- Department of e-Learning, Virtual School of Medical Education and Management, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences(SBMU), Tehran, Iran
- USERN Office, Babol University of Medical Sciences, Babol, Iran
- National Elite Foundation, Mazandaran Province Branch, Mazandaran, Iran
| | - Cena Aram
- Department of Cell & Molecular Biology, Faculty of Biological Sciences, Kharazmi University, Tehran, Iran
| | - Parsa Alijanizadeh
- Student Research Committee, Babol University of Medical Sciences, Babol, Iran
- USERN Office, Babol University of Medical Sciences, Babol, Iran
| | - Mohammad Hossein Khanmirzaei
- School of Medicine, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Babol, Iran
- Universal Scientific Education and Research Network (USERN), Tehran, Iran
| | - Zahra Vaziri
- Student Research Committee, Babol University of Medical Sciences, Babol, Iran
- USERN Office, Babol University of Medical Sciences, Babol, Iran
| | - Mohammad Ramzankhah
- Student Research Committee, Babol University of Medical Sciences, Babol, Iran
- USERN Office, Babol University of Medical Sciences, Babol, Iran
| | - Abbas Azadmehr
- National Elite Foundation, Mazandaran Province Branch, Mazandaran, Iran
- Department of Immunology, Babol University of Medical Sciences, Babol, Iran
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Boylan BT, Hwang M, Bergmann CC. The Impact of Innate Components on Viral Pathogenesis in the Neurotropic Coronavirus Encephalomyelitis Mouse Model. Viruses 2023; 15:2400. [PMID: 38140641 PMCID: PMC10747027 DOI: 10.3390/v15122400] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/22/2023] [Revised: 12/04/2023] [Accepted: 12/07/2023] [Indexed: 12/24/2023] Open
Abstract
Recognition of viruses invading the central nervous system (CNS) by pattern recognition receptors (PRRs) is crucial to elicit early innate responses that stem dissemination. These innate responses comprise both type I interferon (IFN-I)-mediated defenses as well as signals recruiting leukocytes to control the infection. Focusing on insights from the neurotropic mouse CoV model, this review discusses how early IFN-I, fibroblast, and myeloid signals can influence protective anti-viral adaptive responses. Emphasis is placed on three main areas: the importance of coordinating the distinct capacities of resident CNS cells to induce and respond to IFN-I, the effects of select IFN-stimulated genes (ISGs) on host immune responses versus viral control, and the contribution of fibroblast activation and myeloid cells in aiding the access of T cells to the parenchyma. By unraveling how the dysregulation of early innate components influences adaptive immunity and viral control, this review illustrates the combined effort of resident CNS cells to achieve viral control.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brendan T. Boylan
- Department of Neurosciences, Lerner Research Institute, Cleveland Clinic, Cleveland, OH 44196, USA; (B.T.B.); (M.H.)
- Department of Pathology, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, OH 44106, USA
| | - Mihyun Hwang
- Department of Neurosciences, Lerner Research Institute, Cleveland Clinic, Cleveland, OH 44196, USA; (B.T.B.); (M.H.)
- Molecular Medicine, Cleveland Clinic Lerner College of Medicine, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, OH 44106, USA
| | - Cornelia C. Bergmann
- Department of Neurosciences, Lerner Research Institute, Cleveland Clinic, Cleveland, OH 44196, USA; (B.T.B.); (M.H.)
- Department of Pathology, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, OH 44106, USA
- Molecular Medicine, Cleveland Clinic Lerner College of Medicine, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, OH 44106, USA
- Department of Biological, Geological and Environmental Sciences, Cleveland State University, Cleveland, OH 44115, USA
- School of Biological Sciences, Kent State University, Kent, OH 44242, USA
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Fortova A, Hönig V, Salat J, Palus M, Pychova M, Krbkova L, Barkhash AV, Kriha MF, Chrdle A, Lipoldova M, Ruzek D. Serum matrix metalloproteinase-9 (MMP-9) as a biomarker in paediatric and adult tick-borne encephalitis patients. Virus Res 2023; 324:199020. [PMID: 36528170 DOI: 10.1016/j.virusres.2022.199020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/06/2022] [Revised: 11/30/2022] [Accepted: 12/08/2022] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
Matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) play an important role in central nervous system infections. We analysed the levels of 8 different MMPs in the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) of 89 adult patients infected with tick-borne encephalitis (TBE) virus and compared them with the levels in a control group. MMP-9 was the only MMP that showed significantly increased CSF levels in TBE patients. Serum MMP-9 levels were subsequently measured in 101 adult TBE patients at various time points during the neurological phase of TBE and at follow-up. In addition, serum MMP-9 was analysed in 37 paediatric TBE patients. Compared with control levels, both paediatric and adult TBE patients had significantly elevated serum MMP-9 levels. In most adult patients, serum MMP-9 levels peaked at hospital admission, with higher serum MMP-9 levels observed in patients with encephalitis than in patients with meningitis. Elevated serum MMP-9 levels were observed throughout hospitalisation but decreased to normal levels at follow-up. Serum MMP-9 levels correlated with clinical course, especially in patients heterozygous for the single-nucleotide polymorphism rs17576 (A/G; Gln279Arg) in the MMP9 gene. The results highlight the importance of MMP-9 in the pathogenesis of TBE and suggest that serum MMP-9 may serve as a promising bioindicator of TBE in both paediatric and adult TBE patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrea Fortova
- Department of Infectious Diseases and Preventive Medicine, Veterinary Research Institute, CZ-62100 Brno, Czechia
| | - Vaclav Hönig
- Department of Infectious Diseases and Preventive Medicine, Veterinary Research Institute, CZ-62100 Brno, Czechia; Institute of Parasitology, Biology Centre of the Czech Academy of Sciences, CZ-37005 Ceske Budejovice, Czechia
| | - Jiri Salat
- Department of Infectious Diseases and Preventive Medicine, Veterinary Research Institute, CZ-62100 Brno, Czechia; Institute of Parasitology, Biology Centre of the Czech Academy of Sciences, CZ-37005 Ceske Budejovice, Czechia
| | - Martin Palus
- Department of Infectious Diseases and Preventive Medicine, Veterinary Research Institute, CZ-62100 Brno, Czechia; Institute of Parasitology, Biology Centre of the Czech Academy of Sciences, CZ-37005 Ceske Budejovice, Czechia
| | - Martina Pychova
- Department of Infectious Diseases, University Hospital Brno and Faculty of Medicine, Masaryk University, CZ-62500 Brno, Czechia
| | - Lenka Krbkova
- Department of Children's Infectious Disease, Faculty of Medicine and University Hospital, Masaryk University, CZ-61300 Brno, Czechia
| | - Andrey V Barkhash
- Federal Research Center Institute of Cytology and Genetics, Siberian Branch, Russian Academy of Sciences, 10 Lavrentyeva Ave., Novosibirsk 630090, Russia
| | - Michal F Kriha
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Hospital Ceske Budejovice, CZ-37001 Ceske Budejovice, Czechia; Faculty of Science, University of South Bohemia, CZ-37005 Ceske Budejovice, Czechia
| | - Ales Chrdle
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Hospital Ceske Budejovice, CZ-37001 Ceske Budejovice, Czechia; Royal Liverpool University Hospital, Prescot St, Liverpool L7 8XP, UK
| | - Marie Lipoldova
- Institute of Molecular Genetics of the Czech Academy of Sciences, CZ-14220 Prague, Czechia
| | - Daniel Ruzek
- Department of Infectious Diseases and Preventive Medicine, Veterinary Research Institute, CZ-62100 Brno, Czechia; Institute of Parasitology, Biology Centre of the Czech Academy of Sciences, CZ-37005 Ceske Budejovice, Czechia; Department of Experimental Biology, Faculty of Science, Masaryk University, CZ-62500 Brno, Czechia.
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6
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Sengupta S, Addya S, Biswas D, Banerjee P, Sarma JD. Matrix metalloproteinases and tissue inhibitors of metalloproteinases in murine β-coronavirus-induced neuroinflammation. Virology 2022; 566:122-135. [PMID: 34906793 PMCID: PMC8648396 DOI: 10.1016/j.virol.2021.11.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/05/2021] [Revised: 11/16/2021] [Accepted: 11/26/2021] [Indexed: 01/17/2023]
Abstract
Mouse hepatitis virus (MHV; m-β-CoV) serves as a useful model for studying the cellular factors involved in neuroinflammation. To understand the role of matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) in neuroinflammation, brain tissues from m-β-CoV-infected mice were harvested at different days post-infection (d.p.i) and investigated for Mmp expression by RT-qPCR. Mmp-2, -3, -8, -12 showed significant mRNA upregulation peaking with viral replication between 5 and 6 d.p.i. Elevated levels of MMP regulator TIMP-1 are suggestive of a TIMP-1 mediated host antiviral response. Biological network assessment suggested a direct involvement of MMP-3, -8, -14 in facilitating peripheral leukocyte infiltrations. Flow cytometry confirmed the increased presence of NK cells, CD4+ and CD8+ T cells, neutrophils, and MHCII expressing cells in the m-β-CoV infected mice brain. Our study revealed that m-β-CoV upregulated Park7, RelA, Nrf2, and Hmox1 transcripts involved in ROS production and antioxidant pathways, describing the possible nexus between oxidative pathways, MMPs, and TIMP in m-β-CoV-induced neuroinflammation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sourodip Sengupta
- Department of Biological Sciences, Indian Institute of Science Education and Research Kolkata (IISER-K), Mohanpur, India
| | - Sankar Addya
- Department of Cancer Biology, Sidney Kimmel Cancer Center, Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, USA
| | - Diptomit Biswas
- Department of Biological Sciences, Indian Institute of Science Education and Research Kolkata (IISER-K), Mohanpur, India
| | - Paromita Banerjee
- Department of Biological Sciences, Indian Institute of Science Education and Research Kolkata (IISER-K), Mohanpur, India
| | - Jayasri Das Sarma
- Department of Biological Sciences, Indian Institute of Science Education and Research Kolkata (IISER-K), Mohanpur, India,Corresponding author
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7
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Chen JC, Xie TA, Lin ZZ, Li YQ, Xie YF, Li ZW, Guo XG. Identification of Key Pathways and Genes in SARS-CoV-2 Infecting Human Intestines by Bioinformatics Analysis. Biochem Genet 2021; 60:1076-1094. [PMID: 34787756 PMCID: PMC8596852 DOI: 10.1007/s10528-021-10144-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/04/2021] [Accepted: 10/21/2021] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
COVID-19 is a serious infectious disease that has recently swept the world, and research on its causative virus, SARS-CoV-2, remains insufficient. Therefore, this study uses bioinformatics analysis techniques to explore the human digestive tract diseases that may be caused by SARS-CoV-2 infection. The gene expression profile data set, numbered GSE149312, is from the Gene Expression Omnibus (GEO) database and is divided into a 24-h group and a 60-h group. R software is used to analyze and screen out differentially expressed genes (DEGs) and then gene ontology (GO) term and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) pathway enrichment analyses are performed. In KEGG, the pathway of non-alcoholic fatty liver disease exists in both the 24-h group and 60-h group. STRING is used to establish a protein–protein interaction (PPI) network, and Cytoscape is then used to visualize the PPI and define the top 12 genes of the node as the hub genes. Through verification, nine statistically significant hub genes are identified: AKT1, TIMP1, NOTCH, CCNA2, RRM2, TTK, BUB1B, KIF20A, and PLK1. In conclusion, the results of this study can provide a certain direction and basis for follow-up studies of SARS-CoV-2 infection of the human digestive tract and provide new insights for the prevention and treatment of diseases caused by SARS-CoV-2.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ji-Chun Chen
- Department of Clinical Medicine, The Third Clinical School of Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou, 510150, China
| | - Tian-Ao Xie
- Department of Clinical Medicine, The Third Clinical School of Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou, 510150, China
| | - Zhen-Zong Lin
- Department of Clinical Medicine, The Third Clinical School of Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou, 510150, China
| | - Yi-Qing Li
- Department of Clinical Medicine, The Third Clinical School of Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou, 510150, China
| | - Yu-Fei Xie
- Department of Clinical Medicine, The Third Clinical School of Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou, 510150, China
| | - Zhong-Wei Li
- Department of Clinical Medicine, The Third Clinical School of Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou, 510150, China
| | - Xu-Guang Guo
- Department of Clinical Medicine, The Third Clinical School of Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou, 510150, China. .,Department of Clinical Laboratory Medicine, The Third Affiliated Hospital of Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou, 510150, China. .,Key Laboratory for Major Obstetric Diseases of Guangdong Province, The Third Affiliated Hospital of Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou, 510150, China. .,Key Laboratory of Reproduction and Genetics of Guangdong Higher Education Institutes, The Third Affiliated Hospital of Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou, 510150, China.
