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Walzik D, Belen S, Wilisch K, Kupjetz M, Kirschke S, Esser T, Joisten N, Schenk A, Proschinger S, Zimmer P. Impact of exercise on markers of B cell-related immunity: A systematic review. JOURNAL OF SPORT AND HEALTH SCIENCE 2024; 13:339-352. [PMID: 37832643 PMCID: PMC11116964 DOI: 10.1016/j.jshs.2023.10.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2023] [Revised: 08/17/2023] [Accepted: 09/08/2023] [Indexed: 10/15/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND B cells represent a crucial component of adaptive immunity that ensures long-term protection from infection by generating pathogen-specific immunoglobulins. Exercise alters B cell counts and immunoglobulin levels, but evidence-based conclusions on potential benefits for adaptive immunity are lacking. This systematic review assessed current literatures on the impact of acute exercise and exercise training on B cells, immunoglobulins, and markers of secretory immunity in human biofluids. METHODS According to the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines, MEDLINE, Web of Science, and Embase were searched on March 8, 2023. Non-randomized controlled trials and crossover trials investigating the impact of acute exercise or exercise training on B cell counts and proportions, immunoglobulin levels, salivary flow rate, or secretory immunoglobulin A secretion rate were included. Quality and reporting of exercise training studies were assessed using the Tool for the Assessment of Study Quality and reporting in Exercise. Study characteristics, outcome measures, and statistically significant changes were summarized tabularly. RESULTS Of the 67 eligible studies, 22 applied acute exercise and 45 applied exercise training. All included outcomes revealed significant alterations over time in acute exercise and exercise training context, but only a few investigations showed significant differences compared to control conditions. Secretory and plasma immunoglobulin A levels were most consistently increased in response to exercise training. CONCLUSION B cell-related outcomes are altered by acute exercise and exercise training, but evidence-based conclusions cannot be drawn with high confidence due to the large heterogeneity in populations and exercise modalities. Well-designed trials with large sample sizes are needed to clarify how exercise shapes B cell-related immunity.
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Affiliation(s)
- David Walzik
- Division of Performance and Health (Sports Medicine), Institute for Sport and Sport Science, TU Dortmund University, Dortmund 44227, Germany
| | - Sergen Belen
- Division of Performance and Health (Sports Medicine), Institute for Sport and Sport Science, TU Dortmund University, Dortmund 44227, Germany
| | - Karen Wilisch
- Division of Performance and Health (Sports Medicine), Institute for Sport and Sport Science, TU Dortmund University, Dortmund 44227, Germany
| | - Marie Kupjetz
- Division of Performance and Health (Sports Medicine), Institute for Sport and Sport Science, TU Dortmund University, Dortmund 44227, Germany
| | - Silvana Kirschke
- Division of Performance and Health (Sports Medicine), Institute for Sport and Sport Science, TU Dortmund University, Dortmund 44227, Germany
| | - Tobias Esser
- Division of Performance and Health (Sports Medicine), Institute for Sport and Sport Science, TU Dortmund University, Dortmund 44227, Germany
| | - Niklas Joisten
- Division of Performance and Health (Sports Medicine), Institute for Sport and Sport Science, TU Dortmund University, Dortmund 44227, Germany
| | - Alexander Schenk
- Division of Performance and Health (Sports Medicine), Institute for Sport and Sport Science, TU Dortmund University, Dortmund 44227, Germany
| | - Sebastian Proschinger
- Division of Performance and Health (Sports Medicine), Institute for Sport and Sport Science, TU Dortmund University, Dortmund 44227, Germany
| | - Philipp Zimmer
- Division of Performance and Health (Sports Medicine), Institute for Sport and Sport Science, TU Dortmund University, Dortmund 44227, Germany.
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Coudert S, Jacq R, Bas AC. The evaluation of oral and dental health and behavioural risk among ultra-endurance athletes: a cross-sectional epidemiological study. Res Sports Med 2023; 31:802-810. [PMID: 35199625 DOI: 10.1080/15438627.2022.2042296] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/27/2022] [Accepted: 02/09/2022] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
This study assessed for the first time the oral and dental health of ultra-trail athletes. We also confirmed and quantified the scale of their exposure to oral health risk factors. This was a cross-sectional study using data from a survey among runners who enlisted in the 2020 edition of the UT4M races (Ultra-Trail des 4 Massifs). The dental health of 84% of the participants was "good" or "very good". The nutritional intake during effort comprised foods liable to induce tooth decay (energy bars (55%), sugar-rich gels and fruit confectionary (40%)) and snacking was frequent (39%). More than 3/5 of runners saw a dentist for preventive check-ups. The more runners participate in races the more likely they are to have oral hygiene strategies during competitions (aOR = 1.85, p ≤ 0.05). The oral health of ultra-trail runners is better than that of the average French adult population. Regular dental hygiene and preventive dental consultations appear to counterbalance the risks that we evidenced.
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Affiliation(s)
- Suzanne Coudert
- Public Health Department, Faculty of Dentistry, Paris Cité University, Paris, France
| | - Romain Jacq
- APHP, Louis Mourier Hospital, Assistance Publique Des Hôpitaux de Paris, Colombes, France
| | - Anne-Charlotte Bas
- Public Health Department, Faculty of Dentistry, Paris Cité University, Paris, France
- Centre for Research in Epidemiology and Population Health, French National Institute of Health and Medical Research (INSERM U 1018), University Versailles Saint-Quentin en Yvelines, University Paris-Sud, Villejuif, France
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Tidmas V, Brazier J, Bottoms L, Muniz D, Desai T, Hawkins J, Sridharan S, Farrington K. Ultra-Endurance Participation and Acute Kidney Injury: A Narrative Review. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2022; 19:16887. [PMID: 36554767 PMCID: PMC9779673 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph192416887] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/12/2022] [Revised: 12/11/2022] [Accepted: 12/13/2022] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
Increasingly popular, ultra-endurance participation exposes athletes to extremely high levels of functional and structural damage. Ultra-endurance athletes commonly develop acute kidney injury (AKI) and other pathologies harmful to kidney health. There is strong evidence that non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, common amongst ultra-athletes, is linked to increased risk and severity of AKI and potentially ischaemic renal injury, i.e., acute tubular necrosis. Ultra-endurance participation also increases the risk of exertional rhabdomyolysis, exercise-associated hyponatremia, and gastrointestinal symptoms, interlinked pathologies all with potential to increase the risk of AKI. Hydration and fuelling both also play a role with the development of multiple pathologies and ultimately AKI, highlighting the need for individualised nutritional and hydration plans to promote athlete health. Faster athletes, supplementing nitrates, and being female also increase the risk of developing AKI in this setting. Serum creatinine criteria do not provide the best indicator for AKI for ultra-athletes therefore further investigations are needed to assess the practicality and accuracy of new renal biomarkers such as neutrophil gelatinase-associated lipocalin (NGAL). The potential of recurring episodes of AKI provide need for further research to assess the longitudinal renal health impact of ultra-participation to provide appropriate advice to athletes, coaches, medical staff, and event organisers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Victoria Tidmas
- Department of Psychology, Sport, and Geography, De Havilland Campus, University of Hertfordshire, Hatfield AL10 9EU, UK
| | - Jon Brazier
- Department of Psychology, Sport, and Geography, De Havilland Campus, University of Hertfordshire, Hatfield AL10 9EU, UK
| | - Lindsay Bottoms
- Department of Psychology, Sport, and Geography, De Havilland Campus, University of Hertfordshire, Hatfield AL10 9EU, UK
| | - Daniel Muniz
- Department of Psychology, Sport, and Geography, De Havilland Campus, University of Hertfordshire, Hatfield AL10 9EU, UK
| | - Terun Desai
- Department of Psychology, Sport, and Geography, De Havilland Campus, University of Hertfordshire, Hatfield AL10 9EU, UK
| | - Janine Hawkins
- Centre for Health Services and Clinical Research, De Havilland Campus, University of Hertfordshire, Hatfield AL10 9EU, UK
| | - Sivakumar Sridharan
- Centre for Health Services and Clinical Research, De Havilland Campus, University of Hertfordshire, Hatfield AL10 9EU, UK
- Renal Unit, Lister Hospital, East and North Herts Trust, Stevenage SG1 4AB, UK
| | - Ken Farrington
- Centre for Health Services and Clinical Research, De Havilland Campus, University of Hertfordshire, Hatfield AL10 9EU, UK
- Renal Unit, Lister Hospital, East and North Herts Trust, Stevenage SG1 4AB, UK