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8
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Structure-based molecular insights into matrix metalloproteinase inhibitors in cancer treatments. Future Med Chem 2021; 14:35-51. [PMID: 34779649 DOI: 10.4155/fmc-2021-0246] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Protease inhibitors are of considerable interest as anticancer agents. Matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) were the earliest type of proteases considered as anticancer targets. The developments of MMP inhibitors (MMPIs) by pharmaceutical companies can be dated from the early 1980s. Thus far, none of the over 50 MMPIs entering clinical trials have been approved. This work summarizes the reported studies on the structure of MMPs and complexes with ligands and inhibitors, based on which, the authors analyzed the clinical failures of MMPIs in a structural biological manner. Furthermore, MMPs were systematically compared with urokinase, a protease-generating plasmin, which plays similar pathological roles in cancer development; the reasons for the clinical successes of urokinase inhibitors and the clinical failures of MMPIs are discussed.
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9
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Mohammadhosayni M, Sadat Mohammadi F, Ezzatifar F, Mahdavi Gorabi A, Khosrojerdi A, Aslani S, Hemmatzadeh M, Yazdani S, Arabi M, Marofi F, Jadidi-Niaragh F, Shomali N, Mohammadi H. Matrix metalloproteinases are involved in the development of neurological complications in patients with Coronavirus disease 2019. Int Immunopharmacol 2021; 100:108076. [PMID: 34450402 PMCID: PMC8367754 DOI: 10.1016/j.intimp.2021.108076] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/08/2021] [Revised: 08/01/2021] [Accepted: 08/11/2021] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Evidence show that Matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) have been associated with neurological complications in the viral infections. Here in the current investigation, we intended to reveal if MMPs are potentially involved in the development of neurological symptoms in the patients with Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). METHODS The levels of MMPs, inflammatory cytokines, chemokines, and adhesion molecules were evaluated in the serum and cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) samples from 10 COVID-19 patients with neurological syndrome (NS) and 10 COVID-19 patients lacking NS. Monocytes from the CSF samples were treated with TNF-α and the secreted levels of MMPs were determined. RESULTS The frequency of monocytes were increased in the CSF samples of COVID-19 patients with NS compared to patients without NS. Levels of inflammatory cytokines IL-1β, IL-6, and TNF-α, chemokines CCL2, CCL3, CCL4, CCL7, CCL12, CXCL8, and CX3CL1, MMPs MMP-2, MMP-3, MMP-9, and MMP-12, and adhesion molecules ICAM-1, VCAM-1, and E-selectin were significantly increased in the CSF samples of COVID-19 patients with NS compared with patients without NS. Treatment of CSF-derived monocytes obtained from COVID-19 patients with NS caused increased production of MMP-2, MMP-3, MMP-9, and MMP-12. CONCLUSIONS Higher levels of inflammatory cytokines might promote the expression of adhesion molecules on blood-CSF barrier (BCSFB), resulting in facilitation of monocyte recruitment. Increased levels of CSF chemokines might also help to the trafficking of monocytes to CSF. Inflammatory cytokines might enhance production of MMPs from monocytes, leading to disruption of BCSFB (and therefore further infiltration of inflammatory cells to CSF) in COVID-19 patients with NS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mina Mohammadhosayni
- Department of Virology, School of Public Health, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran; Research Center for Clinical Virology, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Fatemeh Sadat Mohammadi
- Immunology Research Center, Inflammation and Inflammatory Diseases Division, Medical School, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran
| | - Fatemeh Ezzatifar
- Molecular and Cell Biology Research Center, Faculty of Medicine, Mazandaran University of Medical Sciences, Sari, Iran; Student Research Committee Mazandaran University of Medical Sciences, Sari, Iran
| | - Armita Mahdavi Gorabi
- Research Center for Advanced Technologies in Cardiovascular Medicine, Tehran Heart Center, Tehran
| | - Arezou Khosrojerdi
- Department of Immunology, Faculty of Medical Sciences, Tarbiat Modares University, Tehran, Iran
| | - Saeed Aslani
- Department of Immunology, School of Medicine, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Maryam Hemmatzadeh
- Student Research Committee, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran
| | - Shahrooz Yazdani
- Cardiovascular Research Center, Shahid Rajaei Educational and Medical Center, Alborz University of Medical Sciences, Karaj, Iran
| | - Mohsen Arabi
- Department of Physiology, Pharmacology and Medical Physics, School of Medicine, Alborz University of Medical Sciences, Karaj, Iran
| | - Faroogh Marofi
- Department of Immunology, Division of Hematology, Faculty of Medicine, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran
| | - Farhad Jadidi-Niaragh
- Immunology Research Center, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran; Department of Immunology, Faculty of Medicine, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran
| | - Navid Shomali
- Student Research Committee, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran
| | - Hamed Mohammadi
- Non-Communicable Diseases Research Center, Alborz University of Medical Sciences, Karaj, Iran; Department of Immunology, School of Medicine, Alborz University of Medical Sciences, Karaj, Iran.
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10
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Septyaningtrias DE, Susilowati R. Neurological involvement of COVID-19: from neuroinvasion and neuroimmune crosstalk to long-term consequences. Rev Neurosci 2021; 32:427-442. [PMID: 33550780 DOI: 10.1515/revneuro-2020-0092] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/21/2020] [Accepted: 11/07/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
As the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic continues to be a multidimensional threat to humanity, more evidence of neurological involvement associated with it has emerged. Neuroimmune interaction may prove to be important not only in the pathogenesis of neurological manifestations but also to prevent systemic hyperinflammation. In this review, we summarize reports of COVID-19 cases with neurological involvement, followed by discussion of possible routes of entry, immune responses against coronavirus infection in the central nervous system and mechanisms of nerve degeneration due to viral infection and immune responses. Possible mechanisms for neuroprotection and virus-associated neurological consequences are also discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dian Eurike Septyaningtrias
- Department of Histology and Cell Biology, Faculty of Medicine, Public Health and Nursing, Universitas Gadjah Mada, Jalan Farmako Sekip Utara, Yogyakarta55281, Indonesia
| | - Rina Susilowati
- Department of Histology and Cell Biology, Faculty of Medicine, Public Health and Nursing, Universitas Gadjah Mada, Jalan Farmako Sekip Utara, Yogyakarta55281, Indonesia
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Cataldi M, Pignataro G, Taglialatela M. Neurobiology of coronaviruses: Potential relevance for COVID-19. Neurobiol Dis 2020; 143:105007. [PMID: 32622086 PMCID: PMC7329662 DOI: 10.1016/j.nbd.2020.105007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/20/2020] [Revised: 06/25/2020] [Accepted: 06/27/2020] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
In the first two decades of the 21st century, there have been three outbreaks of severe respiratory infections caused by highly pathogenic coronaviruses (CoVs) around the world: the severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) by the SARS-CoV in 2002-2003, the Middle East respiratory syndrome (MERS) by the MERS-CoV in June 2012, and Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) by the SARS-CoV-2 presently affecting most countries In all of these, fatalities are a consequence of a multiorgan dysregulation caused by pulmonary, renal, cardiac, and circulatory damage; however, COVID patients may show significant neurological signs and symptoms such as headache, nausea, vomiting, and sensory disturbances, the most prominent being anosmia and ageusia. The neuroinvasive potential of CoVs might be responsible for at least part of these symptoms and may contribute to the respiratory failure observed in affected patients. Therefore, in the present manuscript, we have reviewed the available preclinical evidence on the mechanisms and consequences of CoVs-induced CNS damage, and highlighted the potential role of CoVs in determining or aggravating acute and long-term neurological diseases in infected individuals. We consider that a widespread awareness of the significant neurotropism of CoVs might contribute to an earlier recognition of the signs and symptoms of viral-induced CNS damage. Moreover, a better understanding of the cellular and molecular mechanisms by which CoVs affect CNS function and cause CNS damage could help in planning new strategies for prognostic evaluation and targeted therapeutic intervention.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Maurizio Taglialatela
- Division of Pharmacology, Department of Neuroscience, University of Naples "Federico II", 80131 Naples, Italy.
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12
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Bongetta D, Calloni T, Colombo EV, Versace A, Assietti R. Do matrix metalloproteases mediate the SARS-CoV-2-related damage to the central nervous system? Brain Behav Immun 2020; 88:35. [PMID: 32446945 PMCID: PMC7241329 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbi.2020.05.050] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/18/2020] [Accepted: 05/18/2020] [Indexed: 01/20/2023] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Daniele Bongetta
- Neurosurgery Unit, ASST Fatebenefratelli-Sacco, Ospedale Fatebenefratelli e Oftalmico, Milano, Italy.
| | - Tommaso Calloni
- Unit of Neurosurgery, School of Medicine and Surgery, University of Milano-Bicocca, Monza, Italy
| | - Elena Virginia Colombo
- Neurosurgery Unit, ASST Fatebenefratelli-Sacco, Ospedale Fatebenefratelli e Oftalmico, Milano, Italy
| | - Alessandro Versace
- Neurosurgery Unit, ASST Fatebenefratelli-Sacco, Ospedale Fatebenefratelli e Oftalmico, Milano, Italy
| | - Roberto Assietti
- Neurosurgery Unit, ASST Fatebenefratelli-Sacco, Ospedale Fatebenefratelli e Oftalmico, Milano, Italy
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Muri L, Leppert D, Grandgirard D, Leib SL. MMPs and ADAMs in neurological infectious diseases and multiple sclerosis. Cell Mol Life Sci 2019; 76:3097-3116. [PMID: 31172218 PMCID: PMC7079810 DOI: 10.1007/s00018-019-03174-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/23/2019] [Revised: 05/23/2019] [Accepted: 05/29/2019] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Metalloproteinases-such as matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) and a disintegrin and metalloproteinases (ADAMs)-are involved in various diseases of the nervous system but also contribute to nervous system development, synaptic plasticity and neuroregeneration upon injury. MMPs and ADAMs proteolytically cleave many substrates including extracellular matrix components but also signaling molecules and receptors. During neuroinfectious disease with associated neuroinflammation, MMPs and ADAMs regulate blood-brain barrier breakdown, bacterial invasion, neutrophil infiltration and cytokine signaling. Specific and broad-spectrum inhibitors for MMPs and ADAMs have experimentally been shown to decrease neuroinflammation and brain damage in diseases with excessive neuroinflammation as a common denominator, such as pneumococcal meningitis and multiple sclerosis, thereby improving the disease outcome. Timing of metalloproteinase inhibition appears to be critical to effectively target the cascade of pathophysiological processes leading to brain damage without inhibiting the neuroregenerative effects of metalloproteinases. As the critical role of metalloproteinases in neuronal repair mechanisms and regeneration was only lately recognized, the original idea of chronic MMP inhibition needs to be conceptually revised. Recently accumulated research urges for a second chance of metalloproteinase inhibitors, which-when correctly applied and dosed-harbor the potential to improve the outcome of different neuroinflammatory diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lukas Muri
- Neuroinfection Laboratory, Institute for Infectious Diseases, University of Bern, Friedbühlstrasse 51, 3001, Bern, Switzerland
- Graduate School for Cellular and Biomedical Sciences (GCB), University of Bern, Freiestrasse 1, 3012, Bern, Switzerland
| | - David Leppert
- Department of Neurology, University Hospital Basel, Petersgraben 4, 4031, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Denis Grandgirard
- Neuroinfection Laboratory, Institute for Infectious Diseases, University of Bern, Friedbühlstrasse 51, 3001, Bern, Switzerland
| | - Stephen L Leib
- Neuroinfection Laboratory, Institute for Infectious Diseases, University of Bern, Friedbühlstrasse 51, 3001, Bern, Switzerland.
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The Activity of Matrix Metalloproteinases (MMP-2, MMP-9) and Their Tissue Inhibitors (TIMP-1, TIMP-3) in the Cerebral Cortex and Hippocampus in Experimental Acanthamoebiasis. Int J Mol Sci 2018; 19:ijms19124128. [PMID: 30572657 PMCID: PMC6321078 DOI: 10.3390/ijms19124128] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/27/2018] [Revised: 12/13/2018] [Accepted: 12/14/2018] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The pathological process occurring within the central nervous system (CNS) as a result of the infection by Acanthamoeba spp. is not fully understood. Therefore, the aim of this study was to determine whether Acanthamoeba spp. may affect the levels of matrix metalloproteinases (MMP-2,-9), their tissue inhibitors (TIMP-1,-3) and MMP-9/TIMP-1, MMP-2/TIMP-3 ratios in the cerebral cortex and hippocampus, in relation to the host’s immunological status. Our results showed that Acanthamoeba spp. infection can change the levels of MMP and TIMP in the CNS and may be amenable targets for limiting amoebic encephalitis. The increase in the activity of matrix metalloproteinases during acanthamoebiasis may be primarily the result of inflammation process, probably an increased activity of proteolytic processes, but also (to a lesser extent) a defense mechanism preventing the processes of neurodegeneration.
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15
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Chen KHE, Chen C, Lopez T, Radecki KC, Bustamante K, Lorenson MY, Ge X, Walker AM. Use of a novel camelid-inspired human antibody demonstrates the importance of MMP-14 to cancer stem cell function in the metastatic process. Oncotarget 2018; 9:29431-29444. [PMID: 30034628 PMCID: PMC6047671 DOI: 10.18632/oncotarget.25654] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/07/2018] [Accepted: 06/04/2018] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) are considered excellent targets for cancer therapy because of their important roles in multiple aspects of tumor growth and metastatic spread. However, not all MMPs, or even all activities of specific MMPs, promote cancer. Therefore, there is a need for highly specific inhibitors. Monoclonal antibodies provide the potential for the degree of specificity required, but the isolation of antibodies able to inhibit a specific protease with high selectivity is challenging. Proteolysis specificity lies in recognition of the substrate in or around the active site, which generally forms a concave cleft inaccessible by human IgGs. Inspired by camelid antibodies, which have convex paratopes, we have produced a recombinant human IgG, designated 3A2, which binds in the substrate cleft of MMP-14, inhibiting its activity, but not the activity of highly homologous MMPs. In the 4T1 highly metastatic, syngeneic, orthotopic model of breast cancer, IgG 3A2 markedly inhibited growth of the primary tumor, but more importantly reduced metastatic spread to the lungs and liver by 94%. Stem cells in the tumor population expressed twice as much MMP-14 mRNA as bulk tumor cells. In addition to reducing dissemination of tumor stem cells, as would be expected from inhibition of MMP-14's ability to degrade components of the extracellular matrix, IgG 3A2 also inhibited the ability of individual stem cells to proliferate and produce colonies. We conclude that it is possible to produce antibodies with sufficient specificity for development as therapeutics and that IgG 3A2 has therapeutic potential.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kuan-Hui E Chen
- Division of Biomedical Sciences, School of Medicine, University of California, Riverside, CA 92521, USA
| | - Chuan Chen
- Department of Chemical and Environmental Engineering, University of California, Riverside, CA 92521, USA
| | - Tyler Lopez
- Department of Chemical and Environmental Engineering, University of California, Riverside, CA 92521, USA
| | - Kelly C Radecki
- Division of Biomedical Sciences, School of Medicine, University of California, Riverside, CA 92521, USA
| | - Karissa Bustamante
- Division of Biomedical Sciences, School of Medicine, University of California, Riverside, CA 92521, USA
| | - Mary Y Lorenson
- Division of Biomedical Sciences, School of Medicine, University of California, Riverside, CA 92521, USA
| | - Xin Ge
- Department of Chemical and Environmental Engineering, University of California, Riverside, CA 92521, USA
| | - Ameae M Walker
- Division of Biomedical Sciences, School of Medicine, University of California, Riverside, CA 92521, USA
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16
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Marro BS, Grist JJ, Lane TE. Inducible Expression of CXCL1 within the Central Nervous System Amplifies Viral-Induced Demyelination. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2016; 196:1855-64. [PMID: 26773148 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.1501802] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/10/2015] [Accepted: 12/16/2015] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
The functional role of the ELR(+) chemokine CXCL1 in host defense and disease following infection of the CNS with the neurotropic JHM strain of mouse hepatitis virus (JHMV) was examined. Mice in which expression of CXCL1 is under the control of a tetracycline-inducible promoter active within glial fibrillary acidic protein-positive cells were generated and this allowed for selectively increasing CNS expression of CXCL1 in response to JHMV infection and evaluating the effects on neuroinflammation, control of viral replication, and demyelination. Inducible expression of CNS-derived CXCL1 resulted in increased levels of CXCL1 protein within the serum, brain, and spinal cord that correlated with increased frequency of Ly6G(+)CD11b(+) neutrophils present within the CNS. Elevated levels of CXCL1 did not influence the generation of virus-specific T cells, and there was no difference in control of JHMV replication compared with control mice, indicating that T cell infiltration into the CNS is CXCL1-independent. Sustained CXCL1 expression within the CNS resulted in increased mortality that correlated with elevated neutrophil infiltration, diminished numbers of mature oligodendrocytes, and an increase in the severity of demyelination. Neutrophil ablation in CXCL1-transgenic mice reduced the severity of demyelination in mice, arguing for a role for these cells in white matter damage. Collectively, these findings illustrate that sustained CXCL1 expression amplifies the severity of white matter damage and that neutrophils can contribute to this process in a model of viral-induced neurologic disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brett S Marro
- Department of Molecular Biology and Biochemistry, University of California, Irvine, Irvine CA 92697; and
| | - Jonathan J Grist
- Department of Pathology, University of Utah School of Medicine, Salt Lake City, UT 84112
| | - Thomas E Lane
- Department of Pathology, University of Utah School of Medicine, Salt Lake City, UT 84112
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Abstract
Neurotropic strains of the mouse hepatitis virus (MHV) cause a range of diseases in infected mice ranging from mild encephalitis with clearance of the virus followed by demyelination to rapidly fatal encephalitis. This chapter discusses the structure, life cycle, transmission, and pathology of neurotropic coronaviruses, as well as the immune response to coronavirus infection. Mice infected with neurotropic strains of MHV have provided useful systems in which to study processes of virus- and immune-mediated demyelination and virus clearance and/or persistence in the CNS, and the mechanisms of virus evasion of the immune system.