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Borchers J, Merle CL, Schöneborn DD, Lyko LR, Thouet T, Wolfarth B, Kottmann T, Scheibenbogen C, Zimmer J, Diederich S, Bauer K, Sack U, Schmalz G, Ziebolz D, Wüstenfeld J. Salivary Diagnostic for Monitoring Strenuous Exercise-A Pilot Study in a Cohort of Male Ultramarathon Runners. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2022; 19:16110. [PMID: 36498185 PMCID: PMC9737684 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph192316110] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/19/2022] [Revised: 11/22/2022] [Accepted: 11/24/2022] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
Intense physical stress, such as that in ultramarathon running, affects the immune system. For monitoring in sports medicine, non-invasive methods, e.g., salivary analysis, are of interest. This pilot cohort study aimed to assess changes in salivary parameters in response to an ultramarathon. The results were compared to blood parameters. Male, healthy finishers (n = 9, mean age: 48 ± 8.8 years, mean height: 1.8 ± 0.1 m, mean weight: 72.5 ± 7.2 kg, mean BMI: 23.5 ± 1.9 kg/cm²) of a 160 km ultramarathon were included. Saliva and blood samples were collected at three time points: T1 (baseline), T2 (shortly after the ultramarathon) and T3 (after recovery). In saliva, cortisol, testosterone, IL-1β, IL-6, IL-8, IL-10, TNF-α, albumin, IgA, α-amylase, aMMP-8, and neopterin were assessed via ELISA. In blood, cortisol, testosterone, IL-1β, IL-6, IL-8, IL-10, TNF-α, blood cell counts, procalcitonin, CRP, osmolality, albumin, and α-amylase were analyzed. The statistical evaluation comprised longitudinal testing and cross-sectional testing between saliva and blood using ratios of T2 and T3 to baseline values. Various parameters in saliva and blood changed in response to the ultramarathon. Comparing blood and saliva, the longitudinal changes of testosterone (p = 0.02) and α-amylase (p = 0.03) differed significantly. Despite the limitations of the study, it underlines that saliva is an interesting option for comprehensive monitoring in sports medicine and necessitates further studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Josephin Borchers
- Department of Cariology, Endodontology and Periodontology, University of Leipzig, 04103 Leipzig, Germany
| | - Cordula Leonie Merle
- Department of Prosthetic Dentistry, UKR University Hospital Regensburg, 93053 Regensburg, Germany
- Department of Cariology, Endodontology and Periodontology, University of Leipzig, 04103 Leipzig, Germany
| | | | - Lea Ronja Lyko
- Department of Sports Medicine, Charité University Medicine, 10115 Berlin, Germany
| | - Thomas Thouet
- Department of Sports Medicine, Charité University Medicine, 10115 Berlin, Germany
| | - Bernd Wolfarth
- Department of Sports Medicine, Charité University Medicine, 10115 Berlin, Germany
- Department of Sports Medicine, Institute for Applied Scientific Training, 04109 Leipzig, Germany
- Institute of Sports Science, Humboldt University, 10115 Berlin, Germany
| | | | - Carmen Scheibenbogen
- Institute for Medical Immunology, Charité University Medicine, 13353 Berlin, Germany
| | - Jeannot Zimmer
- SYNLAB Medizinisches Versorgungszentrum Berlin GmbH, 10828 Berlin, Germany
| | | | - Katrin Bauer
- Institute of Clinical Immunology, Medical Faculty, University of Leipzig, 04103 Leipzig, Germany
| | - Ulrich Sack
- Institute of Clinical Immunology, Medical Faculty, University of Leipzig, 04103 Leipzig, Germany
| | - Gerhard Schmalz
- Department of Cariology, Endodontology and Periodontology, University of Leipzig, 04103 Leipzig, Germany
| | - Dirk Ziebolz
- Department of Cariology, Endodontology and Periodontology, University of Leipzig, 04103 Leipzig, Germany
| | - Jan Wüstenfeld
- Department of Sports Medicine, Charité University Medicine, 10115 Berlin, Germany
- Department of Sports Medicine, Institute for Applied Scientific Training, 04109 Leipzig, Germany
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Zhao K, Hu Z, Wang T, Tian L, Wang M, Liu R, Zuo C, Jihua W. Acute effects of two different work-to-rest ratio of high-intensity interval training on brain-derived neurotrophic factor in untrained young men. Front Physiol 2022; 13:988773. [PMID: 36160866 PMCID: PMC9490303 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2022.988773] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/07/2022] [Accepted: 08/11/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Background: Aerobic exercise could produce a positive effect on the brain by releasing brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF). In untrained healthy humans there seems to be a linear correlation between exercise duration and the positive effect of acute aerobic exercise on brain-derived neurotrophic factor levels. Therefore, we performed two different duration of high-intensity interval training protocols (HIIT), both known to improve cardiovascular fitness, to determine whether then have a similar efficacy in affecting brain-derived neurotrophic factor levels.Methods: 12 untrained young males (aged 23.7 ± 1.8 years), participated in a randomized controlled cross-over trial. They underwent two different work-to-rest ratio high-intensity interval training protocols: high-intensity interval training 1 (30 min, 15 intervals of 1 min efforts at 85%–90% VO2max with 1 min of active recovery at 50%–60% VO2max) and HIIT2 (30 min, 10 intervals of 2 min efforts at 85%–90% VO2max with 1 min of active recovery at 50%–60% VO2max). Serum cortisol, brain-derived neurotrophic factor were collected at baseline, immediately following intervention, and 30 min into recovery for measurements using a Sandwich ELISA method, blood lactate was measured by using a portable lactate analyzer.Results: Our results showed that the similar serum brain-derived neurotrophic factor change in both high-intensity interval training protocols, with maximal serum brain-derived neurotrophic factor levels being reached toward the end of intervention. There was no significant change in serum brain-derived neurotrophic factor from baseline after 30 min recovery. We then showed that both high-intensity interval training protocols significantly increase blood lactate and serum cortisol compared with baseline value (high-intensity interval training p < 0.01; high-intensity interval training 2 p < 0.01), with high-intensity interval training 2 reaching higher blood lactate levels than high-intensity interval training 1 (p = 0.027), but no difference was observed in serum cortisol between both protocols. Moreover, changes in serum brain-derived neurotrophic factor did corelate with change in blood lactate (high-intensity interval training 1 r = 0.577, p < 0.05; high-intensity interval training 2 r = 0.635, p < 0.05), but did not correlate with the change in serum cortisol.Conclusions: brain-derived neurotrophic factor levels in untrained young men are significantly increased in response to different work-to-rest ratio of high-intensity interval training protocols, and the magnitude of increase is exercise duration independent. Moreover, the higher blood lactate did not raise circulating brain-derived neurotrophic factor. Therefore, given that prolonged exercise causes higher levels of cortisol. We suggest that the 1:1work-to-rest ratio of high-intensity interval training protocol might represent a preferred intervention for promoting brain health.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kegang Zhao
- School of Physical Education of Shandong Normal University, Jinan, China
- *Correspondence: Kegang Zhao,
| | | | - Tao Wang
- School of Physical Education of Liaocheng University, Jinan, China
| | - Lei Tian
- School of Physical Education of Shandong Normal University, Jinan, China
| | - Maoye Wang
- School of Physical Education of Shandong Normal University, Jinan, China
| | - Ruijiang Liu
- School of Physical Education of Shandong Normal University, Jinan, China
| | - Chongwen Zuo
- Capital Institute of Physical Education and Sports, Beijing, China
| | - Wang Jihua
- Department of Information Science and Engineering of Shandong Normal University, Jinan, China
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Vaamonde D, García-Manso JM, Algar-Santacruz C, Abbasi A, Sarmiento S, Valverde-Esteve T. Behaviour of salivary testosterone and cortisol in men during an Ironman Triathlon. Eur J Sport Sci 2021; 22:1335-1342. [PMID: 34256680 DOI: 10.1080/17461391.2021.1955011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
Endurance exercise induces notable acute hormonal responses on the gonadal and adrenal hormones. The purpose of this study was to assess the changes in salivary testosterone (Ts), salivary cortisol (Cs) and T/C ratio during long-distance triathlon. Ten well-trained male triathletes participated in the study and were assessed for hormonal changes at four time-points (pre-competition, post-swimming, post-cycling, and post-running phases). Ts decreased from pre-competition to post-swimming (from 93.37 pg/mL to 57.63 pg/mL; p < .01) and increased during two other parts of the competition to almost pre-competition values (cycling: 79.20 pg/mL, p = .02; running: 89,66 pg/mL, p = .04, respectively). Cs showed a similar behaviour; decreasing in the post-swimming phase (1.74 pg/mL) and increasing in the other transitions (post-cycling: 7.30 pg/mL; post-running: 13.31 pg/mL), with significant differences between pre-competition and post- competition values (p = .01). Conversely, T/C increased significantly from pre-competition to post-swimming phase (p = .04) to later decrease until the end of the competition. Overall, T/C significantly decreased (p < .05). In conclusion, during an Ironman triathlon, hormone values fluctuate in response to the demands of the competition. Ts and Cs decrease after-swimming, increase after-cycling and reach the maximum values after-running. T/C reflects overall catabolic status.