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18
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Kapil P, Stohlman SA, Hinton DR, Bergmann CC. PKR mediated regulation of inflammation and IL-10 during viral encephalomyelitis. J Neuroimmunol 2014; 270:1-12. [PMID: 24642385 PMCID: PMC4019976 DOI: 10.1016/j.jneuroim.2014.02.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/14/2014] [Revised: 02/24/2014] [Accepted: 02/25/2014] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Double-stranded RNA-dependent protein kinase (PKR) regulates antiviral activity, immune responses, apoptosis and neurotoxicity. Gliatropic coronavirus infection induced PKR activation in infected as well uninfected cells within the central nervous system (CNS). However, PKR deficiency only modestly increased viral replication and did not affect IFN-α/β or IL-1β expression. Despite reduced Il-6, Ccl5, and Cxcl10 mRNA, protein levels remained unaltered. Furthermore, PKR deficiency selectively reduced IL-10 production in CD4, but not CD8 T cells, without affecting CNS pathology. The results demonstrate the ability of PKR to balance neuroinflammation by selectively modulating key cytokines and chemokines in CNS resident and CD4 T cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Parul Kapil
- Department of Neurosciences, NC-30, Lerner Research Institute, Cleveland Clinic Foundation, 9500 Euclid Avenue, Cleveland, OH 44195, USA
| | - Stephen A Stohlman
- Department of Neurosciences, NC-30, Lerner Research Institute, Cleveland Clinic Foundation, 9500 Euclid Avenue, Cleveland, OH 44195, USA
| | - David R Hinton
- Department of Pathology, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90033, USA
| | - Cornelia C Bergmann
- Department of Neurosciences, NC-30, Lerner Research Institute, Cleveland Clinic Foundation, 9500 Euclid Avenue, Cleveland, OH 44195, USA.
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Baranger K, Rivera S, Liechti FD, Grandgirard D, Bigas J, Seco J, Tarrago T, Leib SL, Khrestchatisky M. Endogenous and synthetic MMP inhibitors in CNS physiopathology. PROGRESS IN BRAIN RESEARCH 2014; 214:313-51. [DOI: 10.1016/b978-0-444-63486-3.00014-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
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20
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Abstract
Infection of the CNS (central nervous system) with a sublethal neurotropic coronavirus (JHMV) induces a vigorous inflammatory response. CD4+ and CD8+ T cells are essential to control infectious virus but at the cost of tissue damage. An enigma in understanding the contribution of T cell subsets in pathogenesis resides in their distinct migration pattern across the BBB (blood brain barrier). CD4+ T cells transiently accumulate within the perivascular space, whereas CD8+ T cells migrate directly into the CNS parenchyma. As MMPs (matrix metalloproteinases) facilitate migration across the glia limitans, specific expression of the TIMP (tissue inhibitor of MMPs)-1 by CD4+ T cells present in the perivascular cuffs suggested that TIMP-1 is responsible for stalling CD4+ T cell migration into the CNS parenchyma. Using TIMP-1 deficient mice, the present data demonstrate an increase rather than a decrease in CD4+ T cell accumulation within the perivascular space during JHMV infection. Whereas virus control was not affected by perivascular retention of CD4+ T cells, disease severity was decreased and associated with reduced IFNγ (interferon γ) production. Moreover, decreased CD4+ T cell recruitment into the CNS parenchyma of TIMP-1 deficient mice was not associated with impaired T cell recruiting chemokines or MMP expression, and no compensation by other TIMP molecules was identified. These data suggest an MMP-independent role of TIMP-1 in regulating CD4+ T cell access into the CNS parenchyma during acute JHMV encephalitis.
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Tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinase 1 is preferentially expressed in Th1 and Th17 T-helper cell subsets and is a direct STAT target gene. PLoS One 2013; 8:e59367. [PMID: 23555662 PMCID: PMC3608653 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0059367] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/28/2012] [Accepted: 02/13/2013] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
Abstract
CD4(+) T helper (Th) cells differentiate into distinct effector subsets that are critical for host defense, but are also implicated in the pathogenesis of autoimmune disorders. Thelper17 (Th17) cells in particular are emerging as important drivers of multiple diseases including psoriasis, spondyloarthropathy and multiple sclerosis. To gain insight into the function of Th17 cells, we performed transcriptional profiling in hopes of elucidating products not previously recognized as being functionally relevant in these T cells. Herein, we demonstrate that tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinase 1 (TIMP1), a secreted protein with pleiotropic effects on cellular growth, survival and integrity of the extracellular matrix, is preferentially produced by Th17 and Th1 cells. We further show that Th1 and Th17 cell TIMP1 regulation follows separate mechanisms with a requirement for STAT4 in the former and STAT3 in the latter. Finally, we demonstrate that when restricted to T cells, expression of TIMP1 promotes neuropathology in experimental allergic encephalomyelitis.
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Weinger JG, Marro BS, Hosking MP, Lane TE. The chemokine receptor CXCR2 and coronavirus-induced neurologic disease. Virology 2013; 435:110-7. [PMID: 23217621 PMCID: PMC3522860 DOI: 10.1016/j.virol.2012.08.049] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2012] [Accepted: 08/31/2012] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Inoculation with the neurotropic JHM strain of mouse hepatitis virus (MHV) into the central nervous system (CNS) of susceptible strains of mice results in an acute encephalomyelitis in which virus preferentially replicates within glial cells while excluding neurons. Control of viral replication during acute disease is mediated by infiltrating virus-specific T cells via cytokine secretion and cytolytic activity, however sterile immunity is not achieved and virus persists resulting in chronic neuroinflammation associated with demyelination. CXCR2 is a chemokine receptor that upon binding to specific ligands promotes host defense through recruitment of myeloid cells to the CNS as well as protecting oligodendroglia from cytokine-mediated death in response to MHV infection. These findings highlight growing evidence of the diverse and important role of CXCR2 in regulating neuroinflammatory diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jason G Weinger
- Department of Molecular Biology & Biochemistry, UC Irvine, CA 92697-3900, USA
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Hansmann F, Herder V, Kalkuhl A, Haist V, Zhang N, Schaudien D, Deschl U, Baumgärtner W, Ulrich R. Matrix metalloproteinase-12 deficiency ameliorates the clinical course and demyelination in Theiler's murine encephalomyelitis. Acta Neuropathol 2012; 124:127-42. [PMID: 22271152 DOI: 10.1007/s00401-012-0942-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/19/2011] [Revised: 01/06/2012] [Accepted: 01/07/2012] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
Abstract
Matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) are a family of extracellular proteases involved in the pathogenesis of demyelinating diseases like multiple sclerosis (MS). The aim of the present study was to investigate whether MMPs induce direct myelin degradation, leukocyte infiltration, disruption of the blood-brain barrier (BBB), and/or extracellular matrix remodeling in the pathogenesis of Theiler's murine encephalomyelitis (TME), a virus-induced model of MS. During the demyelinating phase of TME, the highest transcriptional upregulation was detected for Mmp12, followed by Mmp3. Mmp12 (-/-) mice showed reduced demyelination, macrophage infiltration, and motor deficits compared with wild-type- and Mmp3 knock-out mice. However, BBB remained unaltered, and the amount of extracellular matrix deposition was similar in knock-out mice and wild-type mice. Furthermore, stereotaxic injection of activated MMP-3, -9, and -12 into the caudal cerebellar peduncle of adult mice induced a focally extensive primary demyelination prior to infiltration of inflammatory cells, as well as a reduction in the number of oligodendrocytes and a leakage of BBB. All these results demonstrate that MMP-12 plays an essential role in the pathogenesis of TME, most likely due to its primary myelin- or oligodendrocyte-toxic potential and its role in macrophage extravasation, whereas there was no sign of BBB damage or alterations to extracellular matrix remodeling/deposition. Thus, interrupting the MMP-12 cascade may be a relevant therapeutic approach for preventing chronic progressive demyelination.
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Savarin C, Stohlman SA, Hinton DR, Ransohoff RM, Cua DJ, Bergmann CC. IFN-γ protects from lethal IL-17 mediated viral encephalomyelitis independent of neutrophils. J Neuroinflammation 2012; 9:104. [PMID: 22642802 PMCID: PMC3419086 DOI: 10.1186/1742-2094-9-104] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/07/2012] [Accepted: 04/10/2012] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The interplay between IFN-γ, IL-17 and neutrophils during CNS inflammatory disease is complex due to cross-regulatory factors affecting both positive and negative feedback loops. These interactions have hindered the ability to distinguish the relative contributions of neutrophils, Th1 and Th17 cell-derived effector molecules from secondary mediators to tissue damage and morbidity. METHODS Encephalitis induced by a gliatropic murine coronavirus was used as a model to assess the direct contributions of neutrophils, IFN-γ and IL-17 to virus-induced mortality. CNS inflammatory conditions were selectively manipulated by adoptive transfer of virus-primed wild-type (WT) or IFN-γ deficient (GKO) memory CD4+ T cells into infected SCID mice, coupled with antibody-mediated neutrophil depletion and cytokine blockade. RESULTS Transfer of GKO memory CD4+ T cells into infected SCID mice induced rapid mortality compared to recipients of WT memory CD4+ T cells, despite similar virus control and demyelination. In contrast to recipients of WT CD4+ T cells, extensive neutrophil infiltration and IL-17 expression within the CNS in recipients of GKO CD4+ T cells provided a model to directly assess their contribution(s) to disease. Recipients of WT CD4+ T cells depleted of IFN-γ did not express IL-17 and were spared from mortality despite abundant CNS neutrophil infiltration, indicating that mortality was not mediated by excessive CNS neutrophil accumulation. By contrast, IL-17 depletion rescued recipients of GKO CD4+ T cells from rapid mortality without diminishing neutrophils or reducing GM-CSF, associated with pathogenic Th17 cells in CNS autoimmune models. Furthermore, co-transfer of WT and GKO CD4+ T cells prolonged survival in an IFN-γ dependent manner, although IL-17 transcription was not reduced. CONCLUSIONS These data demonstrate that IL-17 mediates detrimental clinical consequences in an IFN-γ-deprived environment, independent of extensive neutrophil accumulation or GM-CSF upregulation. The results also suggest that IFN-γ overrides the detrimental IL-17 effector responses via a mechanism downstream of transcriptional regulation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carine Savarin
- Department of Neurosciences NC30, Lerner Research Institute, The Cleveland Clinic Foundation, 9500 Euclid Avenue, Cleveland, OH 44195, USA
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Shukla V, Kumar Shakya A, Dhole TN, Misra UK. Upregulated expression of matrix metalloproteinases and tissue inhibitors of matrix metalloproteinases in BALB/c mouse brain challenged with Japanese encephalitis virus. Neuroimmunomodulation 2012; 19:241-54. [PMID: 22441541 DOI: 10.1159/000335182] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/22/2011] [Accepted: 11/16/2011] [Indexed: 01/23/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Uncontrolled immune responses in the nervous system are potentially damaging following Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV) infection. Matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) and their tissue inhibitors (TIMPs) act together to control the proteolysis of extracellular matrix. Disbalances in the MMP/TIMP system during virally induced neurodegenerative processes and inflammations are responsive to changes in the progression of diseases. METHODS The expression of MMP-2, MMP-7, MMP-9, TIMP-1, and TIMP-3 in JEV-infected mouse brain was analyzed by RT-PCR for semiquantitation and ELISA for estimation of protein along with brain histopathology at different days postinoculation (dpi). Gelatin gel zymography was performed for MMP-2 and MMP-9 activities. RESULTS In the virus-infected group, expression of MMP-2, MMP-7, MMP-9, TIMP-1, and TIMP-3 was found to be increased from 1 dpi to 6 dpi as compared to controls by both RT-PCR and ELISA. The expressions of MMPs and TIMPs at mRNA and protein levels were in concordance with each other. Post hoc multiple comparison analysis between days revealed that, in the virus-infected groups, significant increases (p < 0.05) in MMP and TIMP levels were observed between various dpi at both mRNA and protein levels. Only the MMP-7 protein level at 6 dpi was not significant compared to 5 dpi (p = 0.99). CONCLUSION Overexpression of MMPs and TIMPs is associated with disease severity in the central nervous system (CNS) during JEV infection. Our results showed that JEV infection can alter the expression of MMPs and TIMPs in the CNS. Thus, assessing these important immune mediators in CNS infection appears to play an important role in the development of symptoms and may help to understand the JEV-induced neurological disorders. More studies are required on this important enzymatic system to study their role in immune mediated pathogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vibha Shukla
- Department of Microbiology, Sanjay Gandhi Postgraduate Institute of Medical Sciences, Lucknow, India
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An alternate perspective on the roles of TIMPs and MMPs in pathology. THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PATHOLOGY 2011; 180:12-6. [PMID: 22033229 DOI: 10.1016/j.ajpath.2011.09.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 146] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/28/2011] [Revised: 08/26/2011] [Accepted: 09/19/2011] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
Tissue inhibitors of metalloproteinases (TIMPs) are pleiotropic extracellular proteins. TIMPs are recognized as endogenous regulators of matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs), a large family of extracellular enzymes with proteolytic activities that participate in cellular homeostasis, adaptation, and tissue remodeling. In addition to their roles as endogenous potent MMP inhibitors, accumulating evidence indicates important physiological roles for TIMPs that are independent of their ability to block MMP activities. For instance, MMP-independent actions of TIMP-1 in the central nervous system have been implicated in synaptic plasticity, neuroprotection, oncogenesis, and oligodendrocyte differentiation. Expression of TIMP-1 is dramatically increased in response to a variety of injurious and inflammatory insults. In the context of disease pathogenesis, MMP and TIMP expression are interpreted with respect to the proteolytic consequences of increased MMP/TIMP ratios. Here, we provide an alternative perspective on the homeostatic balance of TIMP and MMP proteins, whereby consideration is given to the possible role of MMPs as cognate inhibitors of the signaling functions of TIMPs. Thus, MMPs may regulate the receptor-mediated actions of TIMPs, inasmuch as TIMPs are themselves inhibitors of MMP-mediated proteolytic activities. This broader view reflects our emerging understanding that TIMP signaling and MMP inhibition represent two important functions of TIMPs that have the potential to affect tissue pathology.
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The role of the blood-brain barrier during Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus infection. J Virol 2011; 85:10682-90. [PMID: 21849461 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.05032-11] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Venezuelan equine encephalitis (VEE) virus is a mosquito-borne alphavirus associated with sporadic outbreaks in human and equid populations in the Western Hemisphere. After the bite of an infected mosquito, the virus initiates a biphasic disease: a peripheral phase with viral replication in lymphoid and myeloid tissues, followed by a neurotropic phase with infection of central nervous system (CNS) neurons, causing neuropathology and in some cases fatal encephalitis. The mechanisms allowing VEE virus to enter the CNS are currently poorly understood. Previous data have shown that the virus gains access to the CNS by infecting olfactory sensory neurons in the nasal mucosa of mice. However, at day 5 after inoculation, the infection of the brain is multifocal, indicating that virus particles are able to cross the blood-brain barrier (BBB). To better understand the role of the BBB during VEE virus infection, we used a well-characterized mouse model system. Using VEE virus replicon particles (VRP), we modeled the early events of neuroinvasion, showing that the replication of VRP in the nasal mucosa induced the opening of the BBB, allowing peripherally administered VRP to invade the brain. Peripheral VEE virus infection was characterized by a biphasic opening of the BBB. Further, inhibition of BBB opening resulted in a delayed viral neuroinvasion and pathogenesis. Overall, these results suggest that VEE virus initially enters the CNS through the olfactory pathways and initiates viral replication in the brain, which induces the opening of the BBB, allowing a second wave of invading virus from the periphery to enter the brain.
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Savarin C, Stohlman SA, Rietsch AM, Butchi N, Ransohoff RM, Bergmann CC. MMP9 deficiency does not decrease blood-brain barrier disruption, but increases astrocyte MMP3 expression during viral encephalomyelitis. Glia 2011; 59:1770-81. [PMID: 21800363 PMCID: PMC3174277 DOI: 10.1002/glia.21222] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/11/2011] [Accepted: 06/28/2011] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Abstract
Expression of matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs), especially MMP9 correlates with blood–brain barrier (BBB) disruption during many neuroinflammatory diseases. During neurotropic coronavirus virus (JHMV) induced encephalomyelitis, MMP9 activity is restricted to neutrophils. Furthermore, myeloid cell depletion implicated MMP9 in facilitating leukocyte central nervous system (CNS) infiltration via loss of BBB integrity. The requirement of MMP9 in BBB disruption was thus assessed in JHMV infected MMP9 deficient (MMP9−/−) mice. Depletion of neutrophils reduced CNS accumulation of monocytes and T cells, albeit without affecting overall pathogenesis. By contrast, infected MMP9−/− mice revealed no differences in CNS leukocyte infiltration, composition or localization, consistent with BBB disruption similar to wild‐type (WT) mice. Unimpaired T cell mediated virus control supported an unexpectedly redundant role of MMP9 in promoting leukocyte access to the brain parenchyma. Although MMP9 deficiency did not expand the overall limited pattern of MMP expression during JHMV infection, it coincided with MMP3 upregulation. MMP3 expression remained largely confined to astrocytes, similar to WT mice. These data demonstrate that neutrophil‐derived MMP9 is not the sole mediator facilitating parenchymal leukocyte entry via BBB disruption during viral encephalomyelitis. Moreover, significantly enhanced MMP3 expression by astrocytes in infected MMP9−/− mice suggests an active role of resident cells in participating and potentially collaborating with infiltrating cells in regulating BBB permeability. Overall, these results highlight the complexity of targeting individual MMPs as a strategy to regulate inflammation. © 2011 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carine Savarin
- Department of Neurosciences, Lerner Research Institute, Cleveland Clinic Foundation, Cleveland, Ohio, USA
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T-cell production of matrix metalloproteinases and inhibition of parasite clearance by TIMP-1 during chronic Toxoplasma infection in the brain. ASN Neuro 2011; 3:e00049. [PMID: 21434872 PMCID: PMC3024837 DOI: 10.1042/an20100027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/23/2023] Open
Abstract
Chronic infection with the intracellular protozoan parasite Toxoplasma gondii leads to tissue remodelling in the brain and a continuous requirement for peripheral leucocyte migration within the CNS (central nervous system). In the present study, we investigate the role of MMPs (matrix metalloproteinases) and their inhibitors in T-cell migration into the infected brain. Increased expression of two key molecules, MMP-8 and MMP-10, along with their inhibitor, TIMP-1 (tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinases-1), was observed in the CNS following infection. Analysis of infiltrating lymphocytes demonstrated MMP-8 and -10 production by CD4+ and CD8+ T-cells. In addition, infiltrating T-cells and CNS resident astrocytes increased their expression of TIMP-1 following infection. TIMP-1-deficient mice had a decrease in perivascular accumulation of lymphocyte populations, yet an increase in the proportion of CD4+ T-cells that had trafficked into the CNS. This was accompanied by a reduction in parasite burden in the brain. Taken together, these findings demonstrate a role for MMPs and TIMP-1 in the trafficking of lymphocytes into the CNS during chronic infection in the brain.