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Affiliation(s)
- Diana Vaamonde
- Departamento de Ciencias Morfológicas y Sociosanitarias. School of Medicine and Nursing. Universidad de Córdoba. Córdoba, Spain.,International Network on Physical Exercise and Fertility (INPEF), Córdoba, Spain
| | - Juan Manuel García-Manso
- International Network on Physical Exercise and Fertility (INPEF), Córdoba, Spain.,Physical Education Department, School of Physical Activity and Sport Sciences, University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, Spain
| | - Carolina Algar-Santacruz
- Departamento de Ciencias Morfológicas y Sociosanitarias. School of Medicine and Nursing. Universidad de Córdoba. Córdoba, Spain.,Nutrir. Nutrición Médica y Ejercicio, Córdoba, Spain
| | - Asghar Abbasi
- Rehabilitation Clinical Trials Center, Division of Respiratory and Critical Care Physiology and Medicine, The Lundquist Institute for Biomedical Innovation at Harbor-UCLA Medical Center, Torrance, CA, USA
| | - Samuel Sarmiento
- Physical Education Department, School of Physical Activity and Sport Sciences, University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, Spain
| | - Teresa Valverde-Esteve
- Department of Didactics of Musical, Visual and Body Expression, University of Valencia, Valencia, Spain
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Four Days of Blueberry Powder Supplementation Lowers the Blood Lactate Response to Running But Has No Effect on Time-Trial Performance. Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab 2021; 29:636-642. [PMID: 31629347 DOI: 10.1123/ijsnem.2019-0040] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/10/2019] [Revised: 05/03/2019] [Accepted: 05/05/2019] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Blueberries are abundant with anthocyanins possessing antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties. As these properties combat fatigue and promote recovery, blueberry supplementation may enhance performance and recovery. Thus, the objectives were to examine the effects of two blueberry supplementation protocols on running performance, physiological responses, and short-term recovery. Using a randomized, double-blind, placebo (PLA)-controlled crossover design, 14 runners completed an 8-km time trial (TT) after supplementation with 4 days of blueberries (4DAY), 4 days of a PLA, or 2 days of placebo followed by 2 days of blueberries (2DAY). Heart rate and ratings of perceived exertion were monitored during the TT. Blood lactate, vertical jump, reactive strength index, and salivary markers were assessed before and after. No significant differences were observed for time to complete the TT (PLA: 3,010 ± 459 s; 2DAY: 3,014 ± 488 s; 4DAY: 3,011 ± 423 s), heart rate, ratings of perceived exertion, or any of the salivary markers. An interaction effect (p = .027) was observed for blood lactate, with lower post-TT concentrations in 4DAY (5.4 ± 2.0 mmol/L) than PLA (6.6 ± 2.5 mmol/L; p = .038) and 2DAY (7.4 ± 3.4 mmol/L; p = .034). Post-TT decreases in vertical jump height were not different, whereas the decline in reactive strength index was less following 4DAY (-6.1% ± 13.5%) than the other conditions (PLA: -12.6% ± 10.1%; 2DAY: -11.6% ± 11.5%; p = .038). Two days of supplementation did not influence performance or physiological stress. Although 4 days of supplementation did not alter performance, it blunted the increase in blood lactate, perhaps reflecting altered lactate production and/or clearance, and offset the decrease in dynamic muscle function post-TT, as indicated by the reactive strength index differences.
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8
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Brandenburg JP, Giles LV. Blueberry supplementation reduces the blood lactate response to running in normobaric hypoxia but has no effect on performance in recreational runners. J Int Soc Sports Nutr 2021; 18:26. [PMID: 33781280 PMCID: PMC8008513 DOI: 10.1186/s12970-021-00423-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/23/2020] [Accepted: 03/12/2021] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Blueberries are concentrated with anthocyanins possessing antioxidant properties. As these properties counter fatigue, blueberry supplementation may improve performance and recovery, particularly in hypoxia, where oxidative stress is elevated. Methods This study examined the effects of blueberry supplementation on running performance, physiological responses, and recovery in normobaric hypoxia. Eleven experienced runners completed a 30-minute time-trial (TT) in normobaric hypoxia (%O2 = 15.5 %) on separate days after supplementation with four days of blueberries (BLU) or four days of placebo (PLA). Heart rate (HR), oxygen saturation (SaO2) and ratings of perceived exertion (RPE) were monitored during the TT. Blood lactate and fraction of exhaled nitric oxide (FENO) were assessed pre-TT, post-TT, and during recovery. Results No significant differences were observed in the distance run during the TT, HR, SaO2, and RPE. The post-TT increase in blood lactate was significantly lower in BLU than PLA (p = 0.036). Pre-TT and post-TT FENO did not differ between conditions. Blood lactate recovery following the TT was similar between conditions. Conclusions Four days of blueberry supplementation did not alter running performance or cardiovascular and perceptual responses in normobaric hypoxia. Supplementation lowered the blood lactate response to running, however, the significance of this finding is uncertain given the absence of an ergogenic effect.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jason P Brandenburg
- Department of Kinesiology, School of Kinesiology, University of the Fraser Valley, 45190 Caen Avenue, BC, V2R 0N3, Chilliwack, Canada.
| | - Luisa V Giles
- Department of Kinesiology, School of Kinesiology, University of the Fraser Valley, 45190 Caen Avenue, BC, V2R 0N3, Chilliwack, Canada
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Gajda R, Samełko A, Czuba M, Piotrowska-Nowak A, Tońska K, Żekanowski C, Klisiewicz A, Drygas W, Gębska-Kuczerowska A, Gajda J, Knechtle B, Adamczyk JG. To Be a Champion of the 24-h Ultramarathon Race. If Not the Heart ... Mosaic Theory? INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2021; 18:ijerph18052371. [PMID: 33804352 PMCID: PMC7957735 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph18052371] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2020] [Revised: 02/16/2021] [Accepted: 02/24/2021] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
This comprehensive case analysis aimed to identify the features enabling a runner to achieve championship in 24-h ultramarathon (UM) races. A 36-year-old, multiple medalist of the World Championships in 24-h running, was assessed before, one and 10 days after a 24-h run. Results of his extensive laboratory and cardiological diagnostics with transthoracic echocardiography (TTE) and a one-time cardiopulmonary exercise test (CPET) were analyzed. After 12 h of running (approximately 130 km), the athlete experienced an increasing pain in the right knee. His baseline clinical data were within the normal range. High physical efficiency in CPET (VO2max 63 mL/kg/min) was similar to the average achieved by other ultramarathoners who had significantly worse results. Thus, we also performed genetic tests and assessed his psychological profile, body composition, and markers of physical and mental stress (serotonin, cortisol, epinephrine, prolactin, testosterone, and luteinizing hormone). The athlete had a mtDNA haplogroup H (HV0a1 subgroup, belonging to the HV cluster), characteristic of athletes with the highest endurance. Psychological studies have shown high and very high intensity of the properties of individual scales of the tools used mental resilience (62–100% depending on the scale), openness to experience (10th sten), coherence (10th sten), positive perfectionism (100%) and overall hope for success score (10th sten). The athlete himself considers the commitment and mental support of his team to be a significant factor of his success. Body composition assessment (%fat 13.9) and the level of stress markers were unremarkable. The tested athlete showed a number of features of the champions of ultramarathon runs, such as: inborn predispositions, mental traits, level of training, and resistance to pain. However, none of these features are reserved exclusively for “champions”. Team support’s participation cannot be underestimated. The factors that guarantee the success of this elite 24-h UM runner go far beyond physiological and psychological explanations. Further studies are needed to identify individual elements of the putative “mosaic theory of being a champion”.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert Gajda
- Center for Sports Cardiology, Gajda-Med Medical Center in Pułtusk, 06-100 Pułtusk, Poland;
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +48-604286030
| | - Aleksandra Samełko
- Department of Pedagogy and Psychology of Physical Culture, Faculty of Physical Education, Józef Piłsudski University of Physical Education in Warsaw, Marymoncka St. 34, 00-968 Warsaw, Poland;
| | - Miłosz Czuba
- Department of Applied and Clinical Physiology, Collegium Medicum University of Zielona Gora, 28 Zyty St., 65-417 Zielona Gora, Poland;
- Department of Kinesiology, Institute of Sport, 2 Trylogii St., 01-982 Warsaw, Poland
| | - Agnieszka Piotrowska-Nowak
- Institute of Genetics and Biotechnology, Faculty of Biology, University of Warsaw, Pawinskiego 5a Street, 02-106 Warsaw, Poland; (A.P.-N.); (K.T.)
| | - Katarzyna Tońska
- Institute of Genetics and Biotechnology, Faculty of Biology, University of Warsaw, Pawinskiego 5a Street, 02-106 Warsaw, Poland; (A.P.-N.); (K.T.)
| | - Cezary Żekanowski
- Laboratory of Neurogenetics, Mossakowski Medical Research Institute, Polish Academy of Sciences, ul. Pawinskiego 5, 02-106 Warszawa, Poland;
| | - Anna Klisiewicz
- The Cardinal Stefan Wyszyński National Institute of Cardiology, ul. Alpejska 42, 04-628 Warszawa, Poland; (A.K.); (W.D.)
| | - Wojciech Drygas
- The Cardinal Stefan Wyszyński National Institute of Cardiology, ul. Alpejska 42, 04-628 Warszawa, Poland; (A.K.); (W.D.)
- Department of Preventive Medicine, Faculty of Health, Medical University of Lodz, ul. Lucjana Żeligowskiego 7/9, 90-752 Łódź, Poland
| | - Anita Gębska-Kuczerowska
- Faculty of Medicine, Collegium Medicum, Cardinal Stefan Wyszyński University, Kazimierza Wóycickiego 1/3, 01-938 Warsaw, Poland;
| | - Jacek Gajda
- Center for Sports Cardiology, Gajda-Med Medical Center in Pułtusk, 06-100 Pułtusk, Poland;
| | - Beat Knechtle
- Institute of Primary Care, University of Zurich, 8091 Zurich, Switzerland;
- Medbase St. Gallen Am Vadianplatz, 9000 St. Gallen, Switzerland
| | - Jakub Grzegorz Adamczyk
- Department of Theory of Sport, Faculty of Physical Education, Józef Piłsudski University of Physical Education in Warsaw, Marymoncka St. 34, 00-968 Warsaw, Poland;
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10
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Alghadir AH, Gabr SA, Al-Momani M, Al-Momani F. Moderate aerobic training modulates cytokines and cortisol profiles in older adults with cognitive abilities. Cytokine 2020; 138:155373. [PMID: 33248912 DOI: 10.1016/j.cyto.2020.155373] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/25/2020] [Revised: 09/29/2020] [Accepted: 11/14/2020] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Excessive expression of cortisol and pro-inflammatory cytokines exerts a negative affect on cognitive functioning and hippocampal structure in older adults. Although the interrelation between cortisol and cytokines was fully elucidated previously, few studies considered how their association with exercise can affect brain structures or play an anti-inflammatory role in preserving cognitive function among older adults. To evaluate both the neuro-protective and anti-inflammatory activities of moderate aerobic exercise in improving cognitive performance among healthy older adults, the serum levels of CRP, TNF-α, IL-6, and cortisol and their correlation with cognitive performance were estimated in all participants. A total of 60 healthy older adults aged 50-85 years were included in this study. The Loewenstein Occupational Therapy Cognitive Assessment (LOTCA) test, colorimetric testing, and ELISA immunoassays were used to measure cognitive abilities; blood sugar; and glycated hemoglobin (HbA1c), cortisol, IL-6, TNF-α, and CRP, respectively, in older adults before and after 12-week exercise interventions. Exactly 50% of the participants showed moderate cognitive impairment (MCI) (LOTCA scores: 84.8 ± 8.2), and the remaining 50% of the participants (n = 30) were diagnosed as normal healthy subjects (LOTCA scores: 98.7 ± 8.1). There was a significant association between cognitive decline in LOTCA scores of motor praxis, vasomotor organization, thinking operations, and attention and concentration and higher levels of cortisol, CRP, TNF-α, and IL-6, as well as adiposity markers BMI and WHR, in the MCI group compared to control subjects. However, significant improvements in the same LOTCA score domains in MCI subjects were recorded along with decrements in the levels of cortisol and cytokine CRP, TNF-α, and IL-6, as well as improved adiposity markers, following a 12-week moderate exercise program. Cognitive performance correlated positively with cortisol levels and negatively with physical activity, adiposity markers, and cytokine levels. Also, in participants with normal and abnormal cortisol profiles, there was a positive interrelation between cytokine levels and cortisol. Moderate aerobic exercise for 12 weeks showed beneficial effects on cognitive performance in older adults. Our results suggest that 12 weeks of aerobic exercise improves cognitive disorders in older adults via modulating stress and pro-inflammatory cytokines. This may have been due to significant changes in the levels of cortisol, IL-6, TNF-α, and CRP, and physical activity may thus be used as non-drug strategy for treating cognitive disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ahmad H Alghadir
- Rehabilitation Research Chair, College of Applied Medical Sciences, King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia
| | - Sami A Gabr
- Rehabilitation Research Chair, College of Applied Medical Sciences, King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia; Department of Anatomy, Faculty of Medicine, Mansoura University, Egypt.
| | - Murad Al-Momani
- ORL-HNS Department, College of Medicine, King Saud University Riyadh, Saudi Arabia
| | - Fidaa Al-Momani
- Department of Rehabilitation Sciences, Faculty of Applied Medical Sciences, Jordan University of Science and Technology, Irbid, Jordan
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11
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Salivary Stress/Immunological Markers in Crohn's Disease and Ulcerative Colitis. Int J Mol Sci 2020; 21:ijms21228562. [PMID: 33202858 PMCID: PMC7698267 DOI: 10.3390/ijms21228562] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/23/2020] [Revised: 11/09/2020] [Accepted: 11/11/2020] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
Abstract
There is continuous and growing interest in research into new alternatives to standard biomarkers to detect and follow-up disease, reducing physical and psychological stress in patients needing regular and invasive medical examinations for the evaluation of pathologies, including inflammatory bowel diseases (IBD). Saliva is one of the most promising body fluids in the research of new biomarkers, thanks to the large number of molecules it contains. Many molecules present in saliva are often directly correlated to their concentration in the blood but may be affected by the condition of the oral cavity. This means that a careful selection of a specific biomarker is required for each pathology, especially pathologies such as IBD, which may induce inflammation in the oral cavity. Here, we analyze the currently used and the proposed new salivary biomarkers (i.e., calprotectin, cytokines, IgA, cortisol, and oxidative stress markers) for the detection and follow-up of the main subtypes of IBD, known as ulcerative colitis and Crohn's disease.