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de Sousa AA, Reis R, Bento-Torres J, Trévia N, Lins NADA, Passos A, Santos Z, Diniz JAP, Vasconcelos PFDC, Cunningham C, Perry VH, Picanço Diniz CW. Influence of enriched environment on viral encephalitis outcomes: behavioral and neuropathological changes in albino Swiss mice. PLoS One 2011; 6:e15597. [PMID: 21264301 PMCID: PMC3019164 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0015597] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/27/2010] [Accepted: 11/13/2010] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
An enriched environment has previously been described as enhancing natural killer cell activity of recognizing and killing virally infected cells. However, the effects of environmental enrichment on behavioral changes in relation to virus clearance and the neuropathology of encephalitis have not been studied in detail. We tested the hypothesis that environmental enrichment leads to less CNS neuroinvasion and/or more rapid viral clearance in association with T cells without neuronal damage. Stereology-based estimates of activated microglia perineuronal nets and neurons in CA3 were correlated with behavioral changes in the Piry rhabdovirus model of encephalitis in the albino Swiss mouse. Two-month-old female mice maintained in impoverished (IE) or enriched environments (EE) for 3 months were behaviorally tested. After the tests, an equal volume of Piry virus (IEPy, EEPy)-infected or normal brain homogenates were nasally instilled. Eight days post-instillation (dpi), when behavioral changes became apparent, brains were fixed and processed to detect viral antigens, activated microglia, perineuronal nets, and T lymphocytes by immuno- or histochemical reactions. At 20 or 40 dpi, the remaining animals were behaviorally tested and processed for the same markers. In IEPy mice, burrowing activity decreased and recovered earlier (8–10 dpi) than open field (20–40 dpi) but remained unaltered in the EEPy group. EEPy mice presented higher T-cell infiltration, less CNS cell infection by the virus and/or faster virus clearance, less microgliosis, and less damage to the extracellular matrix than IEPy. In both EEPy and IEPy animals, CA3 neuronal number remained unaltered. The results suggest that an enriched environment promotes a more effective immune response to clear CNS virus and not at the cost of CNS damage.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aline Andrade de Sousa
- Universidade Federal do Pará (UFPA), Instituto de Ciências Biológicas, Laboratório de Investigações em Neurodegeneração e Infecção, Hospital Universitário João de Barros Barreto, Belém, Brazil
| | - Renata Reis
- Universidade Federal do Pará (UFPA), Instituto de Ciências Biológicas, Laboratório de Investigações em Neurodegeneração e Infecção, Hospital Universitário João de Barros Barreto, Belém, Brazil
| | - João Bento-Torres
- Universidade Federal do Pará (UFPA), Instituto de Ciências Biológicas, Laboratório de Investigações em Neurodegeneração e Infecção, Hospital Universitário João de Barros Barreto, Belém, Brazil
| | - Nonata Trévia
- Universidade Federal do Pará (UFPA), Instituto de Ciências Biológicas, Laboratório de Investigações em Neurodegeneração e Infecção, Hospital Universitário João de Barros Barreto, Belém, Brazil
| | - Nara Alves de Almeida Lins
- Universidade Federal do Pará (UFPA), Instituto de Ciências Biológicas, Laboratório de Investigações em Neurodegeneração e Infecção, Hospital Universitário João de Barros Barreto, Belém, Brazil
| | - Aline Passos
- Universidade Federal do Pará (UFPA), Instituto de Ciências Biológicas, Laboratório de Investigações em Neurodegeneração e Infecção, Hospital Universitário João de Barros Barreto, Belém, Brazil
| | - Zaire Santos
- Universidade Federal do Pará (UFPA), Instituto de Ciências Biológicas, Laboratório de Investigações em Neurodegeneração e Infecção, Hospital Universitário João de Barros Barreto, Belém, Brazil
| | | | - Pedro Fernando da Costa Vasconcelos
- Instituto Evandro Chagas (IEC), Departamento de Arbovirologia e Febres Hemorrágicas, Ananindeua, Brazil
- Departamento de Patologia, Universidade do Estado do Pará, Belém, Brazil
| | - Colm Cunningham
- School of Biochemistry and Immunology, Trinity College Institute of Neuroscience, Trinity College, Dublin, Ireland
| | - Victor Hugh Perry
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Southampton, Southampton, United Kingdom
| | - Cristovam Wanderley Picanço Diniz
- Universidade Federal do Pará (UFPA), Instituto de Ciências Biológicas, Laboratório de Investigações em Neurodegeneração e Infecção, Hospital Universitário João de Barros Barreto, Belém, Brazil
- * E-mail:
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Lane TE, Hosking MP. The pathogenesis of murine coronavirus infection of the central nervous system. Crit Rev Immunol 2010; 30:119-30. [PMID: 20370625 DOI: 10.1615/critrevimmunol.v30.i2.20] [Citation(s) in RCA: 72] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/17/2023]
Abstract
Mouse hepatitis virus (MHV) is a positive-strand RNA virus that causes an acute encephalomyelitis that later resolves into a chronic fulminating demyelinating disease. Cytokine production, chemokine secretion, and immune cell infiltration into the central nervous system are critical to control viral replication during acute infection. Despite potent antiviral T-lymphocyte activity, sterile immunity is not achieved, and MHV chronically persists within oligodendrocytes. Continued infiltration and activation of the immune system, a result of the lingering viral antigen and RNA within oligodendrocytes, lead directly to the development of an immune-mediated demyelination that bears remarkable similarities, both clinically and histologically, to the human demyelinating disease multiple sclerosis. MHV offers a unique model system for studying host defense during acute viral infection and immune-mediated demyelination during chronic infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas E Lane
- Department of Molecular Biology and Biochemistry, University of California, Irvine, California 92697-3900, USA
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32
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Monocytes regulate T cell migration through the glia limitans during acute viral encephalitis. J Virol 2010; 84:4878-88. [PMID: 20200240 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.00051-10] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Leukocyte access into the central nervous system (CNS) parenchyma is tightly regulated by the blood-brain barrier (BBB). Leukocyte migration through the endothelial cell wall into the perivascular space is well characterized; however, mechanisms regulating their penetration through the glia limitans into the parenchyma are less well studied, and the role of monocytes relative to neutrophils is poorly defined. Acute viral encephalitis was thus induced in CCL2-deficient (CCL2(-/-)) mice to specifically abrogate monocyte recruitment. Impaired monocyte recruitment prolonged T cell retention in the perivascular space, although no difference in overall CNS accumulation of CD4 or CD8 T cells was detected by flow cytometry. Delayed penetration to the CNS parenchyma was not associated with reduced or altered expression of either matrix metalloproteinases (MMP) or the T cell chemoattractants CXCL10 and CCL5. Nevertheless, decreased parenchymal leukocyte infiltration delayed T cell-mediated control of virus replication as well as clinical disease. These data are the first to demonstrate that the rapid monocyte recruitment into the CNS during viral encephalitis is dispensable for T cell migration across the blood vessel endothelium. However, monocytes facilitate penetration through the glia limitans. Thus, the rapid monocyte response to viral encephalitis constitutes an indirect antiviral pathway by aiding access of effector T cells to the site of viral infection.
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Hosking MP, Lane TE. The Biology of Persistent Infection: Inflammation and Demyelination following Murine Coronavirus Infection of the Central Nervous System. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2009; 5:267-276. [PMID: 19946572 DOI: 10.2174/157339509789504005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Multiple Sclerosis (MS) is an immune-mediated demyelinating disease of humans. Although causes of MS are enigmatic, underlying elements contributing to disease development include both genetic and environmental factors. Recent epidemiological evidence has pointed to viral infection as a trigger to initiating white matter damage in humans. Mouse hepatitis virus (MHV) is a positive strand RNA virus that, following intracranial infection of susceptible mice, induces an acute encephalomyelitis that later resolves into a chronic fulminating demyelinating disease. Immune cell infiltration into the central nervous system is critical both to quell viral replication and instigate demyelination. Recent efforts by our laboratory and others have focused upon strategies capable of enhancing remyelination in response to viral-induced demyelination, both by dampening chronic inflammation and by surgical engraftment of remyelination - competent neural precursor cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martin P Hosking
- Department of Molecular Biology and Biochemistry, University of California, Irvine, CA 92697-3900 USA
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Interleukin-12 (IL-12), but not IL-23, deficiency ameliorates viral encephalitis without affecting viral control. J Virol 2009; 83:5978-86. [PMID: 19339350 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.00315-09] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/17/2023] Open
Abstract
The relative contributions of interleukin-12 (IL-12) and IL-23 to viral pathogenesis have not been extensively studied. IL-12p40 mRNA rapidly increases after neurotropic coronavirus infection. Infection of mice defective in both IL-12 and IL-23 (p40(-/-)), in IL-12 alone (p35(-/-)), and in IL-23 alone (p19(-/-)) revealed that the symptoms of coronavirus-induced encephalitis are regulated by IL-12. IL-17-producing cells never exceeded background levels, supporting a redundant role of IL-23 in pathogenesis. Viral control, tropism, and demyelination were all similar in p35(-/-), p19(-/-), and wild-type mice. Reduced morbidity in infected IL-12 deficient mice was also not associated with altered recruitment or composition of inflammatory cells. However, gamma interferon (IFN-gamma) levels and virus-specific IFN-gamma-secreting CD4 and CD8 T cells were all reduced in the central nervous systems (CNS) of infected p35(-/-) mice. Transcription of the proinflammatory cytokines IL-1beta and IL-6, but not tumor necrosis factor, were initially reduced in infected p35(-/-) mice but increased to wild-type levels during peak inflammation. Furthermore, although transforming growth factor beta mRNA was not affected, IL-10 was increased in the CNS in the absence of IL-12. These data suggest that IL-12 does not contribute to antiviral function within the CNS but enhances morbidity associated with viral encephalitis by increasing the ratio of IFN-gamma to protective IL-10.
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35
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Replicon particles of Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus as a reductionist murine model for encephalitis. J Virol 2009; 83:4275-86. [PMID: 19225006 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.02383-08] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus (VEE) replicon particles (VRP) were used to model the initial phase of VEE-induced encephalitis in the mouse brain. VRP can target and infect cells as VEE, but VRP do not propagate beyond the first infected cell due to the absence of the structural genes. Direct intracranial inoculation of VRP into mice induced acute encephalitis with signs similar to the neuronal phase of wild-type VEE infection and other models of virus-induced encephalitis. Using the previously established VRP-mRNP tagging system, a new method to distinguish the host responses in infected cells from those in uninfected bystander cell populations, we detected a robust and rapid innate immune response in the central nervous system (CNS) by infected neurons and uninfected bystander cells. Moreover, this innate immune response in the CNS compromised blood-brain barrier integrity, created an inflammatory response, and directed an adaptive immune response characterized by proliferation and activation of microglia cells and infiltration of inflammatory monocytes, in addition to CD4(+) and CD8(+) T lymphocytes. Taken together, these data suggest that a naïve CNS has an intrinsic potential to induce an innate immune response that could be crucial to the outcome of the infection by determining the composition and dynamics of the adaptive immune response. Furthermore, these results establish a model for neurotropic virus infection to identify host and viral factors that contribute to invasion of the brain, the mechanism(s) whereby the adaptive immune response can clear the infection, and the role of the host innate response in these processes.
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Memory CD4+ T-cell-mediated protection from lethal coronavirus encephalomyelitis. J Virol 2008; 82:12432-40. [PMID: 18842712 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.01267-08] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The antiviral role of CD4(+) T cells in virus-induced pathologies of the central nervous system (CNS) has not been explored extensively. Control of neurotropic mouse hepatitis virus (JHMV) requires the collaboration of CD4(+) and CD8(+) T cells, with CD8(+) T cells providing direct perforin and gamma interferon (IFN-gamma)-mediated antiviral activity. To distinguish bystander from direct antiviral contributions of CD4(+) T cells in virus clearance and pathology, memory CD4(+) T cells purified from wild type (wt), perforin-deficient (PKO), and IFN-gamma-deficient (GKO) immune donors were transferred to immunodeficient SCID mice prior to CNS challenge. All three donor CD4(+) T-cell populations controlled CNS virus replication at 8 days postinfection, indicating IFN-gamma- and perforin-independent antiviral function. Recipients of GKO CD4(+) T cells succumbed more rapidly to fatal disease than untreated control infected mice. In contrast, wt and PKO donor CD4(+) T cells cleared infectious virus to undetectable levels and protected from fatal disease. Recipients of all CD4(+) T-cell populations exhibited demyelination. However, it was more severe in wt CD4(+) T-cell recipients. These data support a role of CD4(+) T cells in virus clearance and demyelination. Despite substantial IFN-gamma-independent antiviral activity, IFN-gamma was crucial in providing protection from death. IFN-gamma reduced neutrophil accumulation and directed macrophages to white matter but did not ameliorate myelin loss.