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12
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Jezova D, Balagova L, Chmelova M, Hlavacova N. Classical Steroids in a New Fashion: Focus on Testosterone and Aldosterone. Curr Protein Pept Sci 2020; 20:1112-1118. [PMID: 31272353 DOI: 10.2174/1389203720666190704151254] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/12/2018] [Revised: 03/13/2019] [Accepted: 04/12/2019] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
Several endocrine glands produce steroid hormones. Thanks to the work of chemists and biochemists, the main synthetic as well as metabolic pathways of steroid hormones were included in the textbooks more than 50 years ago and the classical endocrine gland functions were identified. Later on, evidence of steroid hormone effects beyond the classical endocrine gland function has been accumulating. Testosterone was shown to participate in the stress response and may influence coping with stressors. We have shown a decrease in testosterone concentrations in saliva in children undergoing a school exam compared to values on a non-exam school day. Testosterone has been associated with different cognitive functions in both adults and children. Circulating testosterone has been linked to negative symptoms of schizophrenia. Aldosterone is acting via mineralocorticoid receptors, which are thought to be fully occupied by glucocorticoids in the brain. Until now, an action of aldosterone in the brain has not been considered at all, because the enzyme 11-beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 2, which would enable aldosterone to bind to receptors is absent in most of the brain areas. We have brought evidence that aldosterone can act in the brain and produce anxiogenic and depressogenic effects. To facilitate the translation of animal findings into clinical research, we have developed methodology for measurement of salivary aldosterone and obtained first data on a relationship between salivary aldosterone and trait anxiety. We have shown that salivary aldosterone concentrations reflect treatment outcome in patients with major depressive disorder.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniela Jezova
- Laboratory of Pharmacological Neuroendocrinology, Institute of Experimental Endocrinology, Biomedical Research Center, Slovak Academy of Sciences, Dubravska cesta 9, 845 05, Bratislava, Slovakia
| | - Lucia Balagova
- Laboratory of Pharmacological Neuroendocrinology, Institute of Experimental Endocrinology, Biomedical Research Center, Slovak Academy of Sciences, Dubravska cesta 9, 845 05, Bratislava, Slovakia
| | - Magdalena Chmelova
- Laboratory of Pharmacological Neuroendocrinology, Institute of Experimental Endocrinology, Biomedical Research Center, Slovak Academy of Sciences, Dubravska cesta 9, 845 05, Bratislava, Slovakia
| | - Natasa Hlavacova
- Laboratory of Pharmacological Neuroendocrinology, Institute of Experimental Endocrinology, Biomedical Research Center, Slovak Academy of Sciences, Dubravska cesta 9, 845 05, Bratislava, Slovakia
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13
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Hohl R, Nazário de Rezende F, Millet GY, Ribeiro da Mota G, Marocolo M. Blood cardiac biomarkers responses are associated with 24 h ultramarathon performance. Heliyon 2019; 5:e01913. [PMID: 31338451 PMCID: PMC6607063 DOI: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2019.e01913] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/05/2019] [Revised: 04/22/2019] [Accepted: 06/03/2019] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Purpose Clinical significance of cardiac biomarkers response in ultra-endurance runners are not completely elucidated because events vary in distance/duration and competitors modulate running intensity according to individual running capacity. The aim of this study was to examine the relationship between self-selected exercise intensity with cardiac biomarkers comparing experienced (EXP, N = 11) and novice (NOV, N = 14) runners able to finish a 24h ultramarathon (24UM) with significant differences in performance. Methods Cardiac biomarkers (i.e. CKMB/totalCK, cTnT and NT-proBNP), inflammatory markers (i.e. leukocytes and CRP) and cortisol were analyzed before and after a 24UM. Results EXP finished the race with significant (p < 0.05) longer distance than NOV (158.8 ± 15.8 vs 116.8 ± 10.3 Km). Two-way mixed ANOVA showed significant time × performance level interaction with greater increase of cTnT (F(1,23) = 6.18, p = 0.021), NT-proBNP (F(1,23) = 9.27, p = 0.006) and cortisol (F(1, 23) = 5.13, p = 0.03) in the EXP group. CKMB/totalCK (F(1, 23) = 71.90, p < 0.0001) decreased while leukocytes (F(1, 23) = 100.06, p < 0.0001) and CRP (F(1, 23) = 93.37, p < 0.0001) increased in both groups (main effect of time). Correlations were found between 24UM distance and cortisol (r = 0.58; p = 0.002), CKMB (r = 0.47; p = 0.017), cTnT (r = 0.44; p = 0.027) or NT-proBNP (r = 0.56; p = 0.003). Cortisol and NT-proBNP were also significantly correlated (r = 0.51; p = 0.01). Conclusions Although there is no clear evidence of cardiac risk when comparing cardiac biomarkers levels with clinical cut-off values, cardiac biomarkers are associated with running performance and pituitary-adrenocortical system response. In EXP runners, higher levels of cardiac biomarkers and cortisol suggest a more hemodynamically challenged heart during prolonged endurance exercise.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rodrigo Hohl
- Department of Physiology, Federal University of Juiz de Fora, Juiz de Fora, MG, Brazil
| | | | - Guillaume Y Millet
- Univ Lyon, UJM-Saint-Etienne, LIBM, EA 7424, F-42023, Saint-Etienne, France.,Faculty of Kinesiology, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, Canada
| | - Gustavo Ribeiro da Mota
- Human Performance and Sport Research Group, Department of Sport Sciences, Institute of Health Sciences, Federal University of Triangulo Mineiro, Uberaba, MG, Brazil
| | - Moacir Marocolo
- Department of Physiology, Federal University of Juiz de Fora, Juiz de Fora, MG, Brazil
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14
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Bordoni L, Fedeli D, Piangerelli M, Gabbianelli R. HTR2C Gene Variant and Salivary Cortisol Levels after Endurance Physical Activity: A Pilot Study. Lifestyle Genom 2019; 11:163-167. [PMID: 31167199 DOI: 10.1159/000499842] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/06/2019] [Accepted: 03/21/2019] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
INTRODUCTION The 5-hydroxytryptamine 2C receptor (HTR2C) rs6318 polymorphism has been associated with increased sensitivity to stress. This study investigated whether the rs6318 genotype modified the cortisol response to endurance physical activity. METHODS The HTR2C SNP was genotyped in a population of agonistic cyclists, and salivary cortisol levels were measured before and after an endurance competition. RESULTS AND CONCLUSION Salivary cortisol levels increased after the competition (from 20.72 ± 12.36 ng/mL to 33.80 ± 21.53 ng/mL; p = 3.189 × 10-5). rs6318 C carriers displayed higher baseline cortisol levels compared to G carriers (26.60 ± 9.35 ng/mL vs. 19.50 ± 12.63 ng/mL; p = 0.04). Baseline cortisol levels were able to predict the cortisol response to exercise (β = -0.846; p = 1.2 × 10-5). Although regression analysis did not identify an association between HTR2C genotype and change in cortisol levels, a secondary analysis in which the population was classified by median cortisol changes suggested that they might be weakly associated, thus warranting further investigation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laura Bordoni
- Unit of Molecular Biology, School of Pharmacy, University of Camerino, Camerino, Italy
| | - Donatella Fedeli
- Unit of Molecular Biology, School of Pharmacy, University of Camerino, Camerino, Italy
| | - Marco Piangerelli
- Computer Science Division, School of Science and Technology, University of Camerino, Camerino, Italy
| | - Rosita Gabbianelli
- Unit of Molecular Biology, School of Pharmacy, University of Camerino, Camerino, Italy,
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15
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Salivary immunity and lower respiratory tract infections in non-elite marathon runners. PLoS One 2018; 13:e0206059. [PMID: 30462646 PMCID: PMC6248899 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0206059] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/20/2018] [Accepted: 10/06/2018] [Indexed: 01/19/2023] Open
Abstract
Rationale Respiratory infections are common after strenuous exercise, when salivary immunity may be altered. We aim to investigate changes in salivary immunity after a marathon and its relationship with lower respiratory tract infections (LRTI) in healthy non-elite marathon runners. Methods Forty seven healthy marathon runners (28 males and 19 females) who completed the 42.195 km of the 2016 Barcelona marathon were studied. Saliva and blood samples were collected the day before the marathon and two days after the end of the race. Salivary IgA, antimicrobial proteins (lactoferrin, lysozyme) and chemokines (Groα, Groβ, MCP-1) were determined using ELISA kits in saliva supernatant. Blood biochemistry and haemogram were analyzed in all participants. The presence of LRTI was considered in those runners who reported infectious lower respiratory tract symptoms during a minimum of 3 consecutive days in the 2 weeks after the race. Results Eight participants (17%) presented a LRTI during the 2 weeks of follow-up. Higher lysozyme levels were detected after the race in runners with LRTI when compared with those without infection. A decrease in salivary lysozyme, Groα and Groβ levels after the race were observed in those runners who did not develop a LRTI when compared to basal levels. Salivary Groα levels correlated with basophil blood counts, and salivary lysozyme levels correlated with leukocyte blood counts. Conclusions LRTI are common after a marathon race in non-elite healthy runners. Changes in salivary antimicrobial proteins and chemokines are related to the presence of LRTI and correlate with systemic defense cells, which suggest an important role of salivary immunity in the development of LRTI in non-elite marathon runners.
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16
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Lindsay A, Costello JT. Realising the Potential of Urine and Saliva as Diagnostic Tools in Sport and Exercise Medicine. Sports Med 2018; 47:11-31. [PMID: 27294353 DOI: 10.1007/s40279-016-0558-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Accurate monitoring of homeostatic perturbations following various psychophysiological stressors is essential in sports and exercise medicine. Various biomarkers are routinely used as monitoring tools in both clinical and elite sport settings. Blood collection and muscle biopsies, both invasive in nature, are considered the gold standard for the analysis of these biomarkers in exercise science. Exploring non-invasive methods of collecting and analysing biomarkers that are capable of providing accurate information regarding exercise-induced physiological and psychological stress is of obvious practical importance. This review describes the potential benefits, and the limitations, of using saliva and urine to ascertain biomarkers capable of identifying important stressors that are routinely encountered before, during, or after intense or unaccustomed exercise, competition, over-training, and inappropriate recovery. In particular, we focus on urinary and saliva biomarkers that have previously been used to monitor muscle damage, inflammation, cardiovascular stress, oxidative stress, hydration status, and brain distress. Evidence is provided from a range of empirical studies suggesting that urine and saliva are both capable of identifying various stressors. Although additional research regarding the efficacy of using urine and/or saliva to indicate the severity of exercise-induced psychophysiological stress is required, it is likely that these non-invasive biomarkers will represent "the future" in sports and exercise medicine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Angus Lindsay
- Program in Physical Therapy and Rehabilitation Sciences, School of Medicine, University of Minnesota, 420 Delaware Street SE, Minneapolis, MN, 55455, USA.
| | - Joseph T Costello
- Extreme Environments Laboratory, Department of Sport and Exercise Science, University of Portsmouth, Spinnaker Building, Cambridge Road, Portsmouth, PO1 2ER, UK
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17
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Knechtle B, Nikolaidis PT. Physiology and Pathophysiology in Ultra-Marathon Running. Front Physiol 2018; 9:634. [PMID: 29910741 PMCID: PMC5992463 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2018.00634] [Citation(s) in RCA: 152] [Impact Index Per Article: 25.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/01/2018] [Accepted: 05/11/2018] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
In this overview, we summarize the findings of the literature with regards to physiology and pathophysiology of ultra-marathon running. The number of ultra-marathon races and the number of official finishers considerably increased in the last decades especially due to the increased number of female and age-group runners. A typical ultra-marathoner is male, married, well-educated, and ~45 years old. Female ultra-marathoners account for ~20% of the total number of finishers. Ultra-marathoners are older and have a larger weekly training volume, but run more slowly during training compared to marathoners. Previous experience (e.g., number of finishes in ultra-marathon races and personal best marathon time) is the most important predictor variable for a successful ultra-marathon performance followed by specific anthropometric (e.g., low body mass index, BMI, and low body fat) and training (e.g., high volume and running speed during training) characteristics. Women are slower than men, but the sex difference in performance decreased in recent years to ~10–20% depending upon the length of the ultra-marathon. The fastest ultra-marathon race times are generally achieved at the age of 35–45 years or older for both women and men, and the age of peak performance increases with increasing race distance or duration. An ultra-marathon leads to an energy deficit resulting in a reduction of both body fat and skeletal muscle mass. An ultra-marathon in combination with other risk factors, such as extreme weather conditions (either heat or cold) or the country where the race is held, can lead to exercise-associated hyponatremia. An ultra-marathon can also lead to changes in biomarkers indicating a pathological process in specific organs or organ systems such as skeletal muscles, heart, liver, kidney, immune and endocrine system. These changes are usually temporary, depending on intensity and duration of the performance, and usually normalize after the race. In longer ultra-marathons, ~50–60% of the participants experience musculoskeletal problems. The most common injuries in ultra-marathoners involve the lower limb, such as the ankle and the knee. An ultra-marathon can lead to an increase in creatine-kinase to values of 100,000–200,000 U/l depending upon the fitness level of the athlete and the length of the race. Furthermore, an ultra-marathon can lead to changes in the heart as shown by changes in cardiac biomarkers, electro- and echocardiography. Ultra-marathoners often suffer from digestive problems and gastrointestinal bleeding after an ultra-marathon is not uncommon. Liver enzymes can also considerably increase during an ultra-marathon. An ultra-marathon often leads to a temporary reduction in renal function. Ultra-marathoners often suffer from upper respiratory infections after an ultra-marathon. Considering the increased number of participants in ultra-marathons, the findings of the present review would have practical applications for a large number of sports scientists and sports medicine practitioners working in this field.
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Affiliation(s)
- Beat Knechtle
- Institute of Primary Care, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
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18
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Effects of prolonged running in the heat and cool environments on selected physiological parameters and salivary lysozyme responses. J Exerc Sci Fit 2018. [PMID: 29541134 PMCID: PMC5812877 DOI: 10.1016/j.jesf.2017.08.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Introduction Lysozyme is one of the salivary antimicrobial proteins which act as the “first line of defence” at the mucosal surface. The effects of prolonged exercise in the hot and cool environments among recreational athletes on salivary lysozyme responses are very limited in the literature, especially in the Asian countries. Objective To determine the effects of prolonged running in the hot and cool environments on selected physiological parameters and salivary lysozyme responses among recreational athletes. Methods Randomised and cross-over study design. Thirteen male recreational athletes (age: 20.9 ± 1.3 years old) from Universiti Sains Malaysia participated in this study. They performed two separate running trials; 90 min running at 60% of their respective maximum oxygen uptake (V˙O2max) One running trial was performed in the hot (31ºC) while the other was in the cool (18ºC) environment and this sequence was randomised. Each running trial was started with a 5 min warm-up at 50% of participant's respective V˙O2max Recovery period between these two trials was one week. In the both trials, saliva samples, blood samples, heart rate, ratings of perceived exertion, skin and tympanic temperatures, oxygen consumption, nude body weight, room temperature, and relative humidity were collected. Results Participants' skin temperature, tympanic temperature, body weight changes, heart rate, ratings of perceived exertion, and plasma volume changes were significantly higher (p < 0.05) in the hot trial compared to the cool trial. Saliva flow rate was not significantly (p = 0.949) different between the hot (0.32 ± 0.08 ml/min) and cool (0.27 ± 0.05 ml/min) trials. However, in each trial, it significantly decreased (p < 0.05) at post-exercise as compared to pre-exercise but it returned to baseline value at 1 h post-exercise. In addition, there were no significant differences between and within hot and cool trials in salivary lysozyme concentration (p = 0.925; 4.79 ± 1.37 and 4.44 ± 1.11 μg/ml respectively) and secretion rate (p = 0.843; 1.67 ± 1.1 and 1.17 ± 1.0 μg/min respectively). Conclusion This study found similar lysozyme responses between both hot and cool trials. Thus, room/ambient temperature did not affect lysozyme responses among recreational athletes. Nevertheless, the selected physiological parameters were significantly affected by room temperature.
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19
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Fahlman MM, Engels HJ, Hall H. SIgA and Upper Respiratory Syndrome During a College Cross Country Season. Sports Med Int Open 2017; 1:E188-E194. [PMID: 30539106 PMCID: PMC6226090 DOI: 10.1055/s-0043-119090] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/05/2017] [Revised: 08/10/2017] [Accepted: 08/20/2017] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
We examined the changes in salivary immunoglobulin A (SIgA) and the incidence of upper respiratory syndrome (URS) throughout a college cross-country season as well as the acute effect of a VO
2max
test on SIgA. Subjects were 22 cross country athletes (XC) (20.7±0.3 years) and 23 matched controls (C) (20.4±0.2 years). Saliva samples were collected pre and post VO2max and at four training time points (August – November). Weekly logs indicating S&S of URS from which a total symptom score (TSS) was calculated were collected. There was a significant decrease in SIgA F(1,43)=10.742, p<0.001 and the secretion rate of SIgA F(1,43)=15.617, p<0.001 for XC at time points two through four. XC was also significantly lower than controls in those two variables across those time points. The secretion rate of SIgA and URS were negatively correlated at time point four R2=0.443, F(4,22)=26.9, p=0.001. There was a significant acute post exercise decrease in the secretion rate of SIgA, pre (M=21.44, SEM=3.95) and post (M=14.5, SEM=3.0), t(1,21)=2.185, p=0.039. Prolonged training resulted in decreased mucosal SIgA.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mariane M Fahlman
- Wayne State University, Division of Kinesiology, Health and Sport Studies, Detroit, United States
| | - Hermann J Engels
- Wayne State University, Division of Kinesiology, Health and Sport Studies, Detroit, United States
| | - Heather Hall
- Elmhurst College, Kinesiology, Elmhurst, United States
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20
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Kapsdorfer D, Hlavacova N, Vondrova D, Argalasova L, Sevcikova L, Jezova D. Neuroendocrine Response to School Load in Prepubertal Children: Focus on Trait Anxiety. Cell Mol Neurobiol 2017; 38:155-162. [PMID: 28861683 DOI: 10.1007/s10571-017-0544-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/06/2017] [Accepted: 08/28/2017] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
At the time of school-age, the most frequent stress stimuli are related to school environment and educational process. Anxiety may play a big role in coping with stressful situations associated with school load. To approach this issue, we performed a real-life study at school during the classwork. The sample consisted of 36 healthy children aged 10 years, which were divided to low and high trait anxiety group based on the median value of the anxiety score. The investigations were carried out in the classroom during a stress condition (final exams) and non-stress condition (without any exam). In the whole sample, the condition with exam was associated with higher cortisol and lower testosterone concentrations in saliva compared to the condition without exam. The activity of salivary alpha-amylase increased at the end of the exam. Anxious children showed higher concentrations of aldosterone and lower activity of alpha-amylase compared to children with low trait anxiety. Cortisol levels were higher in anxious children in the first morning samples before starting the lessons. Children with high and low trait anxiety did not differ in extraversion, neuroticism, as well as non-verbal intelligence and school success. Thus, the anxious children at school showed a more rapid decrease of anticipatory stress-induced cortisol concentrations, higher aldosterone levels, and lower alpha-amylase activities compared to non-anxious children. These changes, particularly high concentrations of aldosterone in children with high trait anxiety, may have an impact on their psychophysiological development.