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Kumnok J, Ulrich R, Wewetzer K, Rohn K, Hansmann F, Baumgartner W, Alldinger S. Differential transcription of matrix-metalloproteinase genes in primary mouse astrocytes and microglia infected with Theiler's murine encephalomyelitis virus. J Neurovirol 2008; 14:205-17. [PMID: 18569455 PMCID: PMC7095224 DOI: 10.1080/13550280802008305] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
The BeAn strain of Theiler’s murine encephalomyelitis virus (TMEV) induces demyelinating disease in susceptible mice comparable to human multiple sclerosis. Recent in vivo studies showed that matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) and their inhibitors (tissue inhibitors of MMPs, TIMPs) are associated with demyelination in Theiler’s murine encephalomyelitis. The present study was performed to evaluate the in vitro MMP and TIMP expression in astrocytes and microglia following TMEV infection. Brain cell cultures from SJL/J mice were infected with the BeAn strain of TMEV and the expressions of 11 MMPs and 4 TIMPs were evaluated by reverse-transcription quantitative polymerase chain reaction (RT-qPCR) at different time points post infection (p.i.). In control astrocytes and microglia, a constitutive expression of MMP-2, -3, -9, -10, -12, -13,-14, -15, -24 and TIMP-2 to -4 was detected. In addition, TIMP-1 and MMP-11 was found in astrocytes only, and MMP-7 was absent in both cells cultures. RT-qPCR demonstrated high virus RNA copy numbers in astrocytes and a low amount in microglia. In accordance, TMEV antigen was detected in astrocytes, whereas it was below the limit of detection in microglia. MMP-3, -9, -10, -12, and -13 as well as TIMP-1 were the enzymes most prominently up-regulated in TMEV-infected astrocytes. In contrast, TMEV infection was associated with a down-regulation of MMPs and TIMPs in microglia. Conclusively, in addition to inflammatory infiltrates, TMEV-induced astrocytic MMPs might trigger a proteolysis cascade leading to an opening of the blood-brain barrier and demyelination in vivo.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jirawat Kumnok
- Department of Pathology, University of Veterinary Medicine, Hannover, Germany
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Abstract
The role of extracellular matrix (ECM) in neurological development, function and degeneration has evolved from a simplistic physical adhesion to a system of intricate cellular signaling. While most cells require ECM adhesion to survive, it is now clear that differentiated function is intimately dependent upon cellular interaction with the ECM. Therefore, it is not surprising that the ECM is increasingly found to be involved in the enigmatic process of neurodegeneration. Descriptive studies of human neurodegenerative disorders and experimental studies of animal models of neurodegeneration have begun to define potential mechanisms of ECM disruption that can lead to synaptic and neuronal loss.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dafna Bonneh-Barkay
- Department of Pathology, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, Pa., USA
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Cardona AE, Li M, Liu L, Savarin C, Ransohoff RM. Chemokines in and out of the central nervous system: much more than chemotaxis and inflammation. J Leukoc Biol 2008; 84:587-94. [PMID: 18467654 PMCID: PMC2516908 DOI: 10.1189/jlb.1107763] [Citation(s) in RCA: 82] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Actions of chemokines and the interaction with specific receptors go beyond their original, defined role of recruiting leukocytes to inflamed tissues. Chemokine receptor expression in peripheral elements and resident cells of the central nervous system (CNS) represents a relevant communication system during neuroinflammatory conditions. The following examples are described in this review: Chemokine receptors play important homeostatic properties by regulating levels of specific ligands in blood and tissues during healthy and pathological conditions; chemokines and their receptors are clearly involved in leukocyte extravasation and recruitment to the CNS, and current studies are directed toward understanding the interaction between chemokine receptors and matrix metalloproteinases in the process of blood brain barrier breakdown. We also propose novel functions of chemokine receptors during demyelination/remyelination, and developmental processes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Astrid E Cardona
- Neuroinflammation Research Center, Department of Neurosciences, Lerner Research Institute, 9500 Euclid Avenue, Cleveland, OH 44195, USA.
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Schaumburg CS, Held KS, Lane TE. Mouse hepatitis virus infection of the CNS: a model for defense, disease, and repair. FRONT BIOSCI-LANDMRK 2008; 13:4393-406. [PMID: 18508518 DOI: 10.2741/3012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
Viral infection of the central nervous system (CNS) results in varied outcomes ranging from encephalitis, paralytic poliomyelitis or other serious consequences. One of the principal factors that directs the outcome of infection is the localized innate immune response, which is proceeded by the adaptive immune response against the invading viral pathogen. The role of the immune system is to contain and control the spread of virus within the CNS, and paradoxically, this response may also be pathological. Studies with a neurotropic murine coronavirus, mouse hepatitis virus (MHV) have provided important insights into how the immune system combats neuroinvasive viruses, and have identified molecular and cellular mechanisms contributing to chronic disease in persistently infected mice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chris S Schaumburg
- Department of Molecular Biology and Biochemistry, University of California, Irvine 92697-3900, USA
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CD4 T cells contribute to virus control and pathology following central nervous system infection with neurotropic mouse hepatitis virus. J Virol 2007; 82:2130-9. [PMID: 18094171 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.01762-07] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Replication of the neurotropic mouse hepatitis virus strain JHM (JHMV) is controlled primarily by CD8(+) T-cell effectors utilizing gamma interferon (IFN-gamma) and perforin-mediated cytotoxicity. CD4(+) T cells provide an auxiliary function(s) for CD8(+) T-cell survival; however, their direct contribution to control of virus replication and pathology is unclear. To examine a direct role of CD4(+) T cells in viral clearance and pathology, pathogenesis was compared in mice deficient in both perforin and IFN-gamma that were selectively reconstituted for these functions via transfer of virus-specific memory CD4(+) T cells. CD4(+) T cells from immunized wild-type, perforin-deficient, and IFN-gamma-deficient donors all initially reduced virus replication. However, prolonged viral control by IFN-gamma-competent donors suggested that IFN-gamma is important for sustained virus control. Local release of IFN-gamma was evident by up-regulation of class II molecules on microglia in recipients of IFN-gamma producing CD4(+) T cells. CD4(+) T-cell-mediated antiviral activity correlated with diminished clinical symptoms, pathology, and demyelination. Both wild-type donor CD90.1 and recipient CD90.2 CD4(+) T cells trafficked into the central nervous system (CNS) parenchyma and localized to infected white matter, correlating with decreased numbers of virus-infected oligodendrocytes in the CNS. These data support a direct, if limited, antiviral role for CD4(+) T cells early during acute JHMV encephalomyelitis. Although the antiviral effector mechanism is initially independent of IFN-gamma secretion, sustained control of CNS virus replication by CD4(+) T cells requires IFN-gamma.
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Type I interferons are essential in controlling neurotropic coronavirus infection irrespective of functional CD8 T cells. J Virol 2007; 82:300-10. [PMID: 17928334 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.01794-07] [Citation(s) in RCA: 91] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Neurotropic coronavirus infection induces expression of both beta interferon (IFN-beta) RNA and protein in the infected rodent central nervous system (CNS). However, the relative contributions of type I IFN (IFN-I) to direct, cell-type-specific virus control or CD8 T-cell-mediated effectors in the CNS are unclear. IFN-I receptor-deficient (IFNAR(-/-)) mice infected with a sublethal and demyelinating neurotropic virus variant and those infected with a nonpathogenic neurotropic virus variant both succumbed to infection within 9 days. Compared to wild-type (wt) mice, replication was prominently increased in all glial cell types and spread to neurons, demonstrating expanded cell tropism. Furthermore, increased pathogenesis was associated with significantly enhanced accumulation of neutrophils, tumor necrosis factor alpha, interleukin-6, chemokine (C-C motif) ligand 2, and IFN-gamma within the CNS. The absence of IFN-I signaling did not impair induction or recruitment of virus-specific CD8 T cells, the primary adaptive mediators of virus clearance in wt mice. Despite similar IFN-gamma-mediated major histocompatibility complex class II upregulation on microglia in infected IFNAR(-/-) mice, class I expression was reduced compared to that on microglia in wt mice, suggesting a synergistic role of IFN-I and IFN-gamma in optimizing class I antigen presentation. These data demonstrate a critical direct antiviral role of IFN-I in controlling virus dissemination within the CNS, even in the presence of potent cellular immune responses. By limiting early viral replication and tropism, IFN-I controls the balance of viral replication and immune control in favor of CD8 T-cell-mediated protective functions.
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43
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Hamo L, Stohlman SA, Otto‐Duessel M, Bergmann CC. Distinct regulation of MHC molecule expression on astrocytes and microglia during viral encephalomyelitis. Glia 2007; 55:1169-77. [PMID: 17600339 PMCID: PMC7165879 DOI: 10.1002/glia.20538] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
The potential interplay of glial cells with T cells during viral induced inflammation was assessed by comparing major histocompatibility complex molecule upregulation and retention on astrocytes and microglia. Transgenic mice expressing green fluorescent protein under control of the astrocyte‐specific glial fibrillary acidic protein promoter were infected with a neurotropic coronavirus to facilitate phenotypic characterization of astrocytes and microglia using flow cytometry. Astrocytes in the adult central nervous system up‐regulated class I surface expression, albeit delayed compared with microglia. Class II was barely detectable on astrocytes, in contrast to potent up‐regulation on microglia. Maximal MHC expression in both glial cell types correlated with IFN‐γ levels and lymphocyte accumulation. Despite a decline of IFN‐γ concomitant to virus clearance, MHC molecule expression on glia was sustained. These data demonstrate distinct regulation of both class I and class II expression by microglia and astrocytes in vivo following viral induced inflammation. Furthermore, prolonged MHC expression subsequent to viral clearance implies a potential for ongoing presentation. © 2007 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ludwig Hamo
- Department of Neuroscience, University of Southern California Keck School of Medicine, Los Angeles, California
| | - Stephen A. Stohlman
- Department of Neuroscience, University of Southern California Keck School of Medicine, Los Angeles, California
- Department of Neurology, University of Southern California Keck School of Medicine, Los Angeles, California
- Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, University of Southern California Keck School of Medicine, Los Angeles, California
- Present address:
Department of Neurosciences, Lerner Research Institute, The Cleveland Clinic, Cleveland, OH 44195
| | - Maya Otto‐Duessel
- Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, University of Southern California Keck School of Medicine, Los Angeles, California
- Present address:
Department of Radiology, Saban Research Institute of Childrens Hospital Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA 90027
| | - Cornelia C. Bergmann
- Department of Neurology, University of Southern California Keck School of Medicine, Los Angeles, California
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Crocker SJ, Whitmire JK, Frausto RF, Chertboonmuang P, Soloway PD, Whitton JL, Campbell IL. Persistent macrophage/microglial activation and myelin disruption after experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis in tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinase-1-deficient mice. THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PATHOLOGY 2007; 169:2104-16. [PMID: 17148673 PMCID: PMC1762490 DOI: 10.2353/ajpath.2006.060626] [Citation(s) in RCA: 76] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Increased leukocyte trafficking into the parenchyma during inflammatory responses in the central nervous system (CNS) is facilitated by the extracellular proteolytic activities of matrix metalloproteinases that are regulated, in part, by the endogenous tissue inhibitors of metalloproteinases (TIMPs). In experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE), TIMP-1 gene expression is induced in astrocytes surrounding inflammatory lesions in the CNS. The physiological importance of this temporal and spatial relationship is not clear. Herein, we have addressed the functional role of TIMP-1 in a myelin oligodendrocyte glycoprotein (MOG35-55)-induced model of EAE using TIMP-1-deficient (TIMP-1-/-) C57BL/6 mice. Although CD4+ T-cell immune responses to myelin in wild-type (WT) and TIMP-1-/- mice were similar, analysis of CNS tissues from TIMP-1-/- mice after EAE revealed more severe myelin pathology than that of WT mice. This disruption of myelin was associated with both increased lymphocyte infiltration and microglial/macrophage accumulation in the brain parenchyma. These findings suggest that induction of TIMP-1 by astrocytes during EAE in WT mice represents an inherent cytoprotective response that mitigates CNS myelin injury through the regulation of both immune cell infiltration and microglial activation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephen J Crocker
- The Molecular and Integrative Neurosciences Department, The Scripps Research Institute, SP30-2110, 10550 North Torrey Pines Rd., La Jolla, CA 92037, USA.