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Affiliation(s)
- D Kapsdorfer
- Laboratory of Pharmacological Neuroendocrinology, Institute of Experimental Endocrinology, Biomedical Research Center, Slovak Academy of Sciences, Dubravska cesta 9, 84505, Bratislava, Slovakia.,Institute of Hygiene, Faculty of Medicine, Comenius University, Bratislava, Slovakia
| | - N Hlavacova
- Laboratory of Pharmacological Neuroendocrinology, Institute of Experimental Endocrinology, Biomedical Research Center, Slovak Academy of Sciences, Dubravska cesta 9, 84505, Bratislava, Slovakia
| | - D Vondrova
- Institute of Hygiene, Faculty of Medicine, Comenius University, Bratislava, Slovakia
| | - L Argalasova
- Institute of Hygiene, Faculty of Medicine, Comenius University, Bratislava, Slovakia
| | - L Sevcikova
- Institute of Hygiene, Faculty of Medicine, Comenius University, Bratislava, Slovakia
| | - Daniela Jezova
- Laboratory of Pharmacological Neuroendocrinology, Institute of Experimental Endocrinology, Biomedical Research Center, Slovak Academy of Sciences, Dubravska cesta 9, 84505, Bratislava, Slovakia.
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21
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Bellar D, Murphy KA, Aithal R, Davis GR, Piper T. The Effects of a 36-Hour Mixed Task Ultraendurance Race on Mucosal Immunity Markers and Pulmonary Function. Wilderness Environ Med 2017; 28:10-16. [PMID: 28257712 DOI: 10.1016/j.wem.2016.12.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/03/2016] [Revised: 10/20/2016] [Accepted: 12/01/2016] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE The present study was conducted to assess the changes in mucosal immunity and pulmonary function among participants in a 36-hour mixed task ultraendurance race. METHODS Thirteen of the 20 race participants volunteered for the investigation (age 34±5 y). The event consisted of a mixture of aerobic, strong man, and military-style exercise. Participants had a pulmonary function test and gave a finger stick capillary blood sample and unstimulated saliva samples both before the event and upon dropout or completion. The blood sample was analyzed for hematocrit, and the saliva sample was analyzed for salivary flow rate, salivary alpha amylase, salivary immunoglobulin A (IgA), and IgA type 1. RESULTS Significant differences were noted among the finishers and those who dropped out in salivary flow rate (P = .026), salivary IgA (P = .017), and peak expiratory flow (P = .05) measurements. Salivary flow rate and IgA for the race finishers were reduced from pre- to postrace, whereas the nonfinishers showed no change or small increases. No significant differences emerged for other variables. CONCLUSIONS Based on the results of the present investigation, finishing a 36-hour mixed task ultra-endurance event results in a decline in both pulmonary function and mucosal immunity compared with competitors who do not finish.
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Affiliation(s)
- David Bellar
- School of Kinesiology, University of Louisiana at Lafayette, Lafayette, LA (Drs Bellar, Aithal, and Davis, and Ms Murphy).
| | - Kellie A Murphy
- School of Kinesiology, University of Louisiana at Lafayette, Lafayette, LA (Drs Bellar, Aithal, and Davis, and Ms Murphy)
| | - Ritvik Aithal
- School of Kinesiology, University of Louisiana at Lafayette, Lafayette, LA (Drs Bellar, Aithal, and Davis, and Ms Murphy)
| | - Greggory R Davis
- School of Kinesiology, University of Louisiana at Lafayette, Lafayette, LA (Drs Bellar, Aithal, and Davis, and Ms Murphy)
| | - Tim Piper
- Department of Kinesiology, Western Illinois University, Macomb, IL (Mr Piper)
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22
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Martinez S, Aguilo A, Rodas L, Lozano L, Moreno C, Tauler P. Energy, macronutrient and water intake during a mountain ultramarathon event: The influence of distance. J Sports Sci 2017; 36:333-339. [PMID: 28322630 DOI: 10.1080/02640414.2017.1306092] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
Adequate dietary strategies are essential for the successful participation in ultra-endurance races. The aim of this study was to evaluate and compare the energy and water intakes of participants during three different mountain ultra-endurance runs. The study took place at the "Ultra Mallorca Serra de Tramuntana" (Mallorca, Spain), an ultra-endurance mountain event with runners participating either in a 44-km (Marathon, n = 51), a 67-km (Trail, n = 109) or a 112-km (Ultra, n = 53) run competition. Participants in the study answered a questionnaire focused on the nutritional intake within an hour after finishing the competition. Mean energy intake during the competitions was 183 kcal · h¯1, with an average carbohydrate intake of 31 g · h¯1 (52.1% of participants consumed less than 30 g · h¯1). No significant differences between competitions were found in these parameters. However, a higher percentage of energy from lipids in participants in the Trail and the Ultra was found (P = 0.034). Furthermore, significant differences were observed in water intake per hour of competition (P = 0.039), with the lowest value for the intake during the Ultra competition. In conclusion, the majority of the participants in the study present low carbohydrate intakes. However, fluid intake seems to be adequate. Different distances did not significantly influence the participants' nutritional strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sonia Martinez
- a Research Group on Evidence, Lifestyles & Health, Department of Nursing and Physiotherapy, Research Institute on Health Sciences , University of the Balearic Islands , Palma de Mallorca , Spain
| | - Antoni Aguilo
- a Research Group on Evidence, Lifestyles & Health, Department of Nursing and Physiotherapy, Research Institute on Health Sciences , University of the Balearic Islands , Palma de Mallorca , Spain
| | - Lluis Rodas
- b Research Group on Evidence, Lifestyles & Health, Department of Fundamental Biology and Health Sciences, Research Institute on Health Sciences , University of the Balearic Islands , Palma de Mallorca , Spain
| | - Leticia Lozano
- a Research Group on Evidence, Lifestyles & Health, Department of Nursing and Physiotherapy, Research Institute on Health Sciences , University of the Balearic Islands , Palma de Mallorca , Spain
| | - Carlos Moreno
- a Research Group on Evidence, Lifestyles & Health, Department of Nursing and Physiotherapy, Research Institute on Health Sciences , University of the Balearic Islands , Palma de Mallorca , Spain
| | - Pedro Tauler
- b Research Group on Evidence, Lifestyles & Health, Department of Fundamental Biology and Health Sciences, Research Institute on Health Sciences , University of the Balearic Islands , Palma de Mallorca , Spain
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23
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Saucedo Marquez CM, Vanaudenaerde B, Troosters T, Wenderoth N. High-intensity interval training evokes larger serum BDNF levels compared with intense continuous exercise. J Appl Physiol (1985) 2015; 119:1363-73. [PMID: 26472862 DOI: 10.1152/japplphysiol.00126.2015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 140] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/13/2015] [Accepted: 10/12/2015] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Exercise can have a positive effect on the brain by activating brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF)-related processes. In healthy humans there appears to be a linear relationship between exercise intensity and the positive short-term effect of acute exercise on BDNF levels (i.e., the highest BDNF levels are reported after high-intensity exercise protocols). Here we performed two experiments to test the effectiveness of two high-intensity exercise protocols, both known to improve cardiovascular health, to determine whether they have a similar efficacy in affecting BDNF levels. Participants performed a continuous exercise (CON) protocol at 70% of maximal work rate and a high-intensity interval-training (HIT) protocol at 90% of maximal work rate for periods of 1 min alternating with 1 min of rest (both protocols lasted 20 min). We observed similar BDNF kinetics in both protocols, with maximal BDNF concentrations being reached toward the end of training (experiment 1). We then showed that both exercise protocols significantly increase BDNF levels compared with a rest condition (CON P = 0.04; HIT P < 0.001), with HIT reaching higher BDNF levels than CON (P = 0.035) (experiment 2). These results suggest that shorter bouts of high intensity exercise are slightly more effective than continuous high-intensity exercise for elevating serum BDNF. Additionally, 73% of the participants preferred the HIT protocol (P = 0.02). Therefore, we suggest that the HIT protocol might represent an effective and preferred intervention for elevating BDNF levels and potentially promoting brain health.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cinthia Maria Saucedo Marquez
- KU Leuven, Department of Kinesiology and Rehabilitation Sciences, Research Center for Movement Control and Neuroplasticity, Heverlee, Belgium
| | | | - Thierry Troosters
- KU Leuven, Department of Rehabilitation Sciences and Respiratory Division, University Hospital, Leuven, Belgium; and KU Leuven, Pneumology Division, University Hospital, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Nicole Wenderoth
- KU Leuven, Department of Kinesiology and Rehabilitation Sciences, Research Center for Movement Control and Neuroplasticity, Heverlee, Belgium; ETH Zurich, Department of Health Sciences and Technology, Neural Control of Movement, Zurich, Switzerland;
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24
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Peñailillo L, Maya L, Niño G, Torres H, Zbinden-Foncea H. Salivary hormones and IgA in relation to physical performance in football. J Sports Sci 2015; 33:2080-7. [PMID: 26146019 DOI: 10.1080/02640414.2015.1064151] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
Salivary biomarkers have shown to be useful to assess physiological stress in football, but their relationship with physical performance is unknown. The aims of this study were to investigate the effect of a football match on salivary cortisol, testosterone and immunoglobulin A (IgA) concentrations in elite footballers, and to examine the relationship of physical performance during the match to these biomarkers. Nine elite football players were assessed before, during and after a friendly international match. Physical performance during the match was measured by time-motion analysis, whilst salivary cortisol, testosterone and IgA were measured before and 10 min post-match. The results showed that players covered an average of 9463 ± 458 m during the match. Salivary cortisol did not change post-match. Testosterone and IgA concentrations decreased by 30.6% and 74.5%, respectively. The testosterone/cortisol (T/C) ratio decreased by 64.2% after the match. Changes in testosterone concentrations correlated (r = 0.85) with distance covered. Pre- and post-match testosterone levels correlated with post-match IgA concentrations (r = 0.8 and 0.89, respectively). These results suggest that a football match induces catabolic stress as indicated by the decreased T/C ratio. It seems that footballers with smaller decreases in testosterone levels covered more distance and decreased their immune function less.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luis Peñailillo
- a Exercise Science Laboratory, School of Kinesiology, Faculty of Medicine , Universidad Finis Terrae , Santiago , Chile
| | - Luis Maya
- a Exercise Science Laboratory, School of Kinesiology, Faculty of Medicine , Universidad Finis Terrae , Santiago , Chile
| | - Gonzalo Niño
- a Exercise Science Laboratory, School of Kinesiology, Faculty of Medicine , Universidad Finis Terrae , Santiago , Chile
| | - Hernan Torres
- a Exercise Science Laboratory, School of Kinesiology, Faculty of Medicine , Universidad Finis Terrae , Santiago , Chile
| | - Hermann Zbinden-Foncea
- a Exercise Science Laboratory, School of Kinesiology, Faculty of Medicine , Universidad Finis Terrae , Santiago , Chile
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25
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Woods DR, Delves SK, Britland SE, Shaw A, Brown PE, Bentley C, Hornby S, Burnett A, Lanham-New SA, Fallowfield JL. Nutritional status and the gonadotrophic response to a polar expedition. Appl Physiol Nutr Metab 2015; 40:292-7. [DOI: 10.1139/apnm-2014-0418] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
Abstract
Polar expeditions have been associated with changes in the hypothalamic–pituitary–testicular axis consistent with central hypogonadism (i.e., decreased testosterone, luteinising hormone (LH), and follicle stimulating hormone (FSH)). These changes are typically associated with body mass loss. Our aim was to evaluate whether maintenance of body mass during a polar expedition could mitigate against the development of central hypogonadism. Male participants (n = 22) from a 42-day expedition (British Services Antarctic Expedition 2012) volunteered to take part in the study. Body mass, body composition, and strength data were recorded pre- and postexpedition in addition to assessment of serum testosterone, LH, FSH, thyroid hormones, insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1), and trace elements. Energy provision and energy expenditure were assessed at mid- and end-expedition. Daily energy provision was 6335 ± 149 kcal·day−1. Estimated energy expenditure midexpedition was 5783 ± 1690 kcal·day−1. Body mass and percentage body fat did not change between pre- and postexpedition. Total testosterone (nmol·L−1) (14.0 ± 4.9 vs. 17.3 ± 4.0, p = 0.006), calculated free testosterone (pmol·L−1) (288 ± 82 vs. 350 ± 70, p = 0.003), and sex hormone binding globulin (nmol·L−1) (33 ± 12 vs. 36 ± 11, p = 0.023) concentrations increased. LH and FSH remained unchanged. Thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH; IU·L−1) (2.1 ± 0.8 vs. 4.1 ± 2.1, p < 0.001) and free triiodothyronine (FT3; IU·L−1) (5.4 ± 0.4 vs. 6.1 ± 0.8, p < 0.001) increased while free thyroxine, IGF-1, and trace elements remained unchanged. Hand-grip strength was reduced postexpedition but static lift strength was maintained. Maintenance of body mass and nutritional status appeared to negate the central hypogonadism previously reported from polar expeditions. The elevated TSH and free FT3 were consistent with a previously reported “polar T3 syndrome”.
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Affiliation(s)
- David R. Woods
- Royal Victoria Infirmary and Newcastle University, Queen Victoria Road, Newcastle-upon-Tyne, NE1 4LP, UK
- Carnegie Research Institute, Leeds Metropolitan University, Leeds, LS6 3QS, UK
| | - Simon K. Delves
- Institute of Naval Medicine, Crescent Road, Alverstoke, PO12 2DL, UK
| | | | - Anneliese Shaw
- Institute of Naval Medicine, Crescent Road, Alverstoke, PO12 2DL, UK
| | - Piete E. Brown
- Institute of Naval Medicine, Crescent Road, Alverstoke, PO12 2DL, UK
| | - Conor Bentley
- NIHR SRMRC, Trauma Research, Room 36, 4th Floor, East Block Queen Elizabeth Hospital Research and Development, University Hospitals Birmingham NHS Foundation Trust Queen Elizabeth Hospital, Queen Elizabeth Medical Centre, Birmingham, B15 2TH, UK
| | | | - Anne Burnett
- Department of Clinical Biochemistry, Royal Victoria Infirmary, Queen Victoria Road, Newcastle-upon-Tyne, NE1 4LP, UK
| | - Sue A. Lanham-New
- Nutritional Sciences Department, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Surrey, Guildford, GU2 7XH, UK
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26
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Phillips C, Baktir MA, Srivatsan M, Salehi A. Neuroprotective effects of physical activity on the brain: a closer look at trophic factor signaling. Front Cell Neurosci 2014; 8:170. [PMID: 24999318 PMCID: PMC4064707 DOI: 10.3389/fncel.2014.00170] [Citation(s) in RCA: 188] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/22/2014] [Accepted: 06/02/2014] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
While the relationship between increased physical activity and cognitive ability has been conjectured for centuries, only recently have the mechanisms underlying this relationship began to emerge. Convergent evidence suggests that physical activity offers an affordable and effective method to improve cognitive function in all ages, particularly the elderly who are most vulnerable to neurodegenerative disorders. In addition to improving cardiac and immune function, physical activity alters trophic factor signaling and, in turn, neuronal function and structure in areas critical for cognition. Sustained exercise plays a role in modulating anti-inflammatory effects and may play a role in preserving cognitive function in aging and neuropathological conditions. Moreover, recent evidence suggests that myokines released by exercising muscles affect the expression of brain-derived neurotrophic factor synthesis in the dentate gyrus of the hippocampus, a finding that could lead to the identification of new and therapeutically important mediating factors. Given the growing number of individuals with cognitive impairments worldwide, a better understanding of how these factors contribute to cognition is imperative, and constitutes an important first step toward developing non-pharmacological therapeutic strategies to improve cognition in vulnerable populations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cristy Phillips
- Department of Physical Therapy, Arkansas State University Jonesboro, AR, USA
| | - Mehmet Akif Baktir
- Department of Physiology, Erciyes University Kayseri, Turkey; Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Stanford University School of Medicine, Palo Alto, CA, USA
| | - Malathi Srivatsan
- Department of Biological Sciences, Arkansas State University Jonesboro, AR, USA
| | - Ahmad Salehi
- VA Palo Alto Health Care System Palo Alto, CA, USA
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