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45
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Hindinger C, Hinton DR, Kirwin SJ, Atkinson RD, Burnett ME, Bergmann CC, Stohlman SA. Liver X receptor activation decreases the severity of experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis. J Neurosci Res 2007; 84:1225-34. [PMID: 16955483 DOI: 10.1002/jnr.21038] [Citation(s) in RCA: 80] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
Agonists of liver X receptors (LXR), members of the nuclear hormone receptor superfamily, alter secretion of proinflammatory cytokines, suggesting potential antiinflammatory effects. A synthetic LXR agonist inhibited T-cell proliferation and cytokine release in a dose-dependent manner. Treatment of mice during induction of experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis reduced clinical symptoms, central nervous system cellular inflammation, and major histocompatibility class II expression on microglia, as well as demyelination. In contrast to in vitro analysis, no reductions in peripheral neuroantigen specific T-cell responses were detected in comparing ligand and vehicle treated mice. These data suggest that LXR agonists play an important protective role in the regulation of T-cell-mediated inflammatory disease of the central nervous system.
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MESH Headings
- Animals
- CD4 Antigens/metabolism
- DNA-Binding Proteins/agonists
- Dose-Response Relationship, Drug
- Encephalomyelitis, Autoimmune, Experimental/pathology
- Encephalomyelitis, Autoimmune, Experimental/prevention & control
- Female
- Flow Cytometry
- Gene Expression/drug effects
- Genes, MHC Class II/genetics
- Hydrocarbons, Fluorinated
- Ligands
- Liver X Receptors
- Male
- Mice
- Mice, Inbred BALB C
- Mice, Inbred C57BL
- Orphan Nuclear Receptors
- Ovalbumin/immunology
- Ovalbumin/metabolism
- Receptors, Cytoplasmic and Nuclear/agonists
- Reverse Transcriptase Polymerase Chain Reaction
- Sulfonamides/pharmacology
- T-Lymphocytes/drug effects
- T-Lymphocytes/immunology
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Affiliation(s)
- Claudia Hindinger
- Department of Neurology, University of Southern California, Keck School of Medicine, Los Angeles, California, USA
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46
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Perlman S, Holmes KV. Coronavirus immunity: from T cells to B cells. ADVANCES IN EXPERIMENTAL MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY 2006; 581:341-9. [PMID: 17037557 PMCID: PMC7124054 DOI: 10.1007/978-0-387-33012-9_61] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/12/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Stanley Perlman
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Iowa, 52242 Iowa City, IA USA
| | - Kathryn V. Holmes
- Department of Microbiology, University of Colorado Health Sciences Center at Fitzsimons, 80045-8333 Aurora, CO USA
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47
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Sellner J, Simon F, Meyding-Lamade U, Leib SL. Herpes-simplex virus encephalitis is characterized by an early MMP-9 increase and collagen type IV degradation. Brain Res 2006; 1125:155-62. [PMID: 17109833 DOI: 10.1016/j.brainres.2006.09.093] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/27/2006] [Revised: 09/26/2006] [Accepted: 09/27/2006] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Cerebrovascular complications including cerebral edema, raised intracranial pressure and hemorrhage contribute to the high mortality and morbidity of herpes-simplex virus encephalitis (HSE). We examined changes of collagen type IV, the major constituent of the neurovascular matrix, together with expression and localization of matrix-degrading enzymes during the development of acute HSE. In an experimental model of focal HSE, we found that early, symptomatic HSE (3 days after infection) and acute, fully developed HSE (7 days after infection) are associated with significantly raised levels of matrix-metalloproteinase-9 (MMP-9) (both P<0.05). In situ zymography of brain sections revealed that the increase of MMP-9 was restricted to the cerebral vasculature in early HSE and further expanded towards the perivascular space and adjacent tissue in acute HSE. Around the cerebral vasculature, we observed that MMP-9 activity was insufficiently counterbalanced by its endogenous tissue inhibitor of MMP (TIMP) TIMP-1, resulting in loss of collagen type IV. Our findings suggest that MMP-9 is involved in the evolution of HSE by causing damage to the cerebral vasculature. The degradation of the neurovascular matrix in HSE facilitates the development of cerebrovascular complications and may represent a target for novel adjuvant treatment strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Johann Sellner
- Department of Neurology, University Hospital Bern, Inselspital, Freiburgstrasse, CH-3010 Bern, Switzerland
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48
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Ulrich R, Baumgärtner W, Gerhauser I, Seeliger F, Haist V, Deschl U, Alldinger S. MMP-12, MMP-3, and TIMP-1 are markedly upregulated in chronic demyelinating theiler murine encephalomyelitis. J Neuropathol Exp Neurol 2006; 65:783-93. [PMID: 16896312 DOI: 10.1097/01.jnen.0000229990.32795.0d] [Citation(s) in RCA: 75] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Theiler murine encephalomyelitis (TME) represents a highly relevant viral model for multiple sclerosis. Matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) degrade extracellular matrix molecules and are involved in demyelination processes. To elucidate their impact on demyelination in TME, spinal cords of TME virus (TMEV)-infected SJL/J mice were taken at 9 different time points postinfection (pi) ranging from 1 hour to 196 days pi and investigated for the expression of TMEV, MMP-2, -3, -7, -9, -10, -11, -12, -13, -14, -15, -24, and TIMP-1 to -4 by reverse transcription-quantitative polymerase chain reaction (RT-qPCR). High TMEV RNA levels were detectable throughout the observation period using RT-qPCR. In addition, TMEV RNA was visualized within demyelinated lesions by in situ hybridization. MMP-3 mRNA was significantly upregulated at 1 day pi and again in the late phase of infection. TIMP-1 mRNA was significantly elevated throughout the observation period. MMP-12 mRNA was most prominently upregulated in the late phase of infection and MMP-12 protein was localized in intralesional microglia/macrophages and astrocytes by immunohistochemistry. In summary, in early TMEV infection, MMP-3 and TIMP-1 mRNA upregulation might be directly virus-induced, whereas persistent TMEV infection directly or indirectly stimulated MMP-12 production in microglia/macrophages and astrocytes and might account for ongoing demyelination in TME.
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Affiliation(s)
- Reiner Ulrich
- Department of Pathology, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, Germany
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49
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González JM, Bergmann CC, Ramakrishna C, Hinton DR, Atkinson R, Hoskin J, Macklin WB, Stohlman SA. Inhibition of interferon-gamma signaling in oligodendroglia delays coronavirus clearance without altering demyelination. THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PATHOLOGY 2006; 168:796-804. [PMID: 16507895 PMCID: PMC1606538 DOI: 10.2353/ajpath.2006.050496] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 11/03/2005] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Infection of the central nervous system (CNS) by the neurotropic JHM strain of mouse hepatitis virus (JHMV) induces an acute encephalomyelitis associated with demyelination. To examine the anti-viral and/or regulatory role of interferon-gamma (IFN-gamma) signaling in the cell that synthesizes and maintains the myelin sheath, we analyzed JHMV pathogenesis in transgenic mice expressing a dominant-negative IFN-gamma receptor on oligodendroglia. Defective IFN-gamma signaling was associated with enhanced oligodendroglial tropism and delayed virus clearance. However, the CNS inflammatory cell composition and CD8(+) T-cell effector functions were similar between transgenic and wild-type mice, supporting unimpaired peripheral and CNS immune responses in transgenic mice. Surprisingly, increased viral load in oligodendroglia did not affect the extent of myelin loss, the frequency of oligodendroglial apoptosis, or CNS recruitment of macrophages. These data demonstrate that IFN-gamma receptor signaling is critical for the control of JHMV replication in oligodendroglia. In addition, the absence of a correlation between increased oligodendroglial infection and the extent of demyelination suggests a complex pathobiology of myelin loss in which infection of oligodendroglia is required but not sufficient.
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Affiliation(s)
- John M González
- Department of Neurology, University of Southern California, Keck School of Medicine, Los Angeles, California 90033, USA
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50
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Zuo J, Stohlman SA, Hoskin JB, Hinton DR, Atkinson R, Bergmann CC. Mouse hepatitis virus pathogenesis in the central nervous system is independent of IL-15 and natural killer cells. Virology 2006; 350:206-15. [PMID: 16510164 PMCID: PMC7111870 DOI: 10.1016/j.virol.2006.01.027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/07/2005] [Revised: 01/05/2006] [Accepted: 01/20/2006] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
Abstract
Infection by the neurotropic JHM strain of mouse hepatitis virus (JHMV) results in an acute encephalomyelitis associated with demyelination. T cells are critical in controlling viral replication, but also contribute to central nervous system (CNS) pathogenesis. To reveal a role for innate effectors in anti-viral immunity and neurological disease, JHMV pathogenesis was studied in mice deficient in interleukin-15 (IL-15−/−) and natural killer (NK) cells. Clinical disease, CNS inflammation and demyelination in infected IL-15−/− mice were similar to wild-type mice. Despite the absence of NK cells and suboptimal CD8+ T cell responses, IL-15−/− mice controlled JHMV replication as efficiently as wild-type mice. Similar kinetics of class I and class II upregulation on microglia further suggested no role of NK cells in regulating major histocompatibility complex (MHC) molecule expression on resident CNS cells. IL-15 and NK cells thus appear dispensable for anti-viral immunity and CNS pathogenesis during acute JHMV infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jun Zuo
- Department of Pathology, University of Southern California Keck School of Medicine, Los Angeles, CA 90033, USA
